© 2015 pearson education, inc. lecture presentation by lee ann frederick university of texas at...
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![Page 1: © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Lecture Presentation by Lee Ann Frederick University of Texas at Arlington Chapter 16 The Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order](https://reader033.vdocuments.net/reader033/viewer/2022061616/56649e365503460f94b250a5/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lecture Presentation by Lee Ann Frederick
University of Texas at Arlington
Chapter 16
The Autonomic Nervous System and
Higher-Order Functions
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the ANS and Higher-Order Functions
• Learning Outcomes• 16-1 Compare the organization of the autonomic
nervous system with that of the somatic nervous system.
• 16-2 Describe the structures and functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system.• 16-3 Describe the mechanisms of sympathetic
and parasympathetic neurotransmitter release and their effects on target organs and tissues.
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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the ANS and Higher-Order Functions
• Learning Outcomes.• 16-4 Describe the hierarchy of interacting levels of
control in the autonomic nervous system, including the significance of visceral reflexes.
• 16-5 Summarize the effects of aging on the nervous system and give examples of interactions between the nervous system and other organ systems.
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An Introduction to the ANS and Higher-Order Functions
• Somatic Nervous System (SNS) • Operates under conscious control• Seldom affects long-term survival• SNS controls skeletal muscles
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)• Operates without conscious instruction• ANS controls visceral effectors• Coordinates vitals system functions
• Cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive
• 5 year survival after heart attack: increased since 1960
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16-1 Autonomic Nervous System
• Organization of the ANS• Integrative centers ViscMotN (PreGN) G PostGN
Efec
• Integrative centers• For autonomic activity in hypothalamus• Neurons here are comparable to upper motor
neurons in SNS• Synapses with ganglionic neurons
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16-1 Autonomic Nervous System
• Organization of the ANS• Visceral motor neurons
• In brain stem and spinal cord, are known as preganglionic neurons
• Preganglionic fibers• Axons of preganglionic neurons • Leave CNS and synapse on ganglionic neurons
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16-1 Autonomic Nervous System
• Visceral Motor Neurons• Autonomic ganglia
• Contain many ganglionic neurons• Ganglionic neurons innervate visceral effectors
• Such as cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands, and adipose tissue
• Postganglionic fibers• Axons of ganglionic neurons
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Figure 16-1a The Organization of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems.
Brain
a
Upper motorneurons in
primary motorcortex
Somatic motornuclei of brain
stem
Skeletalmuscle
Lowermotor
neurons
Skeletalmuscle
Spinal cord
Somatic motornuclei ofspinal cord
Somatic nervous system
Motor neurons ofthe CNS exertsdirect control overskeletal muscles
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Figure 16-1b The Organization of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems.
b
Visceral motornuclei in
hypothalamus
Preganglionicneuron
Visceral Effectors
Smoothmuscle
Glands
Cardiacmuscle
Adipocytes
Preganglionicneuron
Ganglionicneurons
Autonomicganglia
Autonomicnuclei inbrain stem
Spinal cord
Autonomicnuclei inspinal cord
Brain
Autonomic nervous system
Motor neurons ofthe CNS synapse onvisceral motor neuronsin autonomic ganglia, andthese ganglionic neurons control visceral effectors
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16-1 Divisions of the ANS
• The Autonomic Nervous System • Operates largely outside our awareness
• Control activities of target organs• Modify or alter some ongoing activity
• Two divisions1. Sympathetic division
• Increases alertness, metabolic rate, and muscular abilities
• Kicks in only during exertion, stress, or emergency (F or F)
2. Parasympathetic division• Reduces metabolic rate and promotes digestion• Controls during resting conditions (R and D)
