المحاضرة الثانية - سلسلة اساسيات البحث العلمي

Islam Hussein

Webinar II – ES Series on Scientific Research

Thanks to Egypt Scholars

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Thanks to Amr AbdulZahir & ESA’s camera

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“If I have seen further; it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” ― Sir Isaac Newton

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Research !

ES Series on Scientific Research

Outline I.   What is research? II.   Hallmarks of research III.   The scientific method IV.   Research proposal / report

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Research Avenue

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“If I knew what I was doing, it wouldn't be called REsearch”. – Albert Einstein

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Objective behind this lecture

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What is research? •  Research is simply the process of finding solutions to problems

after a thorough study and analysis. •  It comprises a series of well-‐thought-‐out and carefully executed

steps that are designed with the goal of finding an answer to a certain question.

•  So, the 1st step in any research is to identify as clearly and specifically as possible a problem that needs to be resolved.

•  Once a problem is clearly defined, we can gather information, do experiments if necessary and analyze the data to come up with a decision/solution.

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“Science, in the very act of solving problems, creates more of them”. – Abraham Flexner


Basic Vs. Applied research •  Basic: when the solution to a research problem has no

apparent application to any practical problem in the world, but only is to generate a body of knowledge to satisfy the scholarly interest of the researcher

•  Applied: when the solution to a research problem does have practical consequences e.g. a disease needs therapy

•  People value both types of research •  The pursuit of knowledge for its own sake to know more

and understand better is one humanity’s highest calling

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The 10 hallmarks of scientific research 1.   Driver of all innovation 2.   Moves very fast 3.   Purposeful 4.   Rigorous 5.   Hypothesis-‐driven 6.   Reproducible 7.   Precision and confidence 8.   Objectivity 9.   Universal 10.   Heritable

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1-‐ Driver of all innovation

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“I believe in innovaDon and that the way you get innovaDon is you fund research and you learn the basic facts.” – Bill Gates

2-‐ Moves very fast

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“Student: Dr. Einstein, Aren't these the same quesDons as last year's physics final exam? Dr. Einstein: Yes, but this year the answers are different.” ― Albert Einstein

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✔ ✖

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“Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose.” – Zora Hurston


4-‐ Rigorous •  has a good theoretical base and a carefully designed methodology

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5-‐ Hypothesis-‐driven

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6-‐ Reproducible •  Reproducibility demonstrates that our hypotheses have not been

supported merely by chance, but are reflective of the truth

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7-‐ Precision & confidence •  We are unable to study the whole universe, and have to base our findings

on a sample that we draw from the universe •  Research should be designed in a manner that ensures that your findings

are as close to reality as possible •  Precision = the closeness of the findings to “reality” based on a sample •  Confidence = the probability that your estimations are correct. Can you

confidently claim that 95% of the time your results will be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong?

•  Significance level of 0.05 (p = 0.05)

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8-‐ Objective •  The conclusions drawn should be based on the facts derived from actual

data, and not on our own subjective opinions or emotional values

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"In science, there are no beliefs. We either know, or we are in the process of knowing, or we admit we don't as yet know." – David Campbell


9-‐ Universal •  The wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by

research, the more useful the research is to the users

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“There is no naDonal science just as there is no naDonal mulDplicaDon table; what is naDonal is no longer science”. – Anton Chekhov

10-‐ Heritable

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“Science is the one human acDvity that is truly progressive. The body of posiDve knowledge is transmiRed from generaDon to generaDon.” ― Edwin Hubble


Definition of research •  Scientific research pursues a step-‐by-‐step, logical, organized,

and rigorous approach (a scientific method) to find a solution to a problem.

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Scientific method

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“The real purpose of the scienDfic method is to make sure that Nature hasn’t misled you into thinking you know something you don’t actually know.” – Robert M. Pirsig


The scientific method involves 7 steps:

1.  Make an observation/identify a broad problem area 2.  Define the problem statement that includes the

general objective(s) and research question(s) 3.  Gather information/literature search 4.  Make a guess/develop hypotheses 5.  Define methodology and do the experiment 6.  Data collection and analysis 7.  Data interpretation/make conclusions

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1-‐ Make an observation

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“Men love to wonder, and that is the seed of science.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson

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العلمي للبحث محب املصري الشعب" أشمون إبن" - بطبعه

2-‐ Define your problem statement and formulate a research question

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The process of addressing a practical problem typically looks like this:

•  Practical problem: virus causes disease •  Research question: how can I stop it from causing

disease? •  Research problem: I don’t know if there is a

chemical compound that can do this job for me and I need to find a way to screen compounds

•  Research answer: compound X is effective •  Application: treat disease

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Steps for addressing a problem

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PracDcal problem

Research quesDon

Research problem

Research answer

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“The scienDst is not a person who gives the right answers, he's one who asks the right quesDons.” ― Claude Lévi-‐Strauss


Practical Vs. Research problem •  A practical problem: a condition in the world that makes

us unhappy because it costs us time, money, pain, etc. = A problem that a normal person tries to avoid

•  A research problem: incomplete knowledge = A problem that a researchers would seek out or invent if necessary! If he has no research problem to work on, he has no job!

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What is a problem statement? •  A problem statement addresses both the “why” (the specific

aim or purpose of the study) and the “what” (the central research question or a set of questions) of the research

•  There are three key criteria for a good problem statement; it should be: a)  relevant b)  feasible c)  interesting

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A problem statement is relevant if: 1.  Nothing is known about a topic; you

will have to prove that your claim is right!

2.  Much is known about the topic, but the knowledge is scattered and not integrated

3.  Much research on the topic is available, but the results are (partly) contradictory

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A problem statement is feasible if: •  You are able to answer the research

questions within the restrictions of the research project (time, money and know-‐how)

•  Carve out a research question that you can answer!

•  Bear in mind that no one can solve a problem in a 10-‐page paper; your paper will help us better understand the problem and gets us closer to a solution!

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Why your problem statement should be interesting?

•  Research is a time-‐consuming process and you will go through many ups and downs before you present the final version of your research report

•  It is therefore vital that you are genuinely interested in the problem statement you are trying to answer, so that you can stay motivated throughout the entire research process

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“Research is to see what everyone else has seen, but thinking what no one else has thought.” ― Albert Szent-‐Gyorgyi


Formulate a strong problem statement •  Start by asking: so what? What makes this research worth doing? Why

should my research question grab the attention of my audience? •  You can work toward a problem statement in 3 steps:

1.  Name your topic: I am trying to learn about/study 2.  Add a question (to yourself):

!  I am studying …. because I want to find out how or why 3.  Motivate your question (to others):

! The answer to my question will solve a problem that is significant to a wider community of readers

!  If this problem was left unresolved = trouble

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3-‐ Gather information/Literature search

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What is literature? •  Literature – the body of knowledge available to you or what

is already known and written down that is relevant to your research project.

•  A literature review is a process that involves the identification of published work on the topic of interest, the evaluation of this work in relation to the problem, and the documentation of this work.

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Examples for resources •  Journal articles •  Text books •  Theses •  Conference proceedings •  Academic databases •  Government or business reports •  Encyclopedia (in print, not Wikipedia!) •  Internet

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Be extra cautious when using the internet!

•  Internet is unregulated! •  You can obtain material that can help you in formulating your research question, but very hard to find reliable sources for serious research!

•  Always prefer a printed source, unless it is an online journal or supplement.

•  Google scholar can help you with academic literature.

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Criteria for selecting sources: •  Screen your sources for reliability •  Is it relevant to your hypothesis? •  Is it published by a reputable press? •  Peer-‐reviewed? •  Author reputable? •  Source up-‐to-‐date?

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“As a scienDst I have come to learn that informaDon is only as valuable as its source.” ― Dan Brown


3 uses for resources: 1.   Read for a problem: if you are having trouble formulating a

research problem or question. Look for inspiration. Look for gaps in knowledge, unresolved issues or new lines of research.

2.   Read for an argument: when you see how other researchers address similar problems, you can learn how to address yours too.

3.   Read for evidence: find data that you can use to support your claim.

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A literature review ensures that: 1.  Put your research into context 2.  You do not run into the risk of “reinventing the

wheel” 3.  You look at your problem from several angles 4.  You didn’t miss an important variable 5.  You know the research methods

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Don’t reinvent the wheel!

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Read critically! •  You don’t have to agree with the

conclusions in a source! •  Don’t accept a claim just because it is

mentioned in a paper published in a respected journal, particularly if the claim isn’t well supported. People can sometimes misinterpret their own data!

•  Look for weaknesses in other researchers arguments; yes nobody is prefect!

•  Get the context right!

