assets.cambridge.org...author index abbott, a., 105, 108, 109, 753, 754, 756 abernethy, b., 234,...

Author Index

Abbott, A., 105 , 108, 109, 753 , 754 , 756

Abernethy, B., 234 , 245 , 246, 255 , 259, 471, 475 , 476,478, 479, 481, 483 , 699

Abrahamowicz, M., 339

Abrahams, J., 715

Ackerman, P. L., 12 , 15 , 32 , 34 , 49, 15 1, 152 , 153 , 155 ,156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 163 , 164 , 617, 727

Acton, B., 445 , 448, 453

Adam, J., 326, 332

Adams, E. C., 624 , 629

Adams, J. A., 150, 163 , 475 , 483

Adams, K. H., 399

Adams, M. M., 657, 662 , 663 , 671, 680

Adams-Webber, J. R., 24 , 28, 206, 219

Adcock, R. A., 664 , 665 , 677

Adelman, L., 215 , 218

Adelson, B., 25 , 27, 51, 62 , 373 , 377, 378, 379, 384

Adesman, P., 527, 536

Adler, A., 757, 758

Adler, S., 490, 501

Adolph, K. E., 514 , 516

Afflerbach, P., 237, 240

Agarwal, R., 376, 377, 378, 384

Agnew, 746, 760

Aguilar, J., 464 , 468

Aguilera-Torres, 495 , 502

Aguirre, G. K., 667, 668, 677

Ahissar, M., 268, 283 , 666, 677

Ahmad, A. M., 243 , 260

Ahmad, W., 106, 122

Ahmed, A., 616, 630

Ahn, W., 342 , 352

Aikins, J. S., 95 , 100

Ainsworth, L. K., 185 , 200

Akin, O., 172 , 179, 181

Alain, C., 475 , 483

Alarcon, M., 563 , 565

Alberdi, E., 174 , 178, 181

Albert, M. L., 533 , 535

Albert, R. S., 299, 300

Alder, T. B., 555 , 566

Alderton, D. L., 279, 280, 283

Alexander, J. E., 564 , 565 , 567

Alexander, J. L., 371

Alexander, P. A., 24 , 27

Alexander, R. A., 163 , 378, 379, 384

Allaire, J. C., 732 , 737

Allard, F., 3 , 12 , 19, 46, 67, 245 , 259, 305 , 306, 307,309, 311, 318, 474 , 476, 478, 479, 481, 483 , 486,505 , 520, 693 , 703 , 709, 721, 730, 741

Allen, D., 245 , 262

Allen, G., 508, 517

Allen, L., 164

Allen, N., 624 , 630

Allen, S., 686, 702

Allen, S. W., 350, 352

Allerton, D. J., 252 , 259

Allgaier, E., 369

Allison, T., 667, 668, 681

Allport, D. A., 513 , 516

Allsop, J., 106, 120

Alsop, D. C., 664 , 678

Altenmuller, E. O., 464 , 465 , 466, 468, 469, 470

Altiteri, P., 728, 740

Altom, M. W., 342 , 352

Alvarado, M., 665 , 678

Alway, D., 533 , 537

Amabile, T. M., 399

Amalberti, R., 641, 649

Amann, M., 662 , 679

789

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790 author index

Amarel, S., 96, 103

Ambrosino, R., 97, 100

Ames, C., 709, 716, 719

Amidzic, O., 533 , 534

Amirault, R. J., 5 , 14 , 41, 46, 69

Amorim, M.-A., 274 , 285

Amunts, K., 565 , 664 , 665 , 679

Anastakis, D. J., 348, 350, 353

Anderson, A. W., 508, 517, 667, 668, 676, 678

Anderson, C. H., 667, 681

Anderson, D., 709, 719

Anderson, D. K., 255 , 261

Anderson, J. R., 3 , 17, 46, 60, 62 , 87, 88, 100, 229,238, 267, 283 , 350, 385 , 405 , 415 , 475 , 479, 483 ,600, 601, 606, 617, 629, 684 , 694 , 700, 725 , 737

Anderson, N., 450

Anderson, U., 26, 29

Andorka, R., 305 , 316

Andrade, H. G., 626, 629

Andrews, E. J., 213 , 219

Angelergues, R., 560, 566

Anjoul, F., 32 , 38

Annandale, E., 109, 120

Annett, J., 187, 189, 191, 199

Anschutz, L., 549, 550

Antell, S. E., 555 , 565

Antonakis, J., 621, 624 , 629

Antonelli, M., 533 , 537

Antonis, B., 513 , 516

Antons, C., 746, 758

Archer, W., 494 , 501

Aretz, A., 250, 253 , 260

Argyris, C., 623 , 629

Aristotle, 5 , 17, 574 , 582

Ark, T. K., 350

Armstrong, A. A., 406, 411, 418

Armstrong, N., 716, 720

Arnason, H. H., 783 , 784 , 785

Arnold, L., 348, 352

Arocha, J. F., 52 , 66, 88, 100, 179, 180, 181, 183 , 235 ,240, 445 , 448, 452 , 598, 599, 610

Arroyo, M., 212 , 218

Arutyunyan, G. H., 514 , 516

Arvidson, R. E., 134 , 144

Asberg, K., 699, 702

Aschersleben, G., 272 , 285 , 511, 518

Ashburner, J., 548, 551

Ashcraft, M. H., 280, 283 , 560, 565

Atherton, M., 533 , 534

Atkins, M. S., 251, 260

Atlas, R. S., 527, 530, 535 , 600, 607

Atran, S., 180, 183

Atwood, M. E., 54 , 64 , 373 , 375 , 376, 377, 385

Augier, M., 42 , 66

Augustyn, J. S., 16, 47, 505 , 636, 666

Austin, E. J., 32 , 37

Austin, G. A., 44 , 62

Austin, J., 44 , 62 , 237, 238

Ausubel, D. P., 211, 218

Avery, R. J., 304 , 316

Avidan-Carmel, G., 669, 679

Avila, E., 402

Avolio, B. J., 726, 741

Avrahami, J., 350

Azuma, A., 385

Azuma, H., 451

Babcock, R. L., 602 , 611, 724 , 727, 732 , 733 , 741

Bachmann, T., 524 , 534

Backman, L., 548, 549, 550, 551, 593 , 606

Baddeley, A. D., 58, 62 , 661, 677

Badum, A., 443 , 451

Bagozzi, R. P., 435 , 436

Bahrick, H. P., 602 , 607

Baird, L. L., 725 , 737

Baker, C. I., 669, 677

Baker, J., 316, 481, 483

Baker, K., 209, 215 , 221

Baltes, M. M., 731, 737

Baltes, P. B., 547, 549, 550, 551, 602 , 607, 724 , 725 ,727, 730, 731, 733 , 734 , 735 , 736, 737, 738, 739,740, 741, 742 , 758

Baluch, B., 481, 484 , 693 , 701

Balzer, R., 222

Bamber, C., 448, 450

Bamberger, J., 297, 300

Banaji, M. R., 205 , 218

Bandura, A., 158, 163 , 444 , 449, 706, 707, 709, 712 ,713 , 719, 722 , 757, 758

Bangert-Drowns, R. L., 79, 85

Bangsbo, J., 261

Banich, M. T., 735 , 739

Bank, T. E., 406, 417

Bann, S., 352

Bansal, V. K., 255 , 261

Banton, L., 462 , 467

Baraduc, P., 671, 677

Barber, P., 205 , 218

Bard, C., 475 , 485

Bard, M., 471, 475 , 476, 485

Bar-Eli, M., 475 , 487

Barfield, W., 379, 384

Baria, A., 474 , 484

Barlow, F., 554 , 565

Barnes, J., 5 , 17

Barnes, L. L., 496, 503

Barnett, S. M., 598, 599, 607

Baron, J. N., 424 , 436, 754 , 758

Barrett, G. V., 163

Barrick, M. R., 157, 163

Barrington, D., 457, 467

Barrows, H. S., 25 , 28, 46, 47, 62 , 350, 351, 352

Barry, J. R., 478, 485

Barry, N., 461, 467

Bart, W. M., 533 , 534

Bartlett, F. C., 44 , 55 , 62 , 542 , 550

Barton, K., 577, 582

Barton, R., 491, 501

Bassignani, F., 272 , 273 , 286

Bassok, M., 23 , 27, 764 , 785

Bates, J., 495 , 502

Bateson, A. G., 378, 379, 384

Batra, D., 376, 384

Battaglia, D. A., 405 , 411, 418

Baudry, M., 508, 518

Baxter, H. C., 411, 418

Baylis, G. C., 272 , 285

Baylor, G. W., 530, 534

Bazerman, C., 115 , 120

Beamer, M., 314 , 316

Beauchamp, M. R., 448, 449

Beaudoin, G., 664 , 676, 680

Becerra-Fernandez, I., 217

Becher, J. C., 174 , 178, 181

Becker, B. J., 563 , 565

Becker, G. S., 14 , 17, 747






author index 791

Bedard, J., 4 , 17, 23 , 27, 686, 700

Bee, B., 495 , 501

Beek, P. J., 472 , 476, 477, 480, 484 , 485 , 486, 514 ,516, 520

Behrmann, M., 668, 669, 677, 681

Beier, M. B., 160, 161, 163

Beier, M. E., 12 , 34 , 37, 49

Beilock, S. L., 15 , 361, 369, 475 , 479, 484 , 513 , 516

Beinlich, I. A., 89, 102

Belkin, A., 579, 583

Bell, B. S., 440, 446, 450, 451

Bell, J. A., 710, 722

Bell, J. F., III, 134 , 144

Bellenkes, A. H., 249, 259, 362 , 369

Bellows, N., 628, 631

Belohoubek, P., 448, 450

Ben-Bashat, D., 668, 669, 680

Benbow, C. P., 34 , 36, 37, 563 , 564 , 565 , 567

Bender, W. W., 345 , 353

Bendix, R., 120

Beneke, W. M., 711, 719

Bengtsson, S. L., 674 , 677, 696, 700

Benke, T., 560, 566

Benner, P. E., 12 , 17

Bennett, J. S., 97, 100

Bennett, S. J., 246, 247, 262 , 476, 477, 487

Ben-Shoham, I., 356, 357, 360, 371

Benson, R. R., 668, 680

Berardi-Coletta, B., 230, 238

Bereiter, C., 82 , 86, 297, 300, 391, 402

Bereiter, S., 400

Berg, C. A., 88, 101

Bergen, P. C., 347, 353

Berger, R. C., 527, 530, 535 , 600, 607

Beringer, D. B., 356, 357, 367, 368, 370

Berliner, D. C., 173 , 183

Berliner, H., 525 , 534

Berliner, P., 458, 467

Berlyne, D. E., 44 , 62

Bernard, H. R., 129, 142

Bernasconi, P., 480, 484

Berners-Lee, 99, 101

Berninger, V. W., 399

Bernoulli, D., 441, 449

Bernstein, M., 323 , 333

Bernstein, N. A., 479, 484 , 516

Berry, C., 323 , 332

Berryman, R. G., 235 , 240

Berstein, L. M., 26, 27

Berti, S., 465 , 470

Bertini, G., 269, 284

Bertrand, L., 247, 248, 262

Besson, M., 463 , 467

Bettinardi, V., 672 , 681

Bettman, J. R., 425 , 437

Beurskens, A. J. H. M., 729, 737, 741

Bevan, A., 555 , 556, 567

Bevans, G. E., 304 , 316

Beyer, H., 129, 142

Beyerlein, M. M., 451

Beyerstein, B. L., 657, 677

Bhalla, M., 514 , 516, 519

Bherer, L., 657, 664 , 665 , 666, 678

Biddle, S., 716, 720

Biederman, I., 268, 269, 283 , 545 , 550

Bieman, J. M., 374 , 383 , 387

Bienias, J. L., 496, 503

Billroth, T., 457, 467

Bilodeau, E. A., 265 , 283

Bilodeau, I. M., 265 , 283

Binder, C., 80, 84

Binet, A., 163 , 223 , 225 , 236, 238, 523 , 526, 530, 531,534 , 540, 550, 554 , 565

Binier, B. L., 508, 517

Binks, M. B., 53 , 64

Birdwhistell, R., 130, 142

Birnbaum, L., 222

Birren, J. E., 594 , 607

Bisseret, A., 369

Bizzi, E., 507, 517

Bjork, R. A., 506, 518, 519

Blair, V., 444 , 453

Blaiwes, A. S., 441, 452

Blakemore, S. J., 511, 516

Blehar, M. C., 606

Blendell, C., 411, 415 , 417

Bleske-Rechek, A., 36, 37

Blickensderfer, E. L., 443 , 453

Bliese, P. D., 448, 449

Bloch, S., 495 , 502

Block, R. A., 305 , 316

Blomberg, J., 142

Bloom, B. S., 3 , 12 , 13 , 15 , 17, 46, 62 , 79, 84 , 287, 288,289, 300, 305 , 316, 462 , 467, 613 , 629, 691, 700,706, 707, 709, 711, 719

Bloom, P., 555 , 568

Bloomfield, J., 9, 17

Blum, B. I., 13 1, 142

Blythe, T., 626–627, 632

Bock, J. K., 400

Boecker, H.-D., 384 , 386

Boekaerts, M., 705 , 713 , 719

Bogler, R., 618, 631

Bogot, Y., 350

Bohmer, R. M., 444 , 446, 448, 450

Boice, R., 400

Boldrini, M., 444 , 450

Bolger, D. J., 670, 677

Bolger, F., 13 , 17

Bolstad, C. A., 639, 641, 642 , 644 , 650

Bonaceto, C., 213 , 218

Bond, N. A., Jr., 158, 164

Book, W. F., 685 , 700, 727, 737

Boose, J. H., 97, 101, 204 , 219, 405 , 415

Bootsma, R. J., 480, 484

Bor, D., 616, 630

Bordage, G., 346, 350, 352

Borgeaud, P., 245 , 259, 478, 484

Boring, E. B., 223 , 238

Boring, E. G., 76, 84

Borman, W. C., 451

Bornschier, V., 120

Borrojerdi, B., 671, 681

Borron, J., 99, 101

Borstein, B. H., 405 , 415

Boshuizen, H. P. A., 25 , 26, 28, 29, 235 , 238, 241, 343 ,349, 350, 351, 352 , 353 , 463 , 467, 494 , 503 , 599,610