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16-1 Divisions of the ANS
• Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Division1. Most often, these two divisions have opposing
effects (antagonist)• If the sympathetic division causes excitation, the
parasympathetic causes inhibition
2. The two divisions may also work independently• Only one division innervates some structures
3. The two divisions may work together, with each controlling one stage of a complex process
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16-1 Divisions of the ANS
• Sympathetic Division –Preganglionic fibers originates in thoracic and superior lumbar; (thoracolumbar, between T1 – L2 segments)
• Synapse in ganglia near spinal cord• Preganglionic fibers are short• Postganglionic fibers are long• Prepares body for crisis, producing a “fight or
flight” response• Stimulates tissue metabolism• Increases alertness
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16-1 Divisions of the ANS
• Seven Responses to Increased Sympathetic Activity
1. Heightened mental alertness2. Increased metabolic rate3. Reduced digestive and urinary functions4. Energy reserves activated5. Increased respiratory rate and respiratory
passageways dilate6. Increased heart rate and blood pressure7. Sweat glands activated
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16-1 Divisions of the ANS
• Parasympathetic Division • Preganglionic fibers originate in brain stem and
sacral segments of spinal cord; craniosacral• Synapse in ganglia close to (or within) target
organs• Preganglionic fibers are long• Postganglionic fibers are short• Parasympathetic division stimulates visceral
activity• Conserves energy and promotes sedentary
activities
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16-1 Divisions of the ANS
• Five Responses to Increased Parasympathetic Activity
1. Decreased metabolic rate2. Decreased heart rate and blood pressure3. Increased secretion by salivary and digestive
glands4. Increased motility and blood flow in digestive
tract5. Urination and defecation stimulation
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Figure 16-2 Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System (Part 1 of 2).
Preganglionic fibers
Postganglionic fibers
KEY
“Fight or flight” response
Sympathetic activation
Most postganglionic fibersrelease norepinephrine (NE) atneuroeffector junctions.
Target Organs
Ganglia are located near thespinal cord. Preganglionic fibersrelease acetylcholine (Ach),stimulating ganglionic neurons.
Ganglia
Preganglionic Neurons
Preganglionic neurons arelocated in the lateral gray hornsof spinal segments T1–L2.
Sympathetic Division (Thoracolumbar)
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Figure 16-2 Overview of the Autonomic Nervous System (Part 2 of 2).
Preganglionic fibersPostganglionic fibers
“Rest and digest” response
All postganglionic fibersrelease Ach at neuroeffectorjunctions.
Target Organs
Ganglia are in or near the targetorgan. Preganglionic fibersrelease acetylcholine (Ach),stimulating ganglionic neurons.
Ganglia
Preganglionic Neurons
Preganglionic neurons in brainstem and in lateral portion ofanterior gray horns of S2–S4.
Parasympathetic Division (Craniosacral)
KEY
Parasympathetic stimulation
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16-1 Divisions of the ANS
• Enteric Nervous System (ENS) • Third division of ANS• Extensive network in digestive tract walls• Complex visceral reflexes coordinated locally plus
influence of sympathetic and parasympathethic divisions
• Neurotransmitters are the same found in the brain
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Ganglionic Neurons • Occur in three locations
1. Sympathetic chain ganglia• On both sides of vertebral column (paravertebral)• Control effectors:
• In body wall • Inside thoracic cavity • In head, and limbs
2. Collateral ganglia• Are anterior to vertebral bodies (prevertebral)• Innervate tissues and organs in abdominopelvic cavity
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Figure 16-3a Sites of Ganglia in Sympathetic Pathways.
Preganglionic neuronsGanglionic neurons
KEY
Gray ramus
Spinal nerve Preganglionicneuron
Autonomic ganglionof left sympathetic chain
Sympathetic nerve(postganglionic
fibers)
Innervates visceralorgans in thoracic
cavity bysympathetic nerves
Note: Both innervation patternsoccur on each side of the body.