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Plagiarism

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Plagiarism •  This is the worst thing that can happen to a researcher! •  Deliberate plagiarism is a crime!

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Unintentional plagiarism •  Sometimes it is done in good faith, out of carelessness, or out of

ignorance when you are not sure about what to cite, how and when

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Plagiarism defined •  You plagiarize, intentionally or not,

when you use someone else’s words, arguments or ideas without giving credit to that person, misleading your readers to think that those words or ideas are yours

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Resist the temptation! •  In today’s information age,

copying and pasting information from online sources into your own research paper has become very simple

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Quote or paraphrase •  You can use the exact words if you are

making a quote (between quotation marks), otherwise you must summarize/paraphrase only after those words have filtered through your own understanding of them, then cite the source

•  Quote when: the specific words of your source matter

•  Paraphrase when: you are more interested in the findings/data than in how your source expressed them

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4-‐ Hypothesis development •  A hypothesis can be defined as a

tentative, yet testable, statement, which predicts what you expect to find in your empirical data.

•  A scientific hypothesis must meet two requirements: testable and falsifiable.

•  By testing the hypotheses, it is expected that solutions can be found to correct the problem encountered.

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“No great discovery was ever made without a bold guess.” ― Sir Isaac Newton

5-‐ Define methodology & do the experiment

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“Highly organized research is guaranteed to produce nothing new.” ― Frank Herbert

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“An expert is a person who has made all the mistakes that can be made in a very narrow field.” ― Niels Bohr

6-‐ Data collection and analysis

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“An experiment is a quesDon which science poses to Nature, and a measurement is the recording of Nature's answer.” – Max Planck

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“Measure what can be measured, and make measurable what cannot be measured.” ― Galileo Galilei


7-‐ Data interpretation / Make conclusions

•  Decide whether your hypothesis is supported or not by the results.

•  Hypotheses that are not supported allow you to refine your theory by thinking about why they were not supported. You can then test your refined theory in future research.

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“A hypothesis can never be confirmed; there is always a possibility that future research will show that it is false. Hence, failing to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis: it remains provisional unDl it is disproved”. – Karl Popper

The research cycle

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Somebody has to pay the bill!

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“Research is four things: brains with which to think, eyes with which to see, machines with which to measure and, fourth, money.” – Albert Szent-‐Gyorgyi

Need funding? Present, Propose & Publish! The P-‐word

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Research proposal •  Before any research study is undertaken, there

should be an agreement between the person who authorizes the study and the researcher as to the problem to be investigated, the methodology to be used, the duration of the study, and its cost.

•  This ensures that there are no misunderstandings or frustrations later for either party.

•  This is usually accomplished through a research proposal, which the researcher submits and gets approved by the sponsor, who issues a letter of authorization to proceed with the study.

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Structure of a research proposal 1.  A working title 2.  Background of the study 3.  The problem statement:

a)  The purpose of the study b)  Research questions

4.  The scope of the study 5.  The relevance of the study 6.  The research design:

a)  Type of study – exploratory or descriptive b)  Data collection methods c)  The sampling design d)  Data analysis

7.  Time frame of the study 8.  The budget 9.  References

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Publish your paper!

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YOU WILL FEEL LIKE

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Create a role for your reader •  Your research is of very little value if nobody reads it! •  Writing a research report is like thinking in print, but from the point

of view of your readers •  You are silently conversing with others when you read their work •  People will judge you when they read your work •  A thoughtful writer has in advance also judged his readers,

especially what they know and what they need to know

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Writer’s role •  People don’t read research reports just for fun! Encourage them to read

yours! •  Typically one of 3 offers should be made:

–  I have found something really interesting –  I have found a solution to a practical problem important to you –  I have found an answer to a question important to you

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Research argument •  We always think of an argument as an

exchange of opinions that usually results in a dispute

•  Research argument however isn’t an exchange of opinions; it is your attempt to state the facts and make claims in your attempt to find the best answer to a hard question

•  In short, it is your answer to the question: why should I believe you?

•  Expect that people will question each element of your research, not to knock it down, but to help you find and understand a truth you can share

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Why do you need a good research argument?

•  You have reached a tentative, but reasonably specific answer to your research question and it is for you now to convince people!