Bosman, E. A., 598, 602 , 607, 727, 728, 731, 737, 738

Botwinick, J., 595 , 607

Bouffard, V., 499, 501

Bourdieu, P., 118, 120, 757, 759

Bourdin, B., 400

Bourgouin, P., 664 , 676, 680

Bourne, L. E., Jr., 276, 279, 281, 283 , 284 , 285

Boutilier, C., 498, 503






792 author index

Bowden, K., 648, 651

Bowen, K. R., 160, 161, 163

Bower, G. H., 265 , 283 , 549, 552 , 596, 607

Bower, J. M., 508, 517

Bowerman, W. G., 326, 332

Bowers, C. A., 215 , 219, 244 , 248, 253 , 258, 261

Bowlby, J., 592 , 607

Boyatzis, R. E., 157, 164

Boyes-Braem, P., 176, 179, 183

Boyle, J. D., 457, 467

Bracke-Tolkmitt, R., 508, 517

Bradburn, N. M., 237, 241

Bradshaw, G. L., 253 , 258, 262

Brady, T. J., 668, 680

Brainin, E., 448, 453

Brainthwaite, A., 401

Bramer, M., 218, 405 , 415

Bramwell, B. S., 321, 327, 332

Brand, A. G., 400

Brand, C. R., 32 , 37

Brandfonbrener, A., 465 , 467

Bransford, J., 626, 629

Branson, R. K., 5 , 14 , 41, 46, 69, 76, 77, 84

Brashers-Krug, T., 507, 517

Brasil-Neto, J. P., 671, 674 , 681

Brauer, J., 349, 353

Bray, D. W., 33 , 37

Bray, S. R., 448, 449

Breen, T. J., 180, 184 , 356, 357, 365 , 370

Brehe, S., 400

Brehmer, B., 243 , 259, 450, 451, 627, 629

Breslauer, G. W., 580, 582

Brezovic, C. P., 408, 415 , 417

Brialovsky, C., 353

Bridwell-Bowles, L., 400

Briggs, G. E., 278, 283

Briggs, L. J., 78, 85

Britt, A., 572 , 583

Britton, B. K., 400, 401

Broadbent, D. E., 517, 596, 607

Broadway, K. P., 594 , 595 , 596, 610

Brochet, F., 268, 283

Brockett, O. G., 489, 501

Brody, G. H., 706, 719

Brooks, D., 508, 518

Brooks, L. R., 15 , 47, 55 , 235 , 240, 250, 342 , 346,350, 351, 352 , 353

Brou, R. J., 249, 260

Brown, A., 58, 62

Brown, E. S., 433 , 438

Brown, I. D., 356, 357, 360, 369

Brown, J. S., 46, 48, 67, 623 , 629

Brown, M., 350

Brown, N. R., 374 , 375 , 377, 384

Brown, R., 58, 62

Brown, S., 267, 284

Bruer, J., 117, 123

Bruhn, E., 498, 501

Brun, W., 445 , 448, 449

Bruner, J. S., 44 , 62 , 191

Brunk, C. A., 97, 102

Brunswik, E., 157, 163

Bryan, W. L., 11, 12 , 17, 225 , 238, 266, 267, 282 , 283 ,474 , 484 , 509, 510, 517, 685 , 689, 700

Bryant, D., 172 , 183 , 211, 218, 598, 599, 610, 728, 740

Bryant, W. K., 304 , 316

Bryman, A., 176, 182 , 205 , 219

Buchanan, B. G., 12 , 14 , 43 , 48, 61, 62 , 87, 88, 90, 91,92 , 95 , 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102 , 103 , 130, 135 ,142 , 204 , 219

Buchner-Jeziorska, A., 107, 120, 121

Buhler, K., 225 , 228, 238

Bukstel, L., 50, 63

Bullemer, P., 274 , 275 , 286, 351, 512 , 519

Bullis, R. C., 618, 622 , 630

Bunderson, J. S., 446, 450

Bundy, D. A., 621, 632

Bunge, S. A., 664 , 665 , 677

Buonomano, D. V., 657, 677

Burchell, G., 111, 121

Burgess, N., 548, 551, 592 , 673 , 674 , 675 , 679, 680

Burgess, T., 624 , 630

Burgess-Limerick, R., 483

Burian, K. V., 497, 501

Burke, C. S., 15 , 439, 440, 441, 442 , 443 , 444 , 448,450, 451, 452 , 453

Burns, B. D., 350

Burns, C. M., 209, 210, 211, 218

Burns, K., 213 , 218

Burton, A. M., 97, 102 , 170, 176, 180, 182 , 183 , 198,200, 206, 215 , 220, 222 , 736, 745 , 759

Burwitz, L., 245 , 246, 256, 262 , 475 , 477, 478, 487

Butterworth, B., 16, 59, 60, 235 , 553 , 555 , 556, 557,558, 559, 564 , 565–566, 567, 675 , 693

Button, G., 128, 129, 13 1, 133 , 134 , 135 , 138, 142 , 143

Buyer, L. S., 230, 238

Byard, L., 429, 437

Bynner, J., 553 , 566

Byrd, M., 593 , 608

Cabeza, R., 661, 662 , 664 , 677

Cacciabue, P. C., 188, 200, 205 , 220

Cadopi, M., 499, 502

Caicco, M., 498, 503

Calder, A., 773 , 785

Calderwood, R., 171, 182 , 192 , 200, 206, 209, 221, 403 ,404 , 406, 407, 408, 410, 415 , 416, 417, 436, 437,451, 529, 535 , 639, 650

Calkins, V., 348, 352

Callahan, J. S., 734 , 737

Calvin, S., 516, 517

Calvo-Merino, B., 672 , 677

Camerer, C. F., 13 , 17, 433 , 436, 686, 700

Caminiti, M. F., 348, 353

Cammarota, A., 671, 674 , 681

Camp, C. J., 549, 550

Campbell, D. J., 374 , 375 , 377, 381, 384

Campbell, D. T., 760

Campbell, J. P., 443 , 450

Campbell, J. I .D., 280, 283 , 560, 566

Campillo, M., 708, 724

Campion, M. A., 187, 200, 384 , 387, 448, 450

Campitelli, G., 174 , 182 , 531, 532 , 533 , 535 , 536

Canas, A. J., 212 , 213 , 218, 219

Canavan, A. G. M., 508, 517

Candia, V., 466, 468

Candolle, A. de, 321, 326, 327, 328, 332

Cannon, J. R., 356, 357, 361, 367, 368, 370

Cannon, M. D., 446, 448, 450

Cannon-Bowers, J. A., 439, 440, 441, 443 , 450, 453

Cantor, N. F., 73 , 84

Caplan, J., 380, 385

Caplan, R. A., 425 , 436

Cappa, S. F., 667, 668, 679






author index 793

Cappelletti, M., 557, 566

Caramazza, A., 400, 560, 567, 670, 681

Carbotte, R., 349, 353

Card, S. K., 188, 191, 199

Carello, C., 514 , 517

Caretta, T. R., 617, 631

Carey, G., 725 , 738

Carey, L., 401

Carey, S., 676, 678

Carff, R., 212 , 218

Carlsen, J. C., 463 , 469

Carlson, B., 289, 300

Carlson, R. A., 281, 286, 506, 519

Carlton, E., 117, 121

Carnahan, H., 471, 484

Carnot, M. J., 217, 220

Carpenter, P. A., 662 , 664 , 678, 680

Carr, T. H., 361, 369, 475 , 479, 484 , 508, 513 , 516,517

Carraher, D. W., 26, 29

Carreras, A., 464 , 468

Carretero, M., 575 , 576, 577, 580, 582 , 584

Carroll, J. B., 32 , 37, 78, 79, 84 , 544 , 550, 589, 590,591, 599, 607

Carroll, J. M., 376, 386

Carroll, J. S., 444 , 450

Carron, A. V., 448, 449

Carr-Saunders, A. M., 107, 121

Carter, F. J., 348, 351

Carter, I. D., 648, 650

Carter, M., 400

Carvajal, R., 212 , 218

Cascio, W. F., 726, 740

Caspi, R., 350

Cass, J., 497, 501

Cassandro, V. J., 323 , 332

Castejon, J. L., 618, 631

Castellan, N. J. J., 450

Castka, P., 448, 450

Castro, C. A., 448, 449

Catchpole, L. J., 411, 415 , 417

Cattell, J. M., 305 , 316, 321, 323 , 332

Cattell, R. B., 32 , 37, 592 , 594 , 595 , 596, 599, 607,609, 617, 630, 724 , 737

Caulford, P. G., 349, 350, 352

Cauraugh, J. H., 256, 261, 476, 477, 484

Cauzinille-Marmeche, E., 532 , 535

Cavanaugh, J. C., 593 , 607

Cecil, J. S., 755 , 759

Cellier, J. M., 369

Cerella, J., 726, 737

Chabris, C. F., 233 , 238, 529, 531, 533 , 535

Chaffin, R., 237, 238, 461, 463 , 467, 698, 700

Chalmers, B., 211, 218

Chang, A., 352

Chang, R. W., 350

Chapin, R. S., 305 , 316

Chapman, C., 257, 262

Chapman, G. B., 405 , 415

Chapman, P. R., 356, 357, 362 , 363 , 364 , 369, 371,648, 651

Charness, N., 11, 16, 25 , 34 , 37, 44 , 49, 50, 52 , 54 , 60,63 , 101, 168, 233 , 234 , 235 , 238, 244 , 259, 297, 300,306, 316, 327, 328, 332 , 348, 412 , 416, 462 , 463 ,467, 478, 484 , 523 , 524 , 525 , 526, 527, 528, 529,530, 532 , 533 , 534 , 535 , 537, 538, 553 , 560, 562 ,564–565 , 566, 588, 593 , 598, 599, 601, 602 , 606,

607, 608, 657, 685 , 693 , 696, 697, 699, 700, 723 ,726, 727, 728, 730, 734 , 737, 738, 740

Chase, W. G., 3 , 11, 12 , 17, 19, 27, 44 , 46, 49, 50, 52 ,57, 58, 60, 61, 63 , 67, 96, 100, 103 , 169, 171, 172 ,173 , 178, 182 , 207, 218, 235 , 236, 237, 238, 239,244 , 245 , 259, 292 , 297, 301, 305 , 316, 318, 353 ,369, 402 , 431, 436, 474 , 478, 484 , 493 , 501, 510,517, 523 , 527, 531, 535 , 541, 542 , 547, 550, 569,582 , 583 , 601, 611, 613 , 614 , 629, 685 , 689, 696,700, 703 , 727, 738, 768, 785

Chassin, M. R., 349, 351

Chein, J. M., 269, 285 , 653 , 656, 658, 659, 660, 661,665 , 678, 682

Chen, 476

Chen, C. H., 496, 501

Chen, D., 256, 261

Chen, E., 674 , 682

Chen, Z., 50, 63

Cheney, F. W., 425 , 436

Cheney, G., 498, 501

Cheng, P. C. H., 64 , 527, 536

Chenowith, N. A., 400

Chevalier, A., 376, 384

Chi, M. T. H., 3 , 5 , 12 , 14 , 15 , 17, 18, 21, 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ,27, 28, 31, 37, 44 , 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52 , 54 , 55 ,63 , 64 , 83 , 84 , 95 , 100, 101, 130, 13 1, 142 , 163 , 167,169, 170, 172 , 174 , 175 , 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181,182 , 204 , 205 , 219, 228, 230, 238, 244 , 259, 287,301, 305 , 316, 349, 351, 369, 376, 384 , 406, 412 ,415 , 416, 436, 440, 450, 532 , 535 , 569, 583 , 598,653 , 686, 700, 744

Chiang, W. C., 555 , 568

Chiao, J. Y., 668, 679

Chidester, T. R., 446, 448, 450

Chien, J. M., 512 , 519

Chiesi, H. L., 48, 51, 55 , 63 , 67, 179, 182 , 471, 484

Chignell, M. H., 253 , 260

Chipman, S. F., 185 , 192 , 199, 200, 201

Chipp, H. B., 772 , 785

Chiu, M.-H., 230, 238

Chivers, P., 256, 260

Cho, K., 26, 27

Chomsky, N., 43 , 63

Choudhry, N. K., 349, 350

Chow, R., 209, 219

Christal, R. E., 32 , 37

Christensen, C., 26, 27

Christensen, H., 594 , 607

Christensen, P. R., 158, 164

Christiaen, J., 533 , 535

Christoffersen, K., 211, 222

Chulef, A. S., 598, 599, 609

Chun, M. M., 667, 680

Cianciolo, A. T., 12 , 16, 32 , 37, 91, 15 1, 163 , 613 , 621,624 , 625 , 626, 629, 727

Cipolotti, L., 555 , 559, 560, 563 , 566, 568

Clancey, W. J., 12 , 15 , 45 , 46, 63 , 95 , 98, 99, 101, 103 ,116, 127, 135 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 206, 208, 219, 243 , 745 ,760