Autonomic ganglion ofright sympathetic chain
Innervatesvisceral
effectors byspinal nerves
Whiteramus
Ganglionicneuron
SYMPATHETIC CHAIN GANGLIAa
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Figure 16-3b Sites of Ganglia in Sympathetic Pathways.
b
White ramus
COLLATERAL GANGLIA
Lateral gray horn
Splanchnic nerve(preganglionic
fibers)
Postganglionicfibers
Collateralganglion
Innervatesvisceral organs inabdominopelvic
cavity
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• 3. Adrenal Medullae (Suprarenal Medullae) • Modified sympathetic ganglia• Center suprarenal medulla• Very short axons• When stimulated, release neurotransmitters into
bloodstream (not at synapse)• Neurotransmitters then function as hormones to
affect target cells throughout body
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Figure 16-3c Sites of Ganglia in Sympathetic Pathways.
c
Preganglionic fibers
THE ADRENAL MEDULLAE
Endocrine cells(specialized ganglionic
neurons)
Adrenalmedullae
Secretesneurotransmitters
into generalcirculation
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Fibers in Sympathetic Division • Preganglionic fibers
• Are relatively short• Ganglia located near spinal cord
• Postganglionic fibers• Are relatively long• Except at adrenal medullae
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Organization and Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
• Ventral roots of spinal segments T1–L2 contain sympathetic preganglionic fibers
• Carry myelinated preganglionic fibers into sympathetic chain ganglion
• May synapse at collateral ganglia or in adrenal medullae
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Sympathetic Chain Ganglia• Preganglionic fibers
• One preganglionic fiber synapses on many ganglionic neurons
• Fibers interconnect sympathetic chain ganglia• Each ganglion innervates particular body segment(s)
• Preganglionic neurons• Limited to spinal cord segments T1–L2
• White rami (myelinated preganglionic fibers)• Innervate neurons in:
• Cervical, inferior lumbar, and sacral sympathetic chain ganglia
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Sympathetic Chain Ganglia • Postganglionic fibers control visceral effectors
• In body wall, head, neck, or limbs
• Postganglionic fibers innervate effectors • Sweat glands of skin• Smooth muscles in superficial blood vessels
• Postganglionic fibers innervating structures in thoracic cavity form bundles
• Sympathetic nerves
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Sympathetic Chain Ganglia • Postganglionic sympathetic fibers
• In head and neck leave superior cervical sympathetic ganglia
• Supply the regions and structures innervated by cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X
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Figure 16-4 The Distribution of Sympathetic Innervation (Part 2 of 4).
Pons
Preganglionic fibers
Postganglionic fibers
KEY
T1
T2
T3
T4
Lung
Heart
Sympathetic nerves
Cardiac andpulmonaryplexuses
Eye
Salivaryglands
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Figure 16-4 The Distribution of Sympathetic Innervation (Part 3 of 4).
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
S1S2
S3S4
S5
Uterus Ovary Penis Scrotum Urinary bladder
Kidney
Adrenalmedulla
Small intestine
Large intestine
Pancreas
Spleen
Stomach
Liver and gallbladder
Celiac ganglion
Inferiormesentericganglion
Sacralsplanchnic
nerves
Lumbarsplanchnic nerves
Lessersplanchnic
nerve
Superiormesenteric
ganglion
Greatersplanchnic
nerve
Coccygealganglia (Co1)
fused together(ganglion impar)
Preganglionic fibers
Postganglionic fibers
KEY
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Collateral Ganglia• Receive sympathetic innervation via sympathetic
preganglionic fibers• Splanchnic nerves
• Formed by preganglionic fibers that innervate collateral ganglia
• In dorsal wall of abdominal cavity
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Collateral Ganglia • Postganglionic fibers
• Innervate variety of visceral tissues and organs• Reduction of blood flow and energy by organs
not vital to short-term survival• Release of stored energy reserves
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Collateral Ganglia • Preganglionic fibers from inferior thoracic
segments• End at celiac ganglion or superior mesenteric
ganglion
• Preganglionic fibers from lumbar segments• Form splanchnic nerves • End at inferior mesenteric ganglion
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division• Collateral Ganglia
• Celiac ganglion• Postganglionic fibers innervate stomach, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, and spleen
• Superior mesenteric ganglion • Postganglionic fibers innervate small intestine and
proximal 2/3 of large intestine
• Inferior mesenteric ganglion • Postganglionic fibers provide sympathetic innervation to
portions of: • Large intestine • Kidney • Urinary bladder • Sex organs
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Adrenal Medullae • Preganglionic fibers entering adrenal gland proceed
to center (adrenal medulla)• Modified sympathetic ganglion• Preganglionic fibers synapse on neuroendocrine
cells• Specialized neurons secrete hormones into
bloodstream