•  You should have a list of reasons that support your claim and evidence to support those reasons, and some idea about the questions and objections that might get raised

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What is a research argument? •  In research report, you make a claim, back it with reasons based on

evidence, acknowledge and respond to other views, and sometimes explain your principles of reasoning

•  Typically, you must ask yourself the following questions: –  What claim I am trying to make here? –  What reasons do I have to support my claim? –  What evidences do I have to support those reasons? –  Did I acknowledge alternative explanations/deficiencies/objections? –  What principle did I use to justify connecting my reasons to my claim?

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Structure of an argument

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CLAIM I claim that

REASON Because of these reasons

EVIDENCE Which I base on this evidence

I acknowledge quesDons,

objecDons and alternaDves


Claim •  A claim is an answer to your research question •  A strong claim should be:

–  Specific: brief specific language and clear logic (vague claim = vague argument)

–  Significant: •  Your audience will judge the significance of your claim by measuring

the degree to which it asks them to change what they already think •  Your claim can simply ask your audience to accept new information

about a subject already studied •  Or it may ask the entire research community to change one of its

deepest beliefs (expect resistance)!

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Reasons and evidence •  In a casual conversation, we usually support a claim with just a

reason and don’t ask: what evidence do you have? •  Reliable evidence is what your audience can accept as a solid proof

evident from your results (mostly quantitative data or images) •  Rejecting evidence = rejecting the whole argument •  Reasons state why YOU think your audience should accept your

claim •  Audience will look for the smallest flaw in your evidence.

Therefore, it has to be sufficient, reported as accurately and precisely as possible!

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“In God we trust; all others must bring data.” ― Edwards Deming


Think about your audience! •  If you plan your argument around ONLY claims, reasons and evidences,

your readers will think that your argument is weak/naïve •  Since your audience are not setting next you while you are drafting your

argument, you have to imagine them asking questions •  It is only when you respond to those imagined questions and objections,

your argument becomes factual

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Acknowledging and responding to alternatives

•  A thoughtful audience will not accept a claim just because you back it up with your reasons and your evidence

•  They will question every part of your argument •  Unless they think exactly like you, which is very unlikely, they may

interpret your evidence differently or draw a different conclusion from the same evidence

•  They may reject your claim or think that your reasons are not relevant to your claim and can’t support it or they may come up with alternative claims that you didn’t consider

•  You have to anticipate as many of these questions as possible, and then acknowledge and respond to most of them

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Your audience will question: 1.  The intrinsic soundness of your

argument such as the clarity of your claim, the relevance of your reasons and the quality of your evidence

2.  They may ask you to consider alternatives, a different way of framing the problem, evidence you haven’t considered or a different conclusion

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Tips on handling objections •  You know your argument too well and believe in it too much •  Read your argument as if you are someone who has a lot at stake in a

different solution •  Don’t be easy with yourself on this because, believe me, your audience

will not! •  Try to diffuse as many concerns as possible before facing your audience •  If you use a questionable evidence to support your claim, acknowledge

that upfront •  Don’t ignore weaknesses/alternatives hoping that people will not notice •  Increase your credibility by acknowledging all weaknesses in your

argument/disagreement with any previously published studies

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More tips •  Acknowledge questions that you couldn’t answer •  “Further research will show” isn’t a bad thing to say! •  Turn a weakness/deficiency into a hypothesis for future testing •  Nothing is enough! •  Finding enough strong evidence of high quality to make a solid case is

rare if ever possible! •  Truth is always complicated, sometimes ambiguous and slippery •  Readers will respect you and your argument when you bring their voices

into your report by acknowledging their objections •  Even the minimal response will give a reason for accepting your claim

even if not fully

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Good news: most questions are predictable!

•  Why have you defined the problem in that way? Do you think there is a problem here at all?

•  What kind of solution are you proposing? Is it feasible? Will it cost less to implement than the cost of the problem itself? Will it create a bigger problem than the one it solves? Why is it better than others?

•  Have you stated your claim clearly and specifically? Well, I can think of exceptions and limitations already!

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More questions •  Your evidence is not sufficient; I would like to see more

data/experiments! (the most common objection) •  Is your evidence accurate; your numbers don’t add up or

your error bars are too big! •  Your evidence isn’t precise; what do you mean by

“many”? Give me some hard numbers! •  Your evidence isn’t representative; you didn’t get data

from (sampling)! I don’t see any pattern there! •  Your stuff isn’t up to date!

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Truth will prevail!

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“Science is a way of thinking much more than being a body of knowledge.” ― Carl Sagan

المحاضرة الثانية - سلسلة اساسيات البحث العلمي

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