Clark, J., 673 , 681

Clark, R. D., 323 , 332

Clark, V. P., 668, 679

Clarkson, G. P., 236, 238, 526, 536

Clarkson-Smith, L., 736, 738

Clawson, D. M., 279, 283

Clayton, J. E., 97, 102

Cleary, T. J., 708, 709, 712 , 713 , 715 , 716, 718, 719






794 author index

Cleeremans, A., 274 , 283

Clegg, B. A., 273 , 283

Cleveland, A. A., 523 , 535

Clifford, M., 716, 719

Clifton, J., 463 , 467

Cline, J., 353

Clinton-Cirocco, A., 406, 407, 410, 417, 639, 650

Cobley, S., 237, 238, 305 , 307, 316, 601, 608, 698, 701

Cockcroft, W. H., 553 , 566

Coderre, S., 350

Coffey, J. W., 13 1, 143 , 178, 183 , 207, 208, 211, 212 , 213 ,215 , 216, 217, 218, 219, 220

Cohen, A., 275 , 283 , 513 , 517

Cohen, L., 559, 563 , 566, 675 , 678

Cohen, L. G., 670, 671, 674 , 681

Cohen, M. S., 404 , 405 , 406, 416, 445 , 450

Cohen, N. J., 735 , 739

Cohen, R., 501

Cohen, R. G., 16, 47, 505 , 507, 509, 517, 666

Cohen, R. L., 489, 496, 501

Colcombe, S. J., 657, 664 , 665 , 666, 678

Cole, J., 117, 123

Cole, R., 74 , 84

Coley, J. D., 175 , 180, 183 , 184 , 599, 610

Collani, 377, 378, 384

Collard, R., 510, 519

Colley, A., 462 , 467

Collins, B. P., 46, 67

Colonia-Willner, R., 598, 599, 607, 621, 622 , 629,725 , 728, 738

Colt, H. G., 254 , 259

Combs, D. M., 102

Compton, P., 97, 102

Conditt, M. A., 512 , 517

Connally, T., 422 , 437

Connell, K. J., 350

Connolly, T., 403 , 417

Connor, C. E., 669, 678

Consolini, P. M., 448, 451

Constable, R. T., 664 , 665 , 670, 677, 682

Contreni, J. J., 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 84

Converse, S., 440, 441, 443 , 450, 453

Cook, C. R., 379, 386

Cook, E. F., 434 , 437

Cook, S., 544 , 552

Cooke, J., 72 , 86

Cooke, N. J., 176, 182 , 191, 192 , 200, 443 , 446, 450,527, 530, 535 , 600, 607

Cooke, N. M., 180, 184 , 215 , 219, 356, 357, 365 , 370

Coombs, C. H., 405 , 416

Coon, H., 725 , 738

Cooper, D., 106, 109, 121

Cooper, D. E., 71, 84

Cooper, E. E., 545 , 550

Cooper, R. G., Jr., 555 , 568

Cooper, W. E., 509, 510, 517

Copeland, D. E., 593 , 610

Corbet, J. M., 13 1, 143

Corcos, D. M., 465 , 469, 727, 739

Cork, C., 462 , 468

Corlett, E. N., 187, 200

Corrigan, J. M., 255 , 260, 433 , 436

Corrigan, S., 215 , 221

Costello, A., 641, 642 , 650

Cote, J., 14 , 15 , 60, 303 , 314 , 316, 474 , 481, 483 , 484 ,693 , 700, 714

Coughlin, L. D., 351

Coulson, R. L., 46, 56, 64 , 83 , 86, 249, 260, 351, 385 ,675 , 767, 786

Courchesne, E., 508, 517

Couture, B., 390, 400

Cowan, N., 50, 59, 63

Cowan, T., 540, 542 , 546, 552

Cowley, M., 400, 699, 700

Cox, C., 321, 322 , 323 , 326, 327, 332

Coyle, T., 516, 517

Craft, J. L., 272 , 286

Crager, J., 624 , 625 , 629

Craig, J. E., 75 , 84

Craik, F. I. M., 385 , 593 , 607, 608

Craine, D., 498, 501

Cranberg, L., 533 , 535

Crandall, B. W., 170, 171, 182 , 183 , 192 , 200, 209, 212 ,219, 220, 406, 407, 408, 415 , 416, 417, 529, 535

Cratty, 473 , 484

Crawford, M., 461, 467

Crawford, S. W., 254 , 259

Cresswell, A. B., 348, 351

Crick, J. L., 363 , 370, 648, 650

Crisp, F., 498, 499, 500, 503

Crivello, F., 554 , 563 , 564 , 567, 568, 675 , 681

Croghan, J. W., 204 , 222

Croker, S., 64 , 527, 536

Crompton, R., 106, 108, 111, 121

Cronbach, L. J., 163

Cronon, W., 575 , 583

Crook, J. A., 598, 599, 608

Cross, F. L., 72 , 73 , 74 , 84

Cross, T., 734 , 737

Crossman, E. R. F. W., 517

Crovitz, H. F., 224 , 238

Crowder, R. G., 205 , 218, 265 , 283

Crowley, R. S., 234 , 238

Crozier, M., 754 , 759

Crundall, D., 362 , 364 , 369, 371, 648, 651

Crutcher, R. J., 224 , 238, 239, 462 , 468

Csikszentmihalyi, M., 291, 299, 300, 400, 458, 468,719, 766, 767, 785

Cullen, J., 176, 182 , 205 , 219, 473 , 475 , 486

Cunningham, A. E., 402

Curatola, L., 533 , 537

Curley, S. P., 425 , 438

Curnow, C., 319, 322 , 323 , 329, 330, 333 , 689, 690,703 , 735 , 741

Curran, T., 400

Currie, L., 648, 650

Curtis, B., 374 , 380, 382 , 385

Cuschieri, A., 348, 351

Cushing, K. S., 173 , 183

Cusimano, M. D., 348, 350, 352 , 353

Custers, E. J., 351

Dabringhaus, A., 565

Daffertshofer, A., 472 , 477, 480, 484 , 485 , 486, 516

Dagenbach, D., 508, 517

Dahl, T., 615 , 629

D’Alembert, J. L. R., 6, 7, 8, 18

Dallop, P., 499, 503

Dang, N., 671, 674 , 681

Daniel, M. H., 32 , 37, 725 , 738

Darst, P. W., 314 , 315 , 316

Darzi, A., 250, 254 , 261, 262 , 347, 352

Das, T. L., 305 , 316

Daston, L. J., 115 , 121






author index 795

Dattel, A. R., 15 , 52 , 94 , 355 , 365 , 369, 666, 673

Dauphinee, W. D., 248, 353

Davenport, T. H., 217, 219

David, J.-M., 204 , 219

Davids, K., 245 , 246, 256, 262 , 383 , 385 , 471, 474 ,475 , 476, 477, 478, 487, 691, 703

Davidson, J. E., 626, 630, 710

Davidson, J. W., 10, 18, 459, 461, 468, 469, 470, 692 ,703 , 725 , 739

Davies, C., 109, 121

Davies, D. R., 730, 737, 741, 742

Davies, I. R. L., 174 , 184 , 268, 286

Davies, N., 75 , 85

Davies, S. P., 377, 378, 385

Davis, D. A., 349, 350, 352

Davis, J. G., 376, 384

Davis, K. J., 358, 370, 693 , 702

Davis, R., 12 , 14 , 43 , 48, 87, 91, 95 , 96, 97, 99, 101

Davison, A., 252 , 258, 261

Dawes, R. M., 26, 28, 405 , 416, 433 , 436, 686, 700

Dawis, R. V., 158, 164

Day, D. V., 448, 450, 614 , 628, 630

Day, L. J., 256, 259

Deakin, J. M., 14 , 15 , 60, 237, 238, 303 , 305 , 306,307, 309, 311, 316, 318, 474 , 478, 481, 483 , 485 ,486, 498, 499, 500, 503 , 601, 608, 693 , 698, 701,703 , 709, 714 , 721, 730, 741

Dealey, W. L., 697, 701

Deary, I. J., 32 , 37

Deblon, F., 641, 649

de Boishebert, 686, 703

Decortis, F., 208, 219

Deffenbacher, K. A., 186, 191, 200, 203 , 205 , 220, 244 ,245 , 260

Defries, J., 563 , 565

Degner, S., 458, 460, 468

de Groot, A. D., 11, 13 , 18, 23 , 28, 41, 44 , 49, 63 , 169,171, 182 , 226, 231, 232 , 238, 244 , 260, 305 , 316, 351,478, 484 , 523 , 525 , 527, 528, 529, 530, 535 , 569,583 , 598, 599, 608, 685 , 696, 701, 761,785

Dehaene, S., 556, 559, 563 , 566, 670, 675 , 678, 681

Deiber, M. P., 662 , 663 , 679

De Keyser, V., 208, 219, 369

Dekker, S. W. A., 143 , 199, 201, 208, 219

Delaney, P. F., 83 , 85 , 181, 182 , 237, 238, 239, 268,283 , 543 , 545 , 550, 593 , 598, 600, 608, 690, 701

Delazer, M., 560, 566

de Leeuw, N., 230, 238

Dell, G. S., 509, 517

Delp, N. D., 734 , 739

DeMaio, J. C., 180, 184 , 356, 357, 365 , 370

Demarco, G., 312 , 316

Dember, W. N., 429, 436

De Mille, A., 498, 501

Deming, W. E., 557, 567

Denes, G., 560, 567

Denison, J., 690, 701

Denney, N. W., 684 , 701

Dennis, M., 618, 622 , 630

Dennis, W., 324 , 326, 332

Derr, M. A., 510, 519, 729, 740

DeShon, R. P., 442 , 450

Desmond, J. E., 508, 517

D’Esposito, M., 63 , 662 , 664 , 667, 668, 677, 678, 680

Destrebecqz, A., 274 , 283

Detienne, F., 374 , 377, 385

Detre, J. A., 664 , 678

Detterman, D. K., 32 , 37, 725 , 738

Detweiler, M., 660, 663 , 676, 682

Devlin, J. T., 670, 681

De Volder, A., 554 , 563 , 567, 675 , 681

de Voogt, A., 524 , 536

Dewalt, B. R., 129, 143

Dewalt, K. M., 129, 143

Dewey, J., 626, 630

Dholakia, U. M., 435 , 436

d’Hondt, W., 533 , 536

Diamond, R., 676, 678

Diaper, D., 185 , 192 , 199, 200

DiBello, L. A., 374 , 375 , 377, 384

Dick, F., 674 , 682

Dickinson, T., 441, 453

Dickson, G. W., 381, 382 , 387

Dickson, M. W., 441, 451

Diderot, D., 6, 7, 8, 18, 203 , 219, 494 , 501

Didierjean, A., 532 , 535

Diedrich, F. J., 206, 215 , 221, 480, 484

Diener, E., 437

Diener, H. C., 508, 517

Dietz, T. M., 120, 121, 753 , 759

DiGirolamo, G. J., 273 , 283

Dingwall, R., 107, 109, 110, 121

Dinse, R., 465 , 470

Dippel, K., 746, 759

Disanto-Rose, M., 499, 501

Dise, M. L., 250, 260

Dissanayake, 476

Dixon, N. M., 624 , 630

Dixon, R. A., 648, 650, 736, 738

Dizio, P., 512 , 517

Djakow, I. N., 10, 18, 226, 238, 523 , 533 , 535

Djerassii, C., 91, 101

Doane, S. M., 248, 249, 259, 260, 261, 279, 280, 283 ,356, 357, 365 , 366, 368, 369, 371, 686, 701

Dobrin, D., 402

Dogan, M., 117, 121

Dogan, N., 401

Dolan, R. J., 555 , 566

Doll, J., 10, 18, 533 , 536

Domeshek, E. A., 405 , 411, 418

Dominowski, R. L., 230, 238

Donaldson, G., 591, 593 , 594 , 595 , 599, 609

Donaldson, M., 255 , 260

Donlan, C., 554–559, 566

Dougals, A., 451

Donoghue, J. P., 671, 682

Donoghue, L., 107, 121

Donohue, B. C., 671, 679

Dorner, D., 243 , 259

Dougherty, M. R. P., 431, 436

Dourish, P., 128, 13 1, 134 , 138, 143

Douthitt, R. A., 304 , 305 , 316

Doverspike, D., 163

Dow, R. S., 508, 518

Dowdy, D., 400

Down, J., 462 , 467

Doyle-Wilch, B., 501

Doyon, J., 671, 682

Dray, W., 571, 583

Drebot, M., 621, 625 , 629

Drevdahl, J. E., 305 , 316

Dreyfus, H. L., 12 , 18

Dreyfus, S. E., 12 , 18






796 author index

Driskell, J. E., 410, 416, 443 , 450

Drury, C. G., 187, 200

Druzgal, T. J., 662 , 680

Duarte, M., 514 , 520

Dubar, C., 106, 121

DuBois, D., 617, 630

Dubourdieu, D., 268, 283

Duda, J., 204 , 219, 716, 720

Duffy, L. J., 481, 484 , 693 , 701

Duffy, T., 400

Duguid, P., 623 , 629

Dumville, B. C., 443 , 452

Duncan, J., 356, 357, 360, 369, 518, 616,630

Duncan, K. D., 189, 199

Duncker, K., 41, 63 , 168, 182 , 224 , 238

Dunn, J. C., 26, 29, 476

Dunning, D., 57, 65

Dunsmore, H. E., 376, 385

Dupui, P., 500, 502

Duran, A. S., 51, 64

Durant, W., 73 , 74 , 85

Durkheim, E., 107, 110, 121

Durlach, N. I., 465 , 468

Duroux, B., 554 , 560, 564 , 567, 675 , 681

Durso, F. T., 15 , 52 , 99, 180, 184 , 248, 355 , 356, 357,364 , 365 , 366, 369, 370, 668, 673