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Adrenal Medullae• Neuroendocrine cells
• Secrete neurotransmitters epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE)
• Epinephrine• Also called adrenaline • Is 75–80 percent of secretory output
• Remaining is norepinephrine (NE)• Noradrenaline
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Adrenal Medullae• Bloodstream carries neurotransmitters through
body• Causing changes in metabolic activities of
different cells • Including cells NOT innervated by sympathetic
postganglionic fibers• Effects last longer
• Hormones continue to diffuse out of bloodstream
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Sympathetic Activation• Change activities of tissues and organs by:
• Releasing NT at peripheral synapses• Distributing E and NE throughout body in
bloodstream• Target specific effectors, smooth muscle fibers in
blood vessels of skin• Are activated in reflexes • Do not involve other visceral effectors
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16-2 The Sympathetic Division
• Changes Caused by Sympathetic Activation• Increased alertness• Feelings of energy and euphoria• Change in breathing• Elevation in muscle tone • Mobilization of energy reserves
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
• Stimulation of Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons
• Releases ACh at synapses with ganglionic neurons • Excitatory effect on ganglionic neurons
• Ganglionic Neurons• Release neurotransmitters (NE, ACh) at specific
target organs
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
• Ganglionic Neurons • Axon terminals
• Release NE at most varicosities• Called adrenergic neuron• Monoamine oxidase (MAO) • Catechol O methyltransferase (COMT)
• Some ganglionic neurons release ACh instead• Are located in body wall, skin, brain, and skeletal
muscles• Called cholinergic neurons• AChe
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Figure 16-5 Sympathetic Varicosities.
Ganglion
Preganglionic fiber(myelinated)
Ganglionicneuron
Postganglionic fiber(unmyelinated)
Vesicles containingnorepinephrine (NE)
Varicosities
Mitochondrion
Schwann cellcytoplasm
5 μm
Smooth muscle cells Varicosities
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
• Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of NE and E• Effects occurs primarily from interactions of NE and E
with:1. Alpha receptors
- NE more potent- E same potency
2. Beta receptors- NE less potent- E same potency
1.Two types of adrenergic membrane receptors2.Activates enzymes on inside of cell membrane via G
proteins (2nd messengers)
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
• Alpha receptors• Alpha-1 (1)
• More common type of alpha receptor• Releases intracellular calcium ions from reserves
in endoplasmic reticulum• Has excitatory effect on target cell• In smooth muscles
• Vessels constriction• Closing sphincters
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
• Alpha receptors• Alpha-2 (2)
• Lowers cAMP levels in cytoplasm• Has inhibitory effect on the cell• Helps coordinate sympathetic and parasympathetic
activities• When sympathetic division is active:
• NE is released
• Binds to 2, on parasympathetic efectors (neuromuscular and neuroglandular) and inhibits their activity
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters• Beta () receptors
• Affect membranes in many organs (skeletal muscles, lungs, heart, and liver)
• Trigger metabolic changes in target cell via G proteins• Stimulation increases intracellular cAMP levels
• Three Main Types of Beta Receptors
• Beta-1 (1)
• Beta-2 (2)
• Beta-3 (3)
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
• Three Main Types of Beta Receptors1. Beta-1 (1)
• Increases metabolic activity, skeletal muscle• Heart, increase heart rate and force of contraction
2. Beta-2 (2) (inhibition)
• Triggers relaxation of smooth muscles along respiratory tract
• Easier breathing, respiratory therapy
3. Beta-3 (3)
1.Leads to lipolysis, the breakdown of triglycerides in adipocytes
2.Make fatty acids available for other tissues
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
• Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of Ach
• Cholinergic (ACh) sympathetic terminals• Innervate sweat glands of skin and blood vessels of
skeletal muscles and brain• Stimulate sweat gland secretion and dilate blood
vessels
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16-3 Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
• Sympathetic Stimulation and the Release of NO• Nitroxidergic synapses
• Release nitric oxide (NO) as neurotransmitter• Neurons innervate smooth muscles in walls of
blood vessels in skeletal muscles and the brain• Produce vasodilation and increased blood flow
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Summary: Sympathetic Division
• Includes:• 2 sets of chain ganglia• 3 collateral ganglia • two adrenal ganglia
• Preganglionic fibers shorts, post ganglionic are long• ganglia are near spinal cord
• Adrenal: very short fibers direct to bloodstream
• Extensive divergence: • a single sympathetic motor neuron can control a
variety of visceral effectors producing a complex and coordinated response.
