© 2013 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. thinking: memory, cognition, and...

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking: Thinking: Memory, Memory, Cognition, and Cognition, and

LanguageLanguage

Thinking: Thinking: Memory, Memory, Cognition, and Cognition, and

LanguageLanguageChapter 6Chapter 6

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.2

The Foundations of MemoryThe Foundations of MemoryThe Foundations of MemoryThe Foundations of Memory

• Learning Outcomes– Identify sensory memory– Define short-term memory– Define long-term memory

• Learning Outcomes– Identify sensory memory– Define short-term memory– Define long-term memory


The Foundations of MemoryThe Foundations of MemoryThe Foundations of MemoryThe Foundations of Memory

• Memory: the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information

• Memory: the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information


Sensory MemorySensory MemorySensory MemorySensory Memory

• Sensory memory: initial, momentary storage of information; lasts only an instant; stores almost exact replicas of all sensory stimuli experienced by that person

• Sensory memory: initial, momentary storage of information; lasts only an instant; stores almost exact replicas of all sensory stimuli experienced by that person


Short-Term MemoryShort-Term MemoryShort-Term MemoryShort-Term Memory

• Short-term memory: second stage of memory; holds information for 15-25 seconds– Capacity of 7 +/- 2 chunks (meaningful grouping of

stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory)

– Rehearsal: the repetition of information in short-term memory; repetitive rehearsal keeps information in short-term, elaborative rehearsal moves information to long-term memory

• Short-term memory: second stage of memory; holds information for 15-25 seconds– Capacity of 7 +/- 2 chunks (meaningful grouping of

stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory)

– Rehearsal: the repetition of information in short-term memory; repetitive rehearsal keeps information in short-term, elaborative rehearsal moves information to long-term memory


Long-Term MemoryLong-Term MemoryLong-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

• Long-term memory: third stage of memory; stores information on a relatively permanent basis, but can be difficult to retrieve– Declarative memory

• Semantic memory• Episodic memory

– Procedural memory

• Long-term memory: third stage of memory; stores information on a relatively permanent basis, but can be difficult to retrieve– Declarative memory

• Semantic memory• Episodic memory

– Procedural memory


Recall and ForgettingRecall and ForgettingRecall and ForgettingRecall and Forgetting

• Learning Outcomes– Explain retrieval cues– Discuss levels of processing– Compare and contrast implicit and explicit

memory– Define flashbulb memories

• Learning Outcomes– Explain retrieval cues– Discuss levels of processing– Compare and contrast implicit and explicit

memory– Define flashbulb memories


Recall and ForgettingRecall and ForgettingRecall and ForgettingRecall and Forgetting

• Learning Outcomes (cont’d)– Describe the constructive process of memory– Define forgetting– Explain why we forget information– Compare and contrast proactive and retroactive

interference

• Learning Outcomes (cont’d)– Describe the constructive process of memory– Define forgetting– Explain why we forget information– Compare and contrast proactive and retroactive

interference


Retrieval CuesRetrieval CuesRetrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

• Retrieval cue: a stimulus that allows you to more easily recall a long-term memory because it is connected to that memory

• Recall: specific information must be retrieved from memory

• Recognition: when presented with a stimulus, you determine whether you’ve been exposed to it previously, or you identify the correct information from a list of alternatives

• Retrieval cue: a stimulus that allows you to more easily recall a long-term memory because it is connected to that memory

• Recall: specific information must be retrieved from memory

• Recognition: when presented with a stimulus, you determine whether you’ve been exposed to it previously, or you identify the correct information from a list of alternatives


Levels of ProcessingLevels of ProcessingLevels of ProcessingLevels of Processing

• Levels-of-processing theory: emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed; the greater the intensity of initial processing, the more likely we are to remember the information

• Levels-of-processing theory: emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed; the greater the intensity of initial processing, the more likely we are to remember the information


Explicit and Implicit MemoryExplicit and Implicit MemoryExplicit and Implicit MemoryExplicit and Implicit Memory

• Explicit memory: intentional or conscious recollection of information

• Implicit memory: memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior

• Explicit memory: intentional or conscious recollection of information

• Implicit memory: memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior


Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories

• Flashbulb memories: specific, important, or surprising events that are so vivid in memory it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event

• Flashbulb memories: specific, important, or surprising events that are so vivid in memory it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event


Constructive Processes in MemoryConstructive Processes in MemoryConstructive Processes in MemoryConstructive Processes in Memory

• Constructive processes: memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events

• Schemas: organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled

• Autobiographical memories: our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives

• Constructive processes: memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events

• Schemas: organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled

• Autobiographical memories: our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives


ForgettingForgettingForgettingForgetting

• Forgetting is important to memory; if we couldn’t forget inconsequential details, they would get in the way of remembering more important information

• Forgetting is important to memory; if we couldn’t forget inconsequential details, they would get in the way of remembering more important information


Why We ForgetWhy We ForgetWhy We ForgetWhy We Forget

• Failure of encoding (paying attention to and placing information in memory)

• Decay: the loss of information because of nonuse

• Interference: information in memory disrupts the recall of other information

• Cue-dependent forgetting: forgetting due to insufficient retrieval cues

• Failure of encoding (paying attention to and placing information in memory)