Dutta, A., 19, 272 , 284 , 285

Dvorak, A., 697, 701

Dyer, J. L., 450

Eastman, R., 205 , 220

Easton, C., 458, 468

Ebbinghaus, H., 49, 63

Ebeling, C., 525 , 534

Eberhardt, J. L., 668, 679

Eccles, D. W., 203 , 206, 208, 221, 473 , 484

Edelman, G. M., 517

Edelman, S., 269, 284 , 669, 679

Eden, G. F., 670, 682

Edmondson, A. C., 444 , 446, 448, 450

Edwards, C. J., 555 , 566

Edwards, P., 476, 487

Edwards, W., 424 , 436

Egan, D. E., 50, 51, 63 , 172 , 179, 182

Egan, V., 32 , 37

Eggleston, R. G., 193 , 200

Ehn, P., 129, 130, 143

Ehrlich, K., 378, 386

Eid, J., 445 , 448, 449

Eilers, A. T., 176, 183

Eisenstadt, J. M., 327, 332

Eisenstadt, M., 47, 63 , 171, 182

Ekman, P., 493 , 502

Ekornas, B., 445 , 448, 449

Elander, J., 363 , 369

Elbert, T., 465 , 466, 468, 508, 517, 533 , 534 , 674 ,678, 695 , 701

Elchardus, M., 305 , 316

El Guindi, F., 130, 143

Elias, J. L., 71, 85

Elias, N., 118, 121

Elliott, D. H., 304 , 312 , 317, 476, 487

Elliott, L. R., 244 , 259

Ellis, H., 326, 332

Elm, W. C., 193 , 201, 208, 222

Elms, A. C., 320, 332

Elo, A. E., 21, 28, 319, 322 , 323 , 329, 330, 332 , 524 ,536, 735 , 738

Elstein, A. S., 26, 27, 44 , 46, 47, 63 , 88, 101, 351

Emanuel, T. W., 253 , 258, 262

Emery, F. E., 129, 143

Emery, L., 664 , 680

Emler, A. C., 405 , 415

Emslie, H., 616, 630

Endsley, M. R., 16, 47, 52 , 55 , 213 , 219, 248, 259, 364 ,366, 369, 406, 416, 633 , 634 , 635 , 638, 639, 641,642 , 644 , 645 , 646, 650, 651, 699, 733 , 769

Engbert, R., 727, 729, 733 , 734 , 739

Engel, S. A., 669, 678

Engelien, A., 465 , 470

Engelkamp, J., 496, 500, 501

Engelmore, R., 92 , 101

Engestrom, Y., 129, 135 , 143 , 144 , 753 , 759

Engle, R. W., 32 , 37, 50, 51, 63 , 64 , 732 , 738

Engstrom, R., 591, 593 , 594 , 595 , 599, 609

Ennis, R. H., 626, 630

Ensley, M. D., 443 , 446, 448, 451, 452

Entin, E. B., 244 , 259, 406, 418

Entin, E. E., 406, 418, 443 , 451

Epel, N., 400

Epstein, S. A., 5 , 18

Epstein, T., 576, 583

Epstein, W., 25 , 28

Erickson, K. I., 657, 664 , 665 , 666, 678

Ericson, M., 692 , 702

Ericsson, K. A., 3 , 4 , 10, 11, 12 , 13 , 14 , 16, 18, 19, 23 , 24 ,25 , 28, 31, 37, 41, 44 , 45 , 46, 47, 49, 50, 52 , 54 , 55 ,56, 57, 59, 60, 63 , 64 , 67, 70, 71, 75 , 83 , 85 , 87,96, 101, 105 , 168, 176, 177, 181, 182 , 183 , 191, 200,205 , 219, 223 , 224 , 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231,232 , 233 , 234 , 235 , 236, 237, 238, 239, 241, 244 ,248, 249, 251, 259, 261, 266, 279, 283 , 284 , 292 ,297, 300, 305 , 306, 307, 308, 311, 314 , 316, 317,321, 327, 332 , 349, 351, 360, 365 , 369, 370, 374 ,375 , 382 , 383 , 385 , 386, 400, 405 , 412 , 416, 427,431, 436, 458, 459, 460, 462 , 463 , 464 , 466, 468,469, 471, 472 , 475 , 479, 480, 481, 484 , 485 , 491,496, 501, 503 , 505 , 510, 517, 520, 526, 529, 531,532 , 536, 540, 541, 542 , 543 , 545 , 547, 550, 553 ,558, 560, 561, 562 , 564–565 , 566, 572 , 583 , 588,593 , 598, 599, 600, 601, 602 , 606, 608, 609, 613 ,614 , 630, 639, 643 , 646, 649, 650, 653 , 658, 659,667, 675 , 683 , 685 , 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691,692 , 693 , 694 , 695 , 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701,702 , 705 , 706, 708, 711, 712 , 718, 719, 720, 726,727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732 , 733 , 734 , 735 , 738,739, 744 , 748, 761, 766, 767, 768, 781, 785 ,786

Eriksen, 618

Erman, L., 92 , 101

Ernst, G., 42 , 64

Ernst, G. W., 11, 18

Eskridge, T., 212 , 218

Essig, M., 662 , 679

Estes, W. K., 591, 596, 608

Etelapelto, A., 379, 385

Etzioni, A., 108, 121

Etzioni-Halevy, E., 118, 119, 121

Euhus, D. M., 347, 353

Eva, K. W., 15 , 47, 55 , 235 , 250, 346, 349, 351

Evans, A. W., 215 , 219

Evans, D. A., 352 , 496, 503

Everett, W., 771, 778






author index 797

Evetts, J., 9, 15 , 105 , 107, 110, 111, 112 , 121, 614 , 628,746, 753 , 754 , 759

Eyferth, K., 378, 387

Eyrolle, H., 369

Eys, M. A., 448, 449

Facchini, S., 671, 681

Fagan, J. F., 592 , 608

Fagan, L. M., 89, 102

Fagerhaugh, S., 144

Fahey, J. L., 495 , 501

Fahle, M., 268, 269, 283 , 284

Faidiga, L., 672 , 681

Fajen, B. R., 515 , 517

Falk, G., 322 , 323 , 333

Falkenhainer, B., 180, 183

Fallesen, J. J., 410, 416

Faloon, S., 236, 239, 542 , 550

Farnsworth, P. R., 458, 468

Farquhar, A., 100, 103

Farr, B. R., 89, 102

Farr, M. J., 3 , 12 , 18, 23 , 27, 31, 37, 46, 63 , 95 , 101, 130,13 1, 142 , 244 , 259, 369, 412 , 416, 436, 686, 700

Farr, M. L., 205 , 219

Farrand, P., 363 , 370, 648, 650

Farrell, J. M., 275 , 276, 286

Farrow, D., 256, 260

Fassina, N. E., 383 , 386

Favart, M., 572 , 583

Fayol, M., 400

Fazio, F., 672 , 681

Fehr, T., 533 , 534

Feigenbaum, E. A., 12 , 14 , 43 , 48, 62 , 87, 90, 91, 99,101, 102 , 204 , 219

Feightner, J. W., 46, 47, 62 , 350, 352

Feldman, D. H., 291, 292 , 299, 300, 690, 702

Feldman, J., 87, 101

Fellander-Tsai, L., 250, 261

Felleman, D. J., 656, 678

Felt, U., 9, 15 , 105 , 744 , 746, 753

Feltovich, P. J., 3 , 12 , 14 , 17, 18, 23 , 25 , 27, 28, 29, 41,44 , 46, 51, 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56, 63 , 64 , 65 , 67, 76, 77,81, 83 , 86, 87, 89, 95 , 96, 100, 101, 105 , 13 1, 134 ,135 , 143 , 169, 172 , 174 , 175 , 177, 179, 180, 181, 182 ,183 , 204 , 205 , 219, 249, 260, 350, 351, 376, 384 ,385 , 406, 415 , 440, 450, 569, 583 , 614 , 639, 641,647, 653 , 658, 659, 667, 674 , 675 , 677, 708, 713 ,730, 735 , 743 , 750, 761, 763 , 765 , 759, 767, 786

Feltz, D. L., 159, 164

Fencsik, D. E., 59, 67, 277, 285

Fendrich, D. W., 276, 284

Ferguson, L. W., 163 , 164

Fernandes, C., 563 , 567

Ferrah-Caja, E., 593 , 594 , 611

Ferrari, M., 756, 759

Ferrer-Caja, E., 593 , 610

Ferris, G. R., 381, 385

Ferster, C. B., 45 , 64

Fetterman, D. M., 128, 143

Feyerabend, P., 119, 121

Fick, G. H., 350

Fiedler, K., 27, 30

Fielder, C., 4 , 18

Fiez, J. A., 508, 517

Filby, W. C. D., 708, 720

Fincher-Kiefer, R. H., 375 , 387

Finkel, D., 593 , 595 , 608

Fiore, S. M., 15 , 439, 444 , 450

Fischer, U., 445 , 452

Fischhoff, B., 244 , 260

Fisher, J. A., 362 , 370

Fishwick, R. J., 254 , 261

Fisk, A. D., 53 , 66, 526, 532 , 536, 659, 678

Fisk, J. E., 594 , 608

Fitts, P. M., 18, 47, 59, 60, 64 , 83 , 85 , 267, 271, 284 ,462 , 468, 475 , 485 , 512 , 513 , 517, 617, 630, 658,678, 684 , 694 , 702 , 725 , 738

Fitzgerald, J., 400

Fitzsimmons, C., 728, 740

Fitzsimmons, M. P., 6, 18

Fix, J. L., 435 , 436

Fix, V., 378, 387

Fiz, J. A., 464 , 468

Flanagan, D. P., 588, 590, 608, 610

Flanagan, J. C., 188, 189, 192 , 200

Flavell, J., 55 , 64

Fleck, 763 , 775

Fleishman, E. A., 32 , 37, 164 , 443 , 451, 725 , 738

Fletcher, R. H., 349, 350

Fleury, C., 471, 475 , 476, 485

Fleury, M., 475 , 485

Flin, R., 409, 416, 451

Flor, D. L., 706, 719

Flores, F., 405 , 419

Flower, L. S., 390, 400, 401

Flowers, D. L., 670, 682

Foley, M. A., 499, 501

Forbus, K. D., 46, 180, 183

Ford, G. C., 697, 701

Ford, J. K., 440, 453

Ford, K. M., 3 , 18, 23 , 24 , 28, 46, 64 , 95 , 101, 13 1, 134 ,135 , 143 , 178, 183 , 206, 207, 208, 211, 212 , 213 , 215 ,216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 385 , 748, 759, 760

Ford, P., 485

Forsberg, H., 696, 700

Forsman, L., 674 , 677, 696, 700

Forssberg, H., 662 , 674 , 677, 680

Forsyth, D. E., 204 , 219

Forsyth, E., 370

Forsythe, 615 , 616, 622

Forsythe, D. E., 95 , 97, 101, 128, 13 1, 133 , 143

Forsythe, G. B., 32 , 38, 615 , 616, 618, 622 , 623 , 630,631

Foster, S. L., 313 , 314 , 317

Fournier, V., 111, 112 , 113 , 121

Foushee, H. C., 445 , 451

Fox, K., 716, 720

Fox, L., 711, 720

Fox, P. T., 508, 519

Fox, P. W., 545 , 550

Fozard, J. L., 726, 737

Frackowiak, R.S.J., 508, 518, 548, 551, 564 , 567, 667,668, 673 , 674 , 679, 680

Francis, N. K., 348, 351

Frank, A., 533 , 536

Frankenberg, R., 305 , 317

Franks, A., 478, 486

Frederick, J. A., 304 , 317

Frederickson, B. L., 431, 436

Frederiksen, J. R., 278, 279, 284

Fredrick, J. A., 304 , 317

Freeark, R. J., 348, 353

Freedman, D. J., 669, 678

Freeman, C., 186, 200, 624 , 629






798 author index

Freeman, J. T., 295 , 301, 374 , 380, 386, 406, 416, 445 ,450

Frehlich, S. G., 256, 261, 476

Freidson, E., 106, 109, 110, 111, 112 , 114 , 121, 754 , 759

French, D., 363 , 369

French, K. E., 234 , 239, 473 , 474 , 479, 485 , 486

Frenkel, S., 107, 121

Frensch, P. A., 24 , 26, 29, 205 , 222 , 267, 284 , 349, 353

Frenzel, L. E., 103

Frey, P. W., 527, 536

Freyhoff, H., 527, 536

Friedel, 780, 781, 788

Friedland, R. P., 496, 501

Friedman, C. P., 27, 28, 234 , 238, 349, 351

Frieman, J., 540, 542 , 546, 552

Friesen, W. V., 493 , 502

Frith, C. D., 511, 516, 548, 551, 564 , 567, 673 , 680

Fritsch, T., 496, 501

Frohna, A. Z., 342 , 351

Frohring, W. R., 725 , 739

Fromkin, V. A., 509, 517

Frost, S. J., 670, 671, 681, 682

Frydman, M., 533 , 536

Fujigaki, Y., 382 , 385

Fukuyama, F., 754 , 759

Fulbright, R. K., 670, 682

Fulcomer, M., 305 , 317

Fulgente, T., 533 , 537

Furby, L., 163

Furey, M. L., 668, 677, 679

Furmanski, C. S., 669, 678

Futterman, A. D., 495 , 501

Gabrieli, J. D. E., 508, 517, 664 , 665 , 668, 671, 673 ,677, 679, 680, 681

Gadea, C., 106, 121

Gadian, D. G., 548, 551, 673 , 680

Gagne, R. M., 77, 78, 80, 82 , 85 , 201, 204 , 219, 226,228, 240

Gaines, B. R., 101, 102 , 204 , 219

Galanter, E., 41, 44 , 65 , 226, 240

Galbraith, O., 254 , 259

Gale, T., 247, 248, 262

Galer, I. A. R., 362 , 370

Gallagher, A. G., 255 , 260, 261

Gallagher, J., 472 , 482 , 483 , 487

Gallese, V., 672 , 678

Gallistel, C. R., 559, 566

Galton, F., 10, 18, 71, 224 , 225 , 240, 305 , 317, 321, 323 ,326, 327, 332 , 458, 468, 553 , 566, 684 , 685 , 702 ,724 , 738