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Summary: Sympathetic Division
•All preG neurons release ACh at synapses with ganglionic neurons
•Most postG neurons release NE• a few release Ach or NO
•The effector response depends on the 2nd messenger triggered by activation of G proteins by NE o E to α or β receptors.
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Autonomic Nuclei • Preganglionics neurons
• Are contained in the mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata
• Associated with cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X
• In lateral gray horns of spinal segments S2–S4
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Ganglionic Neurons in Peripheral Ganglia• Terminal ganglion
• Near target organ• Usually paired
• Intramural ganglion • Embedded in or within tissues of target organ
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Organization and Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
• Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers leave brain as components of cranial nerves
• III (oculomotor)• VII (facial)• IX (glossopharyngeal)• X (vagus)
• Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers leave spinal cord at sacral level
• S2-S4
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Oculomotor(III), Facial(VII), and Glossopharyngeal Nerves(IX)
• Control visceral structures in head• Synapse in ganglia;
• ciliary• pterygopalatine,• submandibular• otic ganglia
• Short postganglionic fibers continue to their peripheral targets
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Vagus Nerve(X)• Provides preganglionic parasympathetic
innervation to structures in:• Neck• Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities • as distant as a distal portion of large intestine
• Provides 75 percent of all parasympathetic outflow
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Figure 16-6 The Distribution of Parasympathetic Innervation (Part 1 of 2).
Heart
Lungs
Pterygopalatine ganglion
N III
N VII
N IX
N X (Vagus)
Ciliary ganglion
Submandibularganglion
Otic ganglion
Lacrimal gland
Eye
Salivary glands
Pons
Oculomotor(III)Facial(VII)Glossopharyngeal Nerves(IX)Vagus (X)
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Sacral Segments of Spinal Cord• Preganglionic fibers carry sacral parasympathetic
output• Do not join ventral roots of spinal nerves, instead
form pelvic nerves• Pelvic nerves innervate intramural ganglia in walls of:• kidneys• urinary bladder• portions of large intestine• sex organs
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Figure 16-6 The Distribution of Parasympathetic Innervation (Part 2 of 2).