• Decay: the loss of information because of nonuse

• Interference: information in memory disrupts the recall of other information

• Cue-dependent forgetting: forgetting due to insufficient retrieval cues


InterferenceInterferenceInterferenceInterference

• Proactive interference: information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material

• Retroactive interference: difficulty in recalling information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material

• Proactive interference: information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material

• Retroactive interference: difficulty in recalling information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material


Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem SolvingThinking, Reasoning, and Problem SolvingThinking, Reasoning, and Problem SolvingThinking, Reasoning, and Problem Solving

• Learning Outcomes– Explain the concept of mental images– Discuss the process of categorizing the world– Describe the processes the underlie reasoning and

decision making– Explain how people approach and solve problems

• Learning Outcomes– Explain the concept of mental images– Discuss the process of categorizing the world– Describe the processes the underlie reasoning and

decision making– Explain how people approach and solve problems


Mental ImagesMental ImagesMental ImagesMental Images

• Mental images: representations in the mind of an object or event (can take the form of any of the senses: visual, auditory, etc.)– Use of mental imagery can improve various skills;

many athletes use visualization

• Mental images: representations in the mind of an object or event (can take the form of any of the senses: visual, auditory, etc.)– Use of mental imagery can improve various skills;

many athletes use visualization


Concepts: Categorizing the WorldConcepts: Categorizing the WorldConcepts: Categorizing the WorldConcepts: Categorizing the World

• Concepts: categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties; enable us to organize complex things into cognitive categories we can use– Prototypes: typical, highly representative

examples of a concept

• Concepts: categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties; enable us to organize complex things into cognitive categories we can use– Prototypes: typical, highly representative

examples of a concept


Reasoning: Making Up Your MindReasoning: Making Up Your MindReasoning: Making Up Your MindReasoning: Making Up Your Mind

• Algorithm: cognitive shortcut in decision making; a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem

• Heuristic: cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution

• Algorithm: cognitive shortcut in decision making; a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem

• Heuristic: cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution


Problem SolvingProblem SolvingProblem SolvingProblem Solving

• Step 1 – Preparation: understanding and diagnosing problems

• Step 2 – Production: generating solutions (may use heuristics for this)– Means-ends analysis: repeated tests

for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists

• Step 3 – Judgment: evaluating solutions

• Step 1 – Preparation: understanding and diagnosing problems

• Step 2 – Production: generating solutions (may use heuristics for this)– Means-ends analysis: repeated tests

for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists

• Step 3 – Judgment: evaluating solutions


Impediments to SuccessImpediments to SuccessImpediments to SuccessImpediments to Success

• Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use

• Mental set: the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist

• Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use

• Mental set: the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist


LanguageLanguageLanguageLanguage• Learning Outcomes

– Explain how language develops– Describe how people use language

• Learning Outcomes– Explain how language develops– Describe how people use language


Language DevelopmentLanguage DevelopmentLanguage DevelopmentLanguage Development

• Babble: speech-like but meaningless sounds made by children from around 3 months to 1 year old– Critical period: time when a child is particularly

sensitive to learning/acquisition of skills; critical period for language development early in life; difficult to acquire language skills if critical period is missed

• Babble: speech-like but meaningless sounds made by children from around 3 months to 1 year old– Critical period: time when a child is particularly

sensitive to learning/acquisition of skills; critical period for language development early in life; difficult to acquire language skills if critical period is missed



• Telegraphic speech: sentences in which words not critical to the message are left out; used by children beginning around age 2 ½ (ex.: “I show book” instead of “I showed you the book”)

• Overgeneralization: by about age 3, children employ language rules even when it results in an error (ex.: adding –ed to “run” to form the past tense)

• Telegraphic speech: sentences in which words not critical to the message are left out; used by children beginning around age 2 ½ (ex.: “I show book” instead of “I showed you the book”)

• Overgeneralization: by about age 3, children employ language rules even when it results in an error (ex.: adding –ed to “run” to form the past tense)



• Learning theory approach: language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning

• Learning theory approach: language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning



• Nativist approach: a genetically determined, innate mechanism drives language development (Noam Chomsky)– Universal grammar: common underlying structure

shared by all the world’s languages– Language-acquisition device: a neural system of

the brain that Chomsky thought permits understanding of language

• Nativist approach: a genetically determined, innate mechanism drives language development (Noam Chomsky)– Universal grammar: common underlying structure

shared by all the world’s languages– Language-acquisition device: a neural system of

the brain that Chomsky thought permits understanding of language



• Interactionist approach to language development: combination of the learning theory and nativist approaches (brain’s language-acquisition device is the “hardware;” exposure to language in the environment allows us to develop the “software”)

• Interactionist approach to language development: combination of the learning theory and nativist approaches (brain’s language-acquisition device is the “hardware;” exposure to language in the environment allows us to develop the “software”)


Influence of Language on ThinkingInfluence of Language on ThinkingInfluence of Language on ThinkingInfluence of Language on Thinking

• Do Eskimos have more words for snow than Texans?

• Linguistic- relativity hypothesis: language shapes and may determine the way people in a specific culture perceive and understand the world (language produces thought)– However, most recent research suggests that

thinking produces language, although language may influence how we think

• Do Eskimos have more words for snow than Texans?

• Linguistic- relativity hypothesis: language shapes and may determine the way people in a specific culture perceive and understand the world (language produces thought)– However, most recent research suggests that

thinking produces language, although language may influence how we think

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