Gammage, K., 710, 720

Gandolfo, F., 512 , 517

Gao, J. H., 508, 517

Garavan, H., 655 , 658, 660, 661, 662 , 678, 680

Garcia, T., 713 , 720

Garcia Caraballo, N. M., 662 , 679

Gardner, H., 34 , 37, 71, 77, 85 , 191, 200, 554 , 564 ,566, 626–627, 630, 632 , 756, 759, 769, 786

Gareau, L., 670, 682

Garhammer, M., 305 , 317

Garland, D., 641, 642 , 650

Garland, D. J., 478, 485

Garland, D. L., 213 , 219

Garling, T., 436, 437

Garner, W. L., 77, 85 , 618

Garnier, H., 323 , 333

Gaschnig, J., 204 , 219

Gaser, C., 465 , 468, 674 , 678, 695 , 702

Gathercole, S. E., 593 , 608

Gatz, M., 593 , 595 , 608

Gauthier, I., 508, 517, 667, 668, 676, 678, 682

Gauthier, J., 674 , 682

Gawel, R., 686, 702

Gazzaniga, M. S., 653 , 678

Geary, D. C., 563 , 566

Gecas, V., 756, 759

Gecht, M. R., 350

Geis, C. E., 446, 448, 450

Geisler, C., 401

Geiss, A., 348, 353

Geissler, P. W., 621, 632

Gellert, E., 178, 183

Gellman, L., 348, 353

Gelman, R., 559, 566

Gembris, H., 458, 468

Gentile, C. A., 399, 401

Gentner, D., 52 , 64 , 180, 183 , 205 , 219, 366, 370

Gerchak, Y., 327, 328, 332 , 532 , 535

Gernsbacher, M. A., 402

Gersick, C. J., 441, 451

Gesi, A. T., 276, 284

Getzels, J. W., 573 , 583

Gherardi, S., 623 , 628, 630

Giachino, A. A., 348, 353

Giacobbi, P. R., 710, 721

Giacomi, J., 138, 142

Gibson, E. J., 268, 284 , 514 , 517

Gibson, E. L., 97, 102

Gibson, G. J., 32 , 37

Gibson, J. J., 268, 284 , 480, 485 , 513 , 517

Giddens, A., 754 , 759

Gieryn, T., 114 , 122

Giesel, F. L., 662 , 679

Gil, G., 621, 625 , 629

Gilbreth, F., 187

Gilhooly, K. J.,24 , 28, 174 , 178, 181, 234 , 241, 559, 567

Gill, D. L., 716, 721

Gill, H. S., 564 , 567

Gill, R. T., 205 , 220

Gillis Light, J., 563 , 565

Gilmartin, K. J., 527, 538

Gilmore, R. O., 506, 519

Gingrich, K. F., 381, 384

Girard, N., 353

Girelli, L., 560, 566

Givon, T., 401

Gizzo, D. P., 313 , 314 , 317

Glaser, D. E., 672 , 677

Glaser, R., 3 , 12 , 17, 18, 23 , 24 , 27, 29, 31, 37, 44 , 45 ,46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66, 79,80, 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 95 , 101, 130, 13 1, 142 , 157, 163 ,169, 172 , 174 , 175 , 177, 179, 180, 181, 182 , 183 , 204 ,205 , 219, 220, 244 , 259, 287, 301, 305 , 316, 365 ,369, 370, 376, 384 , 406, 412 , 415 , 416, 436, 440,450, 569, 583 , 686, 694 , 700, 702 , 706, 720

Glass, J. M., 59, 67, 277, 285

Glass, R. L., 382 , 385

Glenberg, A. M., 25 , 28, 497, 502 , 506, 517

Glencross, D., 475 , 486

Glendon, A. I., 730, 742

Glickman, A. S., 441, 452

Glorieux, I., 305 , 316

Glover, G. H., 508, 517

Gluck, M. A., 673 , 681

Glynn, S. M., 401






author index 799

Gobbini, M. I., 667, 668, 677, 679

Gobet, F., 11, 16, 18, 19, 24 , 25 , 28, 31, 37, 44 , 49, 50,52 , 54 , 58, 60, 64 , 66, 168, 174 , 182 , 233 , 235 , 351,523 , 524 , 525 , 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532 ,533 , 535 , 536, 537, 538, 598, 600, 608, 693 , 696,769

Godbey, G., 304 , 318

Goel, A. K., 178, 183

Goel, V., 555 , 566

Goertzel, M. G., 327, 332

Goertzel, T. G., 327, 332

Goertzel, V., 327, 332

Goetz, E. T., 402

Goff, G. N., 32 , 38

Goff, M., 163

Goffman, E., 135 , 143 , 749, 759

Goh, J., 364 , 371

Golby, A. J., 668, 679

Gold, A., 532 , 533 , 538

Goldfield, E. C., 514 , 517

Goldiez, B., 243 , 260

Goldin, S. E., 528, 537

Goldman, A., 672 , 678

Goldman, L., 434 , 437

Goldman-Rakic, P. S., 664 , 665 , 677

Goldschmidt-Clearmont, L., 305 , 317

Goldsmith, L. T., 292 , 293 , 301

Goldsmith, T. E., 180, 184 , 356, 357, 365 , 370

Goldstein, I., 91, 101

Goldstone, R. L., 268, 284

Golen, S., 709, 712 , 720

Golomer, E., 500, 502

Gomez, G., 212 , 218

Gomez de Silva Garza, A., 178, 183

Gonzales, P., 746, 759

Gonzalez, A., 217

Good, C. D., 548, 551, 673 , 674 , 680

Good, R., 177, 184

Goodbody, S. J., 512 , 518

Goodeve, P. J., 517

Goodnow, J. J., 44 , 62

Goodstein, L. P., 144 , 208, 222

Goodwin, C., 52 , 65

Goodwin, G. F., 15 , 439, 441, 453

Goolsby, T. W., 465 , 468

Goossens, L., 549, 552

Gordon, C., 111, 121

Gordon, J., 96, 101

Gordon, P., 540, 551

Gordon, S. E., 205 , 211, 220

Gore, J. C., 508, 517, 664 , 665 , 667, 668, 676, 677,678, 681

Gorno-Tempini, M. L., 667, 668, 679

Gorry, G. A., 43 , 66

Gorter, S., 349, 353

Gossweiler, R., 514 , 519

Gott, S. P., 204 , 221

Gottfredson, L. S., 615 , 630

Gottlieb, R., 497, 502

Gottsdanker, R., 277, 284

Goudas, M., 716, 720

Gould, S. J., 691, 702

Goulet, C., 471, 475 , 476, 485

Govinderaj, T., 178, 183

Gowin, D. B., 222

Grace, D. M., 348, 351

Graf, P., 497, 503

Grafman, J., 533 , 537

Grafton, S. T., 662 , 663 , 679

Graham, D. J., 280, 283

Graham, J., 645 , 651

Graham, K. C., 234 , 239, 474 , 485

Graham, S., 245 , 259, 478, 483 , 709, 720

Grande, G. E., 370

Grand’Maison, P., 353

Granovetter, M. S., 118, 122 , 757, 759

Grape, C., 692 , 702

Gray, W. D., 176, 179, 183 , 244 , 253 , 260

Graydon, J. K., 708, 720

Grazioli, S., 235 , 240

Green, C., 48, 64

Green, A. J. F., 237, 240

Green, B. F. Jr., 33 , 38

Green, C., 24 , 28

Green, L., 459, 468

Green, M. L., 434 , 437

Greenbaum, J., 129, 130, 143

Greenberg, D., 710, 722

Greenberg, L., 205 , 220

Greene, T. R., 23 , 29, 47, 67, 375 , 387, 570, 578, 584

Greenwood, R., 106, 108, 122

Gregorich, S. E., 446, 448, 450

Grelon, A., 110, 122

Grey, C., 113 , 122

Grey, S. M., 187, 200

Grezes, J., 672 , 677

Grigorenko, E. L., 10, 19, 31, 32 , 38, 615 , 616, 618, 621,623 , 625 , 629, 631, 632

Grill-Spector, K., 668, 669, 679

Gritter, R. J., 91, 101

Grobe, C., 401

Grober, E. D., 348, 351, 353

Grocki, M. J., 513 , 519

Groeger, J. A., 370

Groen, G. J., 55 , 56, 64 , 66, 102 , 235 , 240, 251, 261,352

Gronlund, S. D., 364 , 366, 369

Gronn, P., 448, 450

Grossin, W., 305 , 317

Gross-Tsur, V., 563 , 567

Grotzer, T. A., 626, 630

Gruber, H. E., 16, 47, 59, 60, 287, 301, 457, 458, 460,464 , 468, 527, 532 , 533 , 536, 538, 673 , 693 , 769

Gruber, O., 554 , 566

Grudin, J. G., 509, 518

Grudowski, M., 709, 714 , 719, 720

Grue, N., 178, 183

Gruhn, W., 463 , 468

Gruppen, L. D., 342 , 351

Gruson, L. M., 461, 468, 698, 702

Gudagunti, R., 107, 122

Guerin, B., 378, 379, 385

Guha, R. V., 99, 102

Guilford, J. P., 158, 164

Gully, S. M., 441, 451

Gurfinkel, V. S., 514 , 516

Guskey, T. R., 78, 79, 85

Guskin, H., 490, 502

Gutenschwager, G. A., 305 , 317

Guttman, L., 164

Guzzo, R. A., 440, 441, 451

Guzzon, R., 450

Haber, L., 359, 360, 363 , 370

Haber, R. N., 359, 360, 363 , 370

Hackman, J. R., 439, 441, 443 , 451






800 author index

Haggard, P., 672 , 673 , 677, 679

Hah, S., 645 , 651

Hahn, S., 735 , 739

Haider, H., 251, 262 , 267, 284

Hajdukiewicz, J. R., 209, 210, 218

Hakata, K., 385

Hake, H. W., 618, 630

Hale, S., 726, 740

Hall, C., 500, 503 , 710, 720

Hall, C. R., 710, 721

Hall, E. R., 253 , 261

Hall, E. T., 130, 143

Hall, K. G., 506, 518

Hall, L. K., 602 , 607

Hall, R. H., 754 , 759

Hallam, S., 461, 467, 468, 712 , 720

Haller, C. R., 401

Hallett, M., 662 , 663 , 671, 674 , 679, 681

Halliday, T. C., 110, 122

Hallman, J. C., 757, 759

Halm, E. A., 349, 351

Halterman, J. A., 414 , 418

Haluck, R. S., 250, 260

Hamagami, F., 593 , 594 , 595 , 596, 610

Hambrick, D. Z., 51, 64 , 728, 732 , 735 , 738

Hamery, 714

Hamilton, A. F., 518

Hamilton, R. H., 548, 551

Hamilton, S. E., 533 , 535

Hammond, J. S., 424 , 436

Hammond, T., 99, 101

Hamstra, S. J., 15 , 47, 55 , 235 , 250, 348, 351, 352 , 353

Hancock, P. A., 12 , 15 , 46, 60, 78, 243 , 253 , 260, 693

Hanes, L. F., 207, 217, 220

Hanesian, H., 211, 218

Hanley, J. A., 353

Hanlon, G., 108, 111, 113 , 122

Hanna, E., 349, 350, 353

Hanna, G. B., 348, 351

Hannafin, M. J., 83 , 85

Hannan, M. T., 326, 332 , 754 , 758

Hansson, L.-O., 692 , 702

Harasym, P. H., 350

Haraway, D., 117, 122

Harbison-Briggs, K., 204 , 221

Hardingham, C., 256, 260

Hardy, G. H., 561, 566

Hardy, J., 710, 720

Hardy, L., 708, 720

Harel, M., 668, 669, 680

Hargreaves, D., 462 , 468

Harlow, H. F., 592 , 608

Haro, M., 464 , 468

Harper, R. H. R., 128, 129, 133 , 134 , 135 , 136, 137, 142 ,143

Harris, M. B., 711, 712 , 719

Harris, M. S., 532 , 536

Harris, R. J., 493 , 497, 503

Harris, S., 563 , 567

Harrison, C., 735 , 739

Harrison, S., 106, 122

Hart, A., 207, 220

Hart, P., 204 , 219

Hartel, C., 448, 452

Harter, N., 11, 12 , 17, 225 , 238, 266, 267, 282 , 283 ,474 , 484 , 509, 510, 517, 685 , 689, 700

Hartley, A. A., 736, 738

Hartley, J., 401

Hartley, T., 548, 551, 673 , 674 , 675 , 679, 680

Harvey, A. S., 14 , 15 , 60, 303 , 304 , 305 , 312 , 317, 318,693 , 714

Harvey, N., 437

Harwood, E., 595 , 608

Hashem, A., 27, 28, 349, 351

Hasher, L., 726, 738

Haskins, M. J., 245 , 260

Haslam, I., 500, 503

Haslett, T. K., 734 , 739

Hassebrock, F., 51, 64 , 351

Hastie, R., 433 , 437

Hatakenaka, S., 444 , 450

Hatala, R. M., 346, 352

Hatano, G., 26, 28, 53 , 64 , 249, 260, 377, 378, 383 ,385 , 440, 451

Hauser, M., 555 , 566

Hausmann, R. G. M., 21, 27, 177, 182

Hautamaki, J., 618, 631

Hauxwell, B., 256, 261

Hawkins, H. L., 727, 739

Hawkins, K., 110, 122

Hawkins, R. P., 313 , 314 , 317

Haxby, J. V., 656, 667, 668, 677, 679

Hay, J., 481, 484

Hayes, A., 305 , 306, 307, 309, 311, 318, 481, 486, 693 ,703 , 709, 721, 730, 741