Liver and gallbladder
Stomach
Spleen
Pancreas
Large intestine
Small intestine
Rectum
Kidney
Urinary bladderScrotumPenisOvaryUterus
Pelvicnerves
Spinalcord S2
Autonomic plexuses
(see Figure 16-8)
S3
S4
Preganglionic fibers
Postganglionic fibers
KEY
Lungs
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Parasympathetic Activation • centers on relaxation • food processing• energy absorption• localized effects• last a few seconds at most• Anabolic system
• Raisin up nutrient content in the blood
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Major Effects of Parasympathetic Division • Constriction of the pupils
• To restrict the amount of light that enters the eyes
• Focusing of the lenses of the eyes on nearby objects
• Secretion by digestive glands • Salivary, gastric glands, intestinal glands• the pancreas (exocrine and endocrine)• the liver
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Major Effects of Parasympathetic Division• Secretion of hormones
• Promote the absorption and utilization of nutrients by peripheral cells
• Changes in blood flow and glandular activity • Associated with sexual arousal
• Increase in smooth muscle activity • Along the digestive tract, peristalsis
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16-4 The Parasympathetic Division
• Major Effects of Parasympathetic Division • Stimulation and coordination of defecation• Contraction of the urinary bladder during
urination• Constriction of the respiratory passageways• Reduction in heart rate and in the force of
contraction
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16-5 Parasympathetic Neurons Release ACh
• Neuromuscular and Neuroglandular Junctions • All PS fibers release ACh as neurotransmitter• Effects of stimulation are short lived
• Inactivated by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at synapse
• ACh is also inactivated by tissue cholinesterase in surrounding tissues
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16-5 Parasympathetic Neurons Release ACh
• Two Types of Membrane Receptors and Responses• Nicotinic receptors
• On surfaces of ganglion cells (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
• On neuromuscular junction of Somatic Nervous System
• Exposure to ACh causes excitation of ganglionic neuron or muscle fiber
• Open Na+ channels in post sinaptic membrane
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16-5 Parasympathetic Neurons Release ACh
• Muscarinic receptors• At cholinergic neuromuscular or neuroglandular
junctions (parasympathetic)• At few cholinergic junctions (sympathetic)• G proteins
• Effects are longer lasting than nicotinic receptors• Can be excitatory or inhibitory• Response reflects activation or inactivation of
specific enzymes
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16-5 Parasympathetic Neurons Release ACh
• Dangerous Environmental Toxins• Produce exaggerated, uncontrolled responses• Nicotine
• 3mg/g on tobacco• Binds to nicotinic receptors• Targets autonomic ganglia and skeletal
neuromuscular junctions • Poisoning with 50 mg ingested or absorbed through skin• Signs and symptoms:
• Vomiting, diarrhea, high blood pressure, rapid heart rate, sweating, profuse salivation, convulsions
• May result in coma or death
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16-5 Parasympathetic Neurons Release ACh
• Dangerous Environmental Toxins • Produce exaggerated, uncontrolled responses• Muscarine
• Binds to muscarinic receptors• Targets parasympathetic neuromuscular or
neuroglandular junctions• Signs and symptoms:
• Salivation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constriction of respiratory passages, low blood pressure, slow heart rate (bradycardia)
• Sweating• Amanita muscaria
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Amanita muscaria
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Table 16-1 Adrenergic and Cholinergic Receptors of the ANS.
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16-6 Dual Innervation: S y PS interaction
• Sympathetic Division• Widespread impact• Reaches organs and tissues throughout body
• Parasympathetic Division• Innervates only specific visceral structures
• Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Division• Most vital organs receive instructions from both
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions• Dual innervation• Two divisions commonly have opposing effects
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Figure 16-7 Summary: The Anatomical Differences between the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions.
Bloodstream
Sympatheticganglion
PNS
CNS
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Preganglionicneuron
Preganglionicfiber
Ganglionicneurons
Postganglionicfiber
TARGET
Parasympatheticganglion
KEYNeurotransmitters
Acetylcholine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrineor
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Table 16-2 A Structural Comparison of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS.
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16-6 Dual Innervation
• Anatomy of Dual Innervation • Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers accompany
cranial nerves to peripheral destinations• Sympathetic innervation reaches same structures
• By traveling directly from superior cervical ganglia of sympathetic chain
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Table 16-3 A Functional Comparison of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS (Part 1-2 of 4).
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Table 16-3 A Functional Comparison of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the ANS (Part 3-4 of 4).
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16-6 Dual Innervation
• Anatomy of Dual Innervation• Autonomic plexuses
• Nerve networks in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
• Are formed by mingled • sympathetic postganglionic fibers and
parasympathetic preganglionic fibers
• Travel with blood and lymphatic vessels that supply visceral organs
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16-6 Dual Innervation
• Anatomy of Dual Innervation • Cardiac plexus• Pulmonary plexus• Esophageal plexus• Celiac plexus• Inferior mesenteric plexus• Hypogastric plexus
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Figure 16-8 The Autonomic Plexuses and Ganglia (Part 1 of 2).
Aortic arch
Right vagus nerve
Autonomic Plexusesand Ganglia
Cardiac plexus
Pulmonary plexus
Thoracic sympatheticchain ganglia
Esophageal plexus
Celiac plexusand ganglion
Inferior mesentericplexus and ganglia
Hypogastric plexus
Pelvic sympatheticchain
Superior mesentericganglion
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Figure 16-8 The Autonomic Plexuses and Ganglia (Part 1 of 2).
Aortic arch
Right vagus nerve
Autonomic Plexusesand Ganglia
Cardiac plexus
Pulmonary plexus
Thoracic sympatheticchain ganglia
Esophageal plexus
Celiac plexusand ganglion
Inferior mesentericplexus and ganglia
Hypogastric plexus
Pelvic sympatheticchain
Superior mesentericganglion
Trachea
Left vagus nerve
Thoracic spinal nerves
Esophagus
Splanchnic nerves
Diaphragm
Superior mesenteric artery
Inferior mesenteric artery
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16-6 Dual Innervation
• Autonomic Tone • Is an important aspect of ANS function
• If nerve is inactive under normal conditions, can only increase activity
• If nerve maintains background level of activity, can increase or decrease activity
• Significant where dual innervation occurs• Two divisions have opposing effects• Heart
• More important when dual innervation does not occur
• Blood vessels
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16-6 Dual Innervation
• The Heart Receives Dual Innervation• Two divisions have opposing effects on heart
function1. Parasympathetic division
• Acetylcholine released by postganglionic fibers slows heart rate
2. Sympathetic division• NE released by varicosities accelerates heart rate
• Balance between two divisions• Autonomic tone is present• Releases small amounts of both neurotransmitters
continuously
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16-6 Dual Innervation
• The Heart Receives Dual Innervation • Parasympathetic innervation dominates under
resting conditions• Crisis accelerates heart rate by:
• Stimulation of sympathetic innervation• Inhibition of parasympathetic innervation
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16-6 Dual Innervation
• Autonomic Tone • Blood vessel dilates and blood flow increases• Blood vessel constricts and blood flow is reduced• Sympathetic postganglionic fibers release NE
• Innervate smooth muscle cells in walls of peripheral vessels
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16-6 Dual Innervation
• Autonomic Tone • Background sympathetic tone keeps muscles
partially contracted• To increase blood flow:
• Rate of NE release decreases• Sympathetic cholinergic fibers are stimulated• Smooth muscle cells relax• Vessels dilate and blood flow increases
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16-7 Visceral Reflexes Regulate the ANS
• Visceral Reflexes• Provide automatic motor responses• Can be modified, facilitated, or inhibited by higher
centers, especially hypothalamus• Visceral reflex arc
• Receptor• Sensory neuron• Processing center (one or more interneurons)
• All polysynaptic
• Two visceral motor neurons
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16-7 Visceral Reflexes Regulate the ANS
• Visceral Reflexes• Long reflexes
• Visceral sensory neurons deliver information to CNS• ANS carries motor commands to visceral effectors• Coordinate activities of entire organ
• Short reflexes • Bypass CNS• Control simple motor responses with localized effects• One small part of target organ
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Figure 16-9 Visceral Reflexes.
Stimulus
Receptors inperipheral tissue
Afferent (sensory)fibers
CENTRAL NERVOUSSYSTEM
Longreflex
Processing centerin spinal cord
Preganglionicneuron
Autonomic ganglion(sympathetic orparasympathetic)
Postganglionicneuron
Peripheraleffector
Shortreflex
Response
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16-7 Visceral Reflexes Regulate the ANS
• Visceral Reflexes• Regulating visceral activity
• Most organs • Long reflexes most important
• Digestive tract • Short reflexes provide most control and coordination
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Table 16-4 Representative Visceral Reflexes (Part 1 of 2).
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16-7 Visceral Reflexes Regulate the ANS
• The Integration of SNS and ANS Activities• Many parallels in organization and function• Integration at brain stem• Both systems under control of higher centers
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Table 16-5 A Comparison of the ANS and SNS.