Hayes, J. R., 55 , 64 , 222 , 305 , 317, 324 , 327, 332 , 390,400, 401, 462 , 468, 689, 702 , 761, 768, 769, 771,786

Hayes, P. J., 748, 760

Hayes-Roth, F., 92 , 96, 101, 191, 200, 204 , 220, 222

Hays, R. T., 253 , 260

Hazeltine, E., 277, 284 , 662 , 663 , 679

He, S., 533 , 534

Healy, A. F., 276, 279, 281, 283 , 284 , 285

Heaney, C., 348, 353

Hearn, A. C., 90, 102

Hearst, E. S., 233 , 238, 529, 531, 535

Heath, C., 130, 138, 144

Heathcote, A., 267, 284

Hebb, D. O., 508, 518

Hecaen, H., 560, 566

Hecht, H., 26, 28

Heckerling, P. S., 26, 27

Heckhausen, J., 547, 551

Hedehus, M., 671, 680

Hedgecock, A. P., 180, 182

Hedges, L. V., 563 , 565

Hedlund, J., 32 , 38, 615 , 616, 618, 622 , 623 , 629, 630,631

Hedman, L., 250, 261

Heffner, T. S., 618, 621, 622 , 630

Heggestad, E. D., 158, 159, 160, 163

Heiden, C., 625 , 629

Heider, F., 750, 751, 759

Hein, M. B., 443 , 451

Helmholtz, H., von, 511, 518

Helmreich, R. L., 253 , 260, 446, 448, 450

Helsen, W. F., 255 , 260, 471, 475 , 476, 477, 478, 485 ,487, 693 , 702

Helton, W. S., 429, 436

Hemory, D., 712 , 720

Hempel, A., 662 , 679

Hempel, C., 571, 583

Hempel, W. E., Jr., 155 , 164






author index 801

Henderson, A., 130, 144

Henderson, R. D., 237, 240

Henderson, S. M., 409, 410, 411, 415 , 417, 445 , 452

Hendler, T. J., 99, 101, 668, 669, 679, 680

Henmon, V. A. C., 370

Henry, J., 401

Henry, R. A., 725 , 739

Heppenheimer, T. A., 776, 777, 778, 786

Herath, P., 664 , 665 , 679

Herbert, M., 348, 353

Heritage, J., 128, 13 1, 133 , 143

Hermelin, B., 463 , 470, 557, 567

Herodotus, 570, 583

Hershey, D. A., 598, 599, 601, 602 , 609, 611, 728, 741

Hershey, J. C., 424 , 436

Hertzog, C., 726, 738

Herzog, H., 616, 630

Hesketh, B., 384 , 385

Hickox, J., 250, 253 , 260

Higgins, M. P., 349, 352

Higgins, R. C., 434 , 436

Higgins, T. J., 253 , 260

Higgs, A. C., 448, 450

Hikosaka, O., 672 , 681

Hilgard, E. R., 265 , 283

Hill, G., 212 , 218

Hill, J. R., 83 , 85

Hill, L., 699, 702

Hill, N. M., 16, 53 , 54 , 59, 588, 597, 641, 653 , 665 ,679, 685 , 695 , 769

Hindmarsh, J., 130, 138, 144

Hinds, P. J., 26, 28

Hinsley, D., 55 , 64

Hinsz, V. B., 443 , 451

Hinton, S. C., 465 , 470

Hiremath, S. L., 107, 122

Hirst, G., 448, 452

Hirst, W., 53 , 67

Hirtle, S. C., 51, 65 , 379, 386

Hitch, G. J., 661, 677

Hitt, J. M., 215 , 219

Hittmair-Delazer, M., 560, 567

Hlustik, P., 674 , 682

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., 177, 180, 183

Hobus, P. P. M., 26, 28, 349, 352

Hoc, J.-M., 205 , 220

Hochstein, S., 666, 677

Hochwarter, W. A., 381, 385

Hodges, N. J., 16, 47, 60, 234 , 237, 241, 251, 257, 261,262 , 305 , 306, 307, 309, 311, 317, 318, 471, 472 ,481, 485 , 486, 487, 501, 636, 693 , 702 , 703 , 709,715 , 721, 730, 741, 770

Hoerning, E., 756, 759

Hofer, S. M., 595 , 609

Hoffman, E. A., 667, 668, 679

Hoffman, R. R., 3 , 12 , 15 , 18, 22 , 23 , 25 , 28, 45 , 46, 60,64 , 65 , 94 , 95 , 97, 100, 101, 102 , 128, 13 1, 134 , 135 ,143 , 164 , 170, 173 , 176, 178, 180, 183 , 185 , 186, 191,192 , 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203 , 204 , 205 , 206,207, 208, 209, 211, 212 , 214 , 215 , 216, 217, 218, 219,220, 221, 231, 236, 240, 244 , 245 , 260, 356, 361,370, 374 , 384 , 385 , 404 , 405 , 407, 412 , 414 , 416,417, 625 , 686, 702 , 738, 743 , 745 , 759

Hogan, B., 712 , 720

Hohlfeld, M., 530, 537

Holding, D. H., 528, 529, 537, 599, 609

Holland, J. L., 158, 164

Hollingshead, A. B., 753 , 759

Hollnagel, E., 185 , 188, 192 , 199, 200, 205 , 208, 220,221

Holmes, G., 508, 518

Holste, S. T., 406, 417

Holsti, O., 580, 583

Holtmann, S., 251, 262

Holtzblatt, K., 129, 142

Holyoak, K. J., 59, 64 , 378, 385 , 764 , 785

Hommel, B., 272 , 285 , 511, 518

Honda, M., 549, 552 , 662 , 663 , 679

Honzik, M. P., 164

Horgan, D. D., 533 , 537

Horn, J. L., 10, 16, 21, 29, 32 , 37, 49, 71, 587, 591, 592 ,593 , 594 , 595 , 596, 599, 600, 603 , 609, 610, 611,613 , 616, 617, 630, 708, 724 , 725 , 728, 736, 739,740, 769

Horowitz, D. M., 465 , 468

Horswill, M. S., 363 , 370, 371, 648, 650

Horvath, J. A., 32 , 38, 615 , 616, 617, 618, 622 , 623 ,630, 631, 632

Horwitz, B., 671, 679

Horwitz, W. A., 557, 567

Houben, H., 349, 353

Houillier, S., 560, 566

Houston, P. L., 347, 352

Houtsma, A. J., 465 , 468

Howard, A., 33 , 37

Howard, D. V., 275 , 284

Howard, J. H., 275 , 284

Howard, R. W., 532 , 537

Howe, M. J. A., 10, 18, 305 , 318, 459, 461, 468, 470,692 , 703 , 725 , 739

Howe, S. R., 429, 436

Howell, C., 641, 642 , 650

Howes, A., 528, 537, 598, 599, 610

Hoyles, C., 553 , 567

Hu, X., 533 , 534

Huang, Y. X., 548, 551, 565 , 567, 703

Hubbard, J. P., 254 , 260

Hughes, E. C., 107, 122

Hughes, J., 237, 240

Hughes, K. M., 657, 680

Hughes, M., 261

Hulin, C. L., 725 , 739

Humphreys, L. G., 164

Hunt, E. B., 14 , 18, 31, 33 , 37, 45 , 162 , 164 , 236, 240,540, 541, 551

Hunter, I. M. L., 540, 542 , 551, 554 , 560, 561, 567

Hunter, J. E., 24 , 28, 33 , 38, 174 , 178, 181, 431, 436,616, 617, 630, 631, 691, 702 , 724 , 741

Huntley, G. W., 671, 679

Hutchins, E., 13 1, 143 , 205 , 208, 221

Hutchinson, J., 167, 180, 182

Hutchison, C., 350

Hutton, R. J. B., 187, 201, 216, 221, 413 , 414 , 416, 418

Huys, R., 472 , 476, 477, 480, 484 , 485 , 516

Hyland, K., 394 , 401

Ibanez, V., 662 , 663 , 679

Icher, F., 74 , 85

Ignaki, K., 249, 260

Ilgen, D. R., 440, 451

Ille, A., 499, 502

Imhof, K., 120, 122

Imreh, G., 237, 238, 461, 463 , 467, 698, 700

Inagaki, K., 26, 28, 377, 378, 383 , 385 , 440, 451






802 author index

Indefrey, P., 554 , 566

Ingham, J. G., 544 , 551

Ingvar, M., 548, 550, 551

Intons-Peterson, M. J., 491, 502

Iscoe, N., 380, 382 , 385

Ishai, A., 656, 667, 668, 677, 679

Israel, P., 779, 780, 788

Itzchak, Y., 669, 679

Ivancic, K., 384 , 385

Ivory, M. Y., 376, 384

Ivry, R., 465 , 469, 662 , 663 , 679, 727, 739

Ivry, R. B., 277, 284 , 508, 518, 653 , 678

Ivry, R. I., 275 , 283 , 513 , 517

Iyengar, S., 374 , 386

Jack, R., 471, 475 , 487

Jackson, S., 527, 532 , 536

Jacobs, D. M., 472 , 477, 480, 484 , 516

Jacobs, J. W., 253 , 260

Jacobsen, R. B., 664 , 665 , 677

Jacobson, M. J., 83 , 86, 415 , 416

Jacoby, L. L., 274 , 284

Jacoby, S., 746, 759

Jacott, L., 576, 582

Jakimowicz, J., 251, 261

Jakobovits, L. A., 43 , 64

Jamal, K., 235 , 240

James, W., 518, 766, 786

Jamison, K. R., 327, 332

Jancke, L., 464 , 469, 548, 551, 565 , 567, 674 , 679,703

Janelle, C. M., 477, 484

Jansen, C., 515 , 519

Jansen, P. J., 530, 532 , 536

Jansma, J. M., 53 , 64 , 660, 661, 679

Jaques, E., 758, 759

Jarvi, K. A., 347, 351

Jarvin, L., 621, 625 , 629

Jasanoff, S., 755 , 759

Jastrzembski, T., 524 , 535

Jax, S. A., 16, 47, 505 , 636, 666

Jean, J., 499, 502

Jeannerod, M., 509, 518

Jeffries, R., 54 , 64 , 373 , 375 , 376, 377, 385

Jeffs, T., 71, 85

Jenkins, I., 508, 518

Jenner, A. R., 671, 681

Jensen, A. R.,32 , 37, 164 , 556, 567, 591, 609, 616, 630

Jensen, R. S., 641, 651

Jentsch, F., 215 , 219

Jeong, H., 177, 182

Jeyarajah, D. R., 347, 353

Jezzard, P., 653 , 657, 662 , 663 , 671, 679, 680

Jiang, H., 668, 680

Jiang, Y., 664 , 679

Jiwanji, M., 352

Jodlowski, M. T., 248, 249, 259, 260

Johnsen, B. H., 445 , 448, 449

Johnson, A., 129, 143 , 313 , 317

Johnson, D. M., 176, 179, 183

Johnson, E. J., 13 , 17, 26, 28, 425 , 433 , 436, 437, 686,700

Johnson, J. G., 410, 416

Johnson, K., 176, 183

Johnson, P. E., 51, 54 , 55 , 64 , 235 , 240, 351, 400

Johnson, S., 71, 72 , 85 , 393 , 395 , 401

Johnson, T., 109, 122

Johnson-Laird, P. N., 48, 67

Johnsrude, I. S., 548, 551, 673 , 680

John-Steiner, V., 401

Johnston, J., 410, 416

Johnston, J. C., 276, 277, 278, 285 , 286

Johnston, J. H., 449, 453

Johnston, N., 215 , 221

Johston, F. E., 688, 703

Jolicœur, P., 277, 286

Jolles, J., 593 , 611

Jones, C. M., 245 , 260

Jones, D. B., 347, 353

Jones, D. G., 634 , 641, 646, 650, 651

Jones, G., 64 , 527, 536

Jones, M. B., 155 , 164

Jones, R. T., 711, 720

Jones, S., 548, 550, 551

Jongman, R. W., 525 , 537

Jordan, B., 130, 135 , 143 , 144

Jordan, W. C., 73 , 85

Jorgensen, H., 460, 469

Josephs, O., 667, 668, 679

Joyce, C.R.B., 627, 629

Juda, A., 327, 333

Judd, C. M., 728, 740

Jung, D. I., 446, 451

Just, M. A., 662 , 664 , 678, 680

Juster, F. T., 304 , 305 , 317

Kaas, J. H., 508, 518

Kaempf, G. L., 192 , 201

Kahn, R., 53 , 64 , 81, 85

Kahn, R. S., 660, 661, 679

Kahneman, D., 33 , 37, 93 , 96, 103 , 404 , 405 , 409,416, 418, 425 , 437

Kaigas, T. B., 349, 350

Kalakoski, V., 531, 537, 547, 551

Kalish, M., 512 , 518

Kaminaya, T., 549, 552

Kandel, E. R., 508, 518

Kane, M. J., 32 , 37

Kanfer, R., 158, 160, 161, 163 , 164

Kanki, B. G., 445 , 451

Kant, I., 155 , 164 , 729, 737, 741

Kanwisher, N., 518, 667, 668, 680, 682

Kaplan, C. A., 224 , 241

Kapur, N., 547, 548, 551, 667, 668, 679

Karabenek, S. A., 711, 720

Kardash, C. M., 174 , 175 , 183

Kareev, Y., 47, 63 , 171, 182 , 350

Karim, J., 235 , 240

Karlson, J. L., 327, 333

Karmiloff-SmithKarni, A., 269, 284 , 657, 662 , 663 , 667, 671, 680,

682

Karniol, R., 709, 720

Karpik, L., 110, 122

Karpov, A., 233 , 240

Kasai, K., 602 , 603 , 609

Kasan, L., 291, 301

Kasarskis, P., 250, 253 , 260

Kassirer, J. P., 43 , 66, 102

Katsumata, H., 514 , 520

Katz, D., 81, 85

Katz, L., 670, 671, 681, 682

Kauffman, W. H., 463 , 469

Kaufman,






author index 803

Kaufman, A. S., 593 , 595 , 609, 726, 739

Kaufman, D. R., 24 , 29

Kaufmann, D. R., 52 , 66, 235 , 240

Kausler, D. H., 594 , 609, 611

Kay, B. A., 514 , 517

Kayes, C. D., 446, 451

Kazanas, H. C., 81, 86

Keating, D. P., 555 , 565

Keating, T., 715 , 719

Keck, J. W., 348, 352

Keele, S. W., 273 , 275 , 283 , 465 , 469, 508, 513 , 517,518, 727, 739

Keeney, R. L., 424 , 434 , 436

Kellaghan, T., 32 , 37

Keller, E. F., 117, 122

Keller, F. S., 225 , 240

Keller, R., 405 , 416

Keller, T. A., 664 , 680

Kelley, R., 380, 385

Kellogg, R. T., 15 , 44 , 60, 235 , 389, 401, 693

Kelly, A. M. C., 655 , 658, 660, 661, 680

Kelly, B. C., 443 , 451

Kelso, J. A. S., 514 , 520

Kelso, M. T., 495 , 502

Kemeny, M. E., 495 , 501

Kemper, K., 356, 357, 364 , 366, 367, 371, 445 , 453

Kendall, D., 442 , 450

Kennedy, C., 496, 502

Kennedy, W. A., 668, 680

Kennet, J., 575 , 580, 583 , 584

Kenny, S., 510, 519, 729, 740

Kent, P., 553 , 567

Keren, G., 405 , 416

Kerlirzin, Y., 476, 486

Kernodle, M., 479, 486

Kerr, T., 481, 485 , 487, 518

Keys, W., 563 , 567

Khatwa, R., 253 , 260

Kida, T., 405 , 418, 433 , 437

Kiekel, P. A., 446, 450

Kieras, D. E., 59, 65 , 67, 191, 200, 277, 285 , 663 , 666,676, 681

Kiker, D. S., 734 , 737

Killackey, H. P., 508, 518

Kilner, P., 624 , 630

Kim, J. S., 665 , 678

Kim, N. S., 342 , 352

Kimball, D. R., 378, 385

Kimball, H. R., 352

King, J., 91, 101

Kingberg, T., 664 , 665 , 679

Kingston, K. M., 708, 720

Kinsley, B., 304 , 317

Kintsch, W., 11, 18, 25 , 28, 50, 52 , 54 , 56, 63 , 64 , 232 ,233 , 235 , 239, 248, 249, 259, 260, 262 , 352 , 401,431, 436, 463 , 468, 496, 501, 526, 529, 536, 547,550, 558, 560, 564 , 566, 572 , 583 , 588, 598, 599,600, 608, 686, 696, 701, 711, 720, 726, 738

Kirby, I. K., 24 , 28

Kirk, E. P., 59, 63

Kirkpatrick, A. E., 251, 260

Kirlik, A., 628, 631

Kirschenbaum, D. S., 712 , 720

Kirsner, K., 26, 29, 266, 286

Kirwan, B., 185 , 200

Kiss, I., 424 , 436

Kite, K., 356, 357, 364 , 366, 367, 371, 445 , 453

Kitsantas, A., 707, 708, 709, 711, 712 , 713 , 714 , 716,717, 720, 722

Kivlighan, D. M., 174 , 175 , 183

Kjellin, A., 250, 261

Klahr, D., 205 , 208, 221

Klahr, P., 99, 101

Klapp, S. T., 509, 518

Klatzky, R. L., 432 , 438, 686, 701

Klaus, D. J., 80, 85

Klausmeier, H. J., 79, 85

Klein, D. E., 200

Klein, G. A., 15 , 23 , 28, 33 , 37, 46, 52 , 54 , 56, 64 , 65 ,97, 102 , 138, 170, 171, 173 , 176, 182 , 183 , 187, 192 ,198, 199, 200, 201, 205 , 206, 209, 212 , 216, 217, 219,220, 221, 243 , 244 , 261, 363 , 367, 370, 371, 374 ,380, 386, 403 , 404 , 405 , 406, 407, 408, 410, 411,412 , 413 , 414 , 415 , 416, 417, 418, 419, 422 , 426, 430,433 , 436, 437, 438, 441, 442 , 444 , 445 , 450, 451,452 , 453 , 529, 535 , 637, 639, 640, 650, 736, 745 ,759

Kleine, B. M., 383 , 386

Kleinman, D. L., 443 , 451

Kleinschmidt, A., 554 , 566

Kliegl, R., 547, 549, 550, 551, 724 , 727, 729, 733 ,734 , 739, 740

Klimoski, R., 443 , 451

Kline, D. A., 444 , 451

Kling, R., 13 1, 144

Klingberg, T., 662 , 664 , 665 , 671, 677, 680, 681

Klinger, D. W., 413 , 417, 419

Klopfer, D., 23 , 29, 44 , 53 , 65 , 172 , 181, 183

Kneebone, R., 255 , 260

Kneeland, H., 304 , 317

Knights, D., 305 , 317

Knopf, M., 736, 739

Knorr-Cetina, K. D., 116, 122 , 205 , 206, 208, 221

Knowles, J. M., 246, 247, 252 , 256, 257, 258, 262 ,477, 488, 697, 703

Kobatake, E., 669, 680

Kobbeltvedt, T., 445 , 448, 449

Kobus, D. A., 406, 417

Koehler, D. J., 437

Koeske, R., 175 , 176, 182

Kofler, M., 671, 681

Koh, K., 512 , 518

Kohl, J., 480, 484

Kohn, L. T., 255 , 260

Kolabinska, M., 119, 122

Kolb, B., 657, 680, 695 , 702

Kolodner, J., 92 , 102

Kolodny, J., 616, 630

Koltanowski, G., 233 , 240, 599, 609

Komarovsky, M., 304 , 317

Konijn, E. A., 495 , 502

Koning, P., 234 , 238, 478, 483

Kooman, J. P., 353

Koonce, J. M., 253 , 261

Koopman, P., 215 , 221

Kopelman, M., 557, 566

Kopiez, R., 458, 460, 464 , 469

Korczynski, M., 107, 121

Kording, K. P., 512 , 518

Koriat, A., 497, 502

Kornblum, S., 271, 284 , 512 , 519

Korotkin, A. L., 443 , 451

Koschmann, T. D., 52 , 65

Koslowski, B., 598, 599, 607






804 author index

Koss, E., 496, 501

Kotovsky, K., 205 , 221

Koubek, R. J., 376, 378, 381, 382 , 383 , 385

Kozbelt, A., 21, 29, 770, 771, 786

Kozlowski, S. W., 440, 441, 451, 453

Kozlowski, W. J., 441, 442 , 450

Kramer, A. F., 249, 259, 362 , 369, 602 , 609, 657, 664 ,665 , 666, 678, 735 , 739

Kramer, J. J., 549, 550

Krampe, R. T., 14 , 16, 18, 23 , 28, 31, 34 , 37, 45 , 60, 64 ,235 , 237, 251, 259, 292 , 297, 300, 305 , 306, 307,308, 311, 316, 317, 348, 369, 370, 375 , 383 , 385 ,386, 400, 427, 436, 459, 460, 462 , 468, 469, 472 ,480, 485 , 532 , 533 , 534 , 535 , 561, 562 , 566, 598,600, 601, 602 , 607, 608, 609, 613 , 630, 657, 683 ,686, 689, 691, 692 , 693 , 695 , 697, 699, 700, 701,702 , 705 , 720, 723 , 724 , 726, 727, 728, 729, 730,731, 732 , 733 , 734 , 735 , 736, 738, 739, 742

Krasner, H., 380, 382 , 385

Krause, E. A., 5 , 6, 18

Krems, J. F., 379, 386

Krivine, J.-P., 204 , 219

Kroeber, A. L., 327, 333

Krogius, N., 305 , 317

Kroll, J. F., 510, 518

Kruger, J., 57, 65

Krumpat, E., 648, 650

Kubeck, J. E., 734 , 739

Kuiper, R., 57, 65

Kulatanga-Moruzi, C., 352

Kulik, C.-L., 79, 85

Kulik, J. A., 79, 85

Kulikowski, C. A., 96, 103 , 405 , 419

Kuncel, N. R., 443 , 450

Kurtzberg, T. R., 435 , 436

Kurz-Milcke, E., 752 , 760

Kushnir, T., 669, 679

Kwong, K. K., 668, 680

Kyllonen, P. C., 32 , 37, 38

Kyne, M. M., 406, 413 , 416, 419

Kyng, M., 129, 130, 143

Laberg, J. C., 445 , 448, 449

Labouvie, G. V., 725 , 739

Lachman, R., 106, 122

Lackner, J. R., 512 , 517

LaFrance, M., 206, 221

Lagemann, E. C., 76, 81, 82 , 85

Laine, T., 532 , 537

Lajoie, S., 205 , 220

Lamb, S. B., 349, 350, 352

Lamme, V., 57, 65

Lamonica, J. A., 356, 357, 367, 368, 370

L’Amour, L., 397, 401

Lance, C. E., 614 , 630

Landau, E., 776, 786

Landau, S. M., 662 , 680

Landauer, T. K., 506, 518

Landerl, K., 555 , 556, 567

Lane, C. J., 593 , 609

Lane, D. M., 527, 530, 535 , 600, 607

Lane, P. C. R., 64 , 527, 536

Lang, N., 671, 677

Lange, I., 380, 386

Langer, E. J., 751, 759

Langner, J., 464 , 469

LaPorte, T. R., 448, 451

Larkin, G., 109, 122

Larkin, J. H., 24 , 29, 44 , 65 , 88, 102 , 406, 417, 569,583 , 614 , 630

Larsen, R., 401

Larson, K. B., 305 , 317

Larson, M. S., 109, 122

Larsson, M., 593 , 606

Lashley, K. S., 509, 518

Lassila, O., 99, 101

Lassiter, G. D., 529, 537

Latham, G. O., 383 , 386

Latham, G. P., 383 , 386, 708, 709, 712 , 720

Latour, B., 116, 122

Lauber, E. J., 59, 67, 277, 285

Lauterbach, B., 513 , 520

LaVancher, C., 230, 238

Lave, J., 127, 13 1, 144 , 205 , 221, 405 , 417, 624 , 628,630, 757, 759

Laverty-Finch, C., 313 , 314 , 317

Law, B., 251, 260

Law, L.-C., 379, 386

Law, M., 693 , 700

Lawton, M. P., 305 , 317, 318

Lay, B. S., 657, 680

Laycock, Z. R., 347, 353

Leahey, T. H., 265 , 284

Leake, D. B., 92 , 102

Leavitt, J., 513 , 518

LeBaron, C., 52 , 65

LeBold, W. K., 376, 385

Leckie, P. A., 400

Ledden, P. J., 668, 680

Lederberg, J., 90, 91, 101, 102 , 204 , 219

Lederman, R., 465 , 467

Lee, C., 349, 351

Lee, D. N., 480, 485

Lee, K., 396, 398

Lee, J. R., 671, 681

Lee, J.-W., 271, 284 , 426, 438

Lee, T. A., 475 , 486

Lee, T. D., 273 , 285 , 474 , 479, 485 , 486, 505 , 519

Lefever, A., 250, 260

LeGoff, J., 72 , 85

Legree, P. J., 618, 621, 622 , 630

Lehman, D. R., 431, 437

Lehman, H. C., 320, 321, 322 , 323 , 324 , 325 , 326,329, 330, 333

Lehmann, A. C., 4 , 10, 13 , 16, 18, 25 , 28, 47, 57, 59,60, 64 , 231, 233 , 236, 239, 382 , 385 , 457, 458, 459,460, 461, 462 , 463 , 464 , 466, 468, 469, 572 , 583 ,588, 601, 608, 649, 650, 673 , 686, 687, 688, 689,690, 693 , 696, 701, 702 , 727, 732 , 733 , 738, 739,769

Lehner, P. E., 426, 437

Lehrer, J., 711, 713 , 720

Leibowitz, L., 230, 240

Leighton, P., 52 , 67

Leijenhorst, H., 199, 201

Leiner, A. L., 508, 518

Leiner, H. C., 508, 518

Leinhardt, G., 570, 573 , 574 , 583

Leirer, V., 728, 740

Lemaire, P., 24 , 29

Lemay, J. A. L., 401

Lemeignan, M., 495 , 502

Lemieux, M., 350

Lemon, M. C., 571, 583






author index 805

Lemons, D., 624 , 625 , 629

Lenat, D. B., 99, 101, 102 , 191, 200, 204 , 220

Leonardelli, G. J., 435 , 437

Leont’ev, A. N., 144

Lepage, M., 664 , 676, 680

Lepsien, 666

Lerner, A. J., 496, 501

Lerner, R., 119, 122 , 757, 759

Lerner, Y., 668, 669, 680

Lesgold, A. M., 23 , 29, 44 , 53 , 54 , 65 , 66, 13 1, 172 ,181, 183 , 192 , 205 , 200, 204 , 220

Lesser, E. L., 623 , 624 , 625 , 631

Lesser, V., 92 , 101

Levelt, W., 400

Levenson, R. W., 493 , 502

Leventhal, L. M., 379, 387

Levin, K. Y., 443 , 451

Levin, S. G., 322 , 335

Levine, L. W., 576, 583

Levitt, E. J., 254 , 260

Levy, J., 277, 285

Lewandowsky, S., 26, 29, 512 , 518

Lewis, P., 107, 121

Lewis, S., 615 , 631

Leyden, G., 533 , 538

Li, J., 626–627, 632

Li, S. J., 662 , 678

Libby, R., 618, 621, 622 , 632

Lien, M.-C., 277, 285

Lighten, J. P., 599, 610

Lightfoot, N., 269, 270, 286

Liker, J. K., 435 , 436

Lim, V., 466, 469

Lima, S. D., 726, 740

Lindauer, M. S., 326, 333

Lindberg, E., 436, 437

Linden, A., 508, 517

Lindenberger, U., 724 , 728, 733 , 734 , 740, 741

Lindley, S., 256, 261, 498, 499, 500, 503

Lindsay, R. K., 90, 102

Linssen, G. C. M., 599, 610

Lintern, G., 12 , 15 , 45 , 60, 94 , 100, 176, 191, 192 , 196,200, 203 , 206, 209, 215 , 221, 253 , 261, 361, 370,407, 625 , 738

Linton, P., 393 , 395 , 401

Lipman, M., 626, 631

Lipner, R. S., 352

Lipshitz, R., 404 , 405 , 406, 410, 414 , 417, 441, 445 ,450, 451, 452

Lishman, J. R., 480, 485

Litsky, F., 709, 720

Liu, Y-T., 514 , 519

Livingstone, E. A., 72 , 73 , 74 , 84

Lloyd, S. J., 526, 532 , 536

Locke, E. A., 383 , 386, 708, 709, 712 , 720

Loehr, J. E., 710, 720

Loewenstein, G., 434 , 437

Lofquist, L. H., 158, 164

Logan, D., 205 , 220

Logan, G. D., 53 , 65 , 267, 268, 285 , 507, 518

Logie, R. H., 174 , 178, 181, 559, 567

Logothetis, N. K., 508, 518, 669, 677, 680, 682

Lohman, D. F., 164

Lomax, A. J., 251, 260

Londerlee, B. R., 256, 261

Longwell, D., 490, 502

Lopez-Manjon, A., 576, 582

Loren, T., 498, 502

Lorenz, K., 130, 144

Lott, J., 212 , 218

Lott, R. B., 511, 519

Lotze, R. H., 518

Louca, F., 186, 200

Love, T., 236, 240, 540, 541, 551

Lowe, A., 106, 109, 121

Lowenthal, D., 576, 583

Lowry, K., 472 , 482 , 483 , 487

Loyens, S. M., 353

Lozito, S., 445 , 451

Lu, C.-H., 272 , 285

Lubinski, D., 34 , 36, 37

Luchins, A. S., 769, 788

Luchins, E. H., 769, 788

Luczak, H., 187, 200, 211, 222

Luff, P., 130, 138, 144

Luhmann, N., 751, 754 , 759

Lumsdaine, A. A., 45 , 65

Lundberg, G. A., 304 , 317

Luria, A. R., 236, 240, 540, 551

Lussier, J. W., 405 , 411, 412 , 418

Luthans, F., 383 , 387

Lynch, E. B., 180, 183

Lynch, G., 508, 518

Lynn, R., 533 , 536

Lyon, A., 174 , 178, 181

Lyons, R., 4 , 18

Lyotard, J. F., 107, 122

Lyubomirsky, S., 431, 437

MacDonald, J. E., 215

MacDonald, K. M., 106, 109, 122

MacDonald, L., 463 , 467

MacFarland, J. W., 164

MacGregor, D., 192 , 200, 209, 221

Mach, E., 459, 469, 710, 711, 720

MacKay, D. G., 729, 740

Mackenzie, C. L., 251, 260

Mackesy, M. E., 26, 27

Mackie, J. L., 580, 583

MacKinnon, J., 401

Mackrell, J., 498, 501

MacMahon, C., 16, 47, 60, 361, 369, 471, 473 , 475 ,484 , 486, 501, 513 , 516, 693 , 710, 715

MacMillan, J., 406, 418

MacNeil, D., 58, 62

MacNeilage, P., 555 , 566

Madden, D. J., 594 , 610

Maddox, M. D., 513 , 518

Madigan, R., 393 , 395 , 401

Madsen, D., 76, 85

Mager, R. F., 79, 85

Magill, R. A., 506, 518

Magnor, C., 733 , 740

Magone, M., 205 , 220

Maguire, E. A.,547, 548, 551, 673 , 674 , 675 , 679, 680

Mahadevan, R. S., 181, 182 , 237, 239, 543 , 545 , 550,690, 701

Mailer, N., 401

Majone, G., 424 , 436

Malach, R., 668, 669, 679, 680

Malhotra, A., 376, 386

Mallon, J. S., 347, 352

Mancini, G. M., 312 , 316

Mancini, V. H., 314 , 315 , 316






806 author index

Mandin, H., 350

Mangun, G. R., 653 , 678

Mann, L., 448, 452

Manniche, E., 322 , 323 , 333

Manturzewska, M., 458, 469

Marcantoni, W. S., 664 , 676, 680

Marchant, G., 26, 29

Marcoen, A., 549, 550, 552

Marine, C., 369

Markley, R. P., 549, 550

Marks, M. A., 441, 443 , 452 , 453

Marshall, K., 304 , 317

Marshall, P., 544 , 546, 552

Marshall, T. H., 107, 122

Marsiske, M., 732 , 737, 742

Martin, A., 656, 667, 668, 679

Martin, D. E., 618, 621, 622 , 630

Martin, L., 451

Martinez-Pons, M., 709, 722

Martire, T. M., 347, 352

Marvin, F. F., 426, 437

Mason, S. A., 670, 682

Mastropieri, M. A., 549, 551

Masunaga, H., 10, 16, 21, 29, 49, 71, 587, 593 , 600,603 , 610, 613 , 616, 708, 725 , 726, 728, 736, 739,740, 769

Matelli, M., 672 , 681

Mathieu, J. E., 441, 452

Matlin, M. W., 78, 85

Matsumoto, E. D., 348, 351, 352 , 353

Matthay, T., 460, 469

Matthew, C. T., 12 , 16, 613

Matthews, A., 378, 379, 385

Matthews, G., 429, 436

Matthews, M. D., 645 , 651

Matthews, P. M., 653 , 679

Maurer, T. J., 728, 741

Maycock, G., 370, 648, 650

Mayer, R. E., 710, 721

Mayer-Kress, G., 514 , 519

Mayfield, W. A., 174 , 175 , 183

Maylor, E. A., 728, 740

Maynard, I. W., 708, 718, 720, 721

Mayr, U., 10, 18, 34 , 37, 306, 316, 532 , 533 , 535 , 536,602 , 607, 693 , 697, 700, 727, 728, 729, 730, 734 ,738, 739

Mazoyer, B., 563 , 564 , 568, 675 , 681

McArdle, J. J., 588, 590, 593 , 594 , 595 , 596, 608, 610

McAuley, E., 735 , 739

McCabe, M., 4 , 18

McCaffrey, N., 712 , 720

McCandliss, B. D., 670, 681

McCarthy, G., 667, 668, 670, 681

McClelland, D. C., 157, 164

McClelland, G. H., 728, 740

McClellend, C. E., 113 , 122

McCloskey, M. J., 412 , 413 , 418, 560, 567

McCloy, R., 254 , 261

McComb, K., 555 , 567

McCullough, J., 304 , 316

McCutchen, D., 401

McDaniel, L. S., 433 , 438

McDaniel, M. A., 618, 631, 691, 702 , 734 , 739

McDermott, J., 24 , 29, 44 , 65 , 88, 94 , 102 , 569, 583 ,614 , 630, 667, 680

McDonald, J. E., 215 , 219

McDonald, N., 215 , 221

McEvoy, G. M., 726, 740

McGeorge, P., 24 , 28

McGrath, C., 633 , 650

McGrath, J. E., 305 , 317

McGrath, S. K., 592 , 608

McGraw, K. L., 204 , 221

McGregor, S. J., 528, 537, 598, 599, 610

McGrew, K. S., 588, 590, 594 , 610

McGuire, M., 574 , 583

McHugh, A., 406, 411, 418

McHugo, M., 662 , 667, 678

McIntosh, N., 174 , 178, 181

McKeithen, K. B., 51, 65 , 379, 386

McKelvie, S. J., 225 , 240

McKenna, F. P., 363 , 370, 371, 648, 650

McKinney, E. H., 693 , 702

McKinnon, A. L., 305 , 317

McLaughlin, J. P., 52 , 67

McLennan, J., 445 , 452

McManus, I. C., 254 , 261

McMorris, T., 256, 261

McNeese, M., 200

McNemar, Q., 164

McPherson, G. E., 461, 469, 470, 711, 720

McPherson, J. A., 445 , 448, 453

McPherson, S. L., 234 , 239, 471, 474 , 475 , 479, 485 ,486

Means, B., 204 , 221

Means, M. L., 179, 183

Mechanic, D., 106, 122

Medin, D. L., 180, 183 , 268, 284 , 342 , 352 , 599, 610

Medina, J. J., 593 , 610

Medsker, G. J., 187, 200, 448, 450, 618, 621, 622 , 630

Meehl, P. E., 41, 65 , 164 , 426, 432 , 437

Meichenbaum, D., 710, 721

Meinz, E. J., 728, 732 , 735 , 738, 740

Meir, M., 356, 357, 360, 371

Meisner, S., 490, 502

Meister, D., 187, 201

Melkonian, M. G., 250, 260

Mellet, E., 554 , 563 , 564 , 567, 568, 675 , 681

Melton, A. W., 506, 518

Menard, W. E., 172 , 183 , 598, 599, 610, 728, 733 , 740

Mencl, W. E., 670, 671, 681, 682

Mendes de Leon, C. F., 496, 503

Meredith, K. P., 594 , 595 , 596, 610

Merlo, J., 645 , 651

Mernard, 172

Merrick, N. L., 697, 701

Merton, R. K., 116, 122

Mervis, C. B., 176, 179, 183 , 342 , 353

Merzenich, M. M., 508, 518, 657, 677

Metzler, A. H., 236, 238

Meulenbroek, R. G., 515 , 519

Mewhort, D. J. K., 267, 284

Meyer, D. E., 59, 65 , 67, 253 , 261, 277, 285 , 512 , 518,519, 663 , 668, 676, 681

Meyer, G., 657, 662 , 663 , 671, 680

Meyer, H., 662 , 679

Michels, R., 117, 123

Michie, D., 91, 102

Michimata, C., 549, 552

Midgett, K., 514 , 519

Mieg, H. A., 9, 15 , 16, 105 , 107, 108, 207, 221, 629, 693 ,743 , 746, 749, 751, 752 , 754 , 758, 759, 760, 796

Mikulincer, M., 592 , 611

Milburn, P., 111, 123






author index 807

Miles, T. R., 245 , 260

Militello, L. G., 171, 183 , 185 , 187, 201, 203 , 206, 208,216, 218, 221, 406, 408, 410, 416, 417

Miller, D., 209, 215 , 221

Miller, E. K., 669, 678, 681

Miller, G. A., 41, 44 , 50, 65 , 178, 183 , 191, 226, 236,240, 474 , 485 , 510, 519

Miller, L. A., 376, 386

Miller, L. K., 463 , 469

Miller, P., 111, 121, 123

Miller, R., 98, 102 , 402

Miller, R. A., 95 , 101

Miller, R. B., 77, 86, 188, 189, 201

Miller, T. E., 413 , 416

Milliex, L., 516, 517

Milner, K. R., 442 , 450

Milojkovic, J. D., 524 , 537

Mink, L. O., 571, 574 , 583

Minsky, M., 22 , 29, 92 , 102

Mintun, M., 508, 519

Miozzo, M., 670, 681

Mireles, D. E., 534 , 537, 726, 740

Miron, M. S., 43 , 64

Mirskii, M. L., 514 , 516

Mitchell, D. R. D., 602 , 611, 724 , 727, 732 , 733 , 741

Mitchell, F. D., 554 , 556, 557, 567

Mitchell, T., 49, 67, 99

Mittelstaedt, H., 511, 520

Miyake, Y., 53 , 64

Miyashita, Y., 669, 681

Modigliani, V., 506, 519

Mohammad, S., 443 , 451, 452

Mohler, B. J., 250, 260

Moller, J. H., 51, 54 , 55 , 64 , 351

Molloy, J. J., 411, 415 , 417

Molyneux-Hodgson, S., 553 , 567

Monterosso, J., 431, 437

Montgomery, H., 436, 437, 450, 451

Moon, B. M., 200, 406, 411, 418

Moore, D. G., 459, 461, 468, 470, 692 , 703

Moore, D. L., 670, 682

Moore, R. K., 132 , 134 , 141, 145 , 511, 520

Moorthy, K., 352

Moraes, L. C., 474 , 486

Morales, D., 99, 101

Moran, T. P., 188, 191, 199

Moreland, R. L., 446, 452

Morelock, M. J., 34 , 37

Morera, J., 464 , 468

Morgan, B. B., Jr., 441, 452

Morgan, D., 533 , 537

Morgan, R. L., 506, 519

Morgan, T., 92 , 101

Mori, K., 382 , 385

Morris, E., 490, 502

Morris, N. M., 405 , 418, 443 , 453 , 638, 650

Morris, W. T., 425 , 437

Morrow, D. G., 172 , 183 , 598, 599, 610, 728, 733 , 740

Moscal, G., 117, 123

Moscovitch, M., 668, 681

Moseley, M. E., 671, 680

Moses, J., 90, 102

Mosher, A., 138, 142

Moss, M. S., 305 , 317, 318

Moulaert, V., 699, 702

Mount, M. K., 157, 163

Mourant, R. R., 356, 357, 362 , 370, 648, 650

Moyano, J. C., 673 , 681

Moylan, J., 668, 676, 678

Muellbacher, W., 671, 681

Mulatu, M. S., 736, 741

Mulcahy, L., 106, 120

Mulkay, M., 116, 123 , 205 , 208, 221

Muller, G., 540, 551

Muller, K., 664 , 665 , 676, 682

Mumenthaler, M. S., 733 , 741

Mumford, M. D., 443 