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Effects of Aging• Anatomical and physiological changes begin after
maturity (age 30)• Accumulate over time• 85 percent of people over age 65 have changes in
mental performance and CNS function
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Reduction in Brain Size and Weight • Decrease in volume of cerebral cortex• Narrower gyri and wider sulci • Larger subarachnoid space
• Reduction in Number of Neurons• Brain shrinkage linked to loss of cortical neurons• No neuronal loss in brain stem nuclei
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Decrease in Blood Flow to Brain • Arteriosclerosis
• Fatty deposits in walls of blood vessels• Reduces blood flow through arteries• Increases chances of rupture
• Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke• May damage surrounding neural tissue
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Changes in Synaptic Organization of Brain • Number of dendritic branches, spines, and
interconnections decreases• Synaptic connections lost• Rate of neurotransmitter production declines
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Intracellular and Extracellular Changes in CNS Neurons
• Neurons in brain accumulate abnormal intracellular deposits
• Lipofuscin • Granular pigment with no known function
• Neurofibrillary tangles• Masses of neurofibrils form dense mats inside cell
body and axon
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Intracellular and Extracellular Changes in CNS Neurons
• Plaques • Extracellular accumulations of fibrillar proteins• Surrounded by abnormal dendrites and axons
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Intracellular and Extracellular Changes in CNS Neurons
• Plaques and tangles • Contain deposits of several peptides• Primarily two forms of amyloid ß (Aß) protein • Appear in brain regions specifically associated with
memory processing
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Anatomical Changes • Linked to functional changes• Neural processing becomes less efficient with age• Memory consolidation more difficult• Secondary memories harder to access
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Sensory Systems • Hearing, balance, vision, smell, and taste become
less acute• Reaction times slowed• Reflexes weaken or disappear
• Motor Control• Precision decreases• Takes longer to perform
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Incapacitation • 85 percent of elderly population develops changes
that do not interfere with abilities• Some individuals become incapacitated by
progressive CNS changes
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16-10 Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Senility • Also called senile dementia• Degenerative changes
• Memory loss• Anterograde amnesia (lose ability to store new
memories)• Emotional disturbances• Alzheimer’s disease is most common
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16-10 Nervous System Integration
• The Nervous System• Monitors all other systems• Issues commands that adjust their activities• Like conductor of orchestra
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16-10 Nervous System Integration
• Neural Tissue • Extremely delicate• Extracellular environment must maintain
homeostatic limits• If regulatory mechanisms break down,
neurological disorders appear
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Figure 16-14 diagrams the functional relationships between the nervous system and other body systems we have studied so far.
SYSTEM INTEGRATOR
The Nervous System
Body System Nervous System
Provides sensations of touch, pressure,pain, vibration, and temperature; hairprovides some protection and insulationfor skull and brain; protects peripheralnerves
Nervous System Body System
Provides calcium ions for neuralfunction; protects brain and spinal cord
Facial muscles express emotionalstate; intrinsic laryngeal musclespermit communication; musclespindles provide proprioceptivesensations
Controls skeletal muscle contractions;coordinates respiratory andcardiovascular activities
Controls skeletal muscle contractionsthat results in bone thickening andmaintenance and determine boneposition
Controls contraction of arrector pilimuscles and secretion of sweat glands
The nervous system is closely integrated with other body systems. Every moment of your life, billions of neurons in your nervous system are exchanging information acrosstrillions of synapses andperforming the mostcomplex integrativefunctions in the body. Aspart of this process, thenervous system monitors allother systems and issuescommands that adjust their activities. However, thesignificance and impact ofthese commands variesgreatly from one system toanother. The normal functions of the muscular system, for example, simply cannot be performed without instructions from the nervous system. By contrast, the cardiovascular system is relatively independent—the nervous system merely coordinates and adjusts cardiovascular activities to meet the circulatory demands of other systems. In the final analysis, the nervous system is like the conductor of an orchestra, directing the rhythm and balancing the performances of each section to produce a symphony, instead of simplya very loud noise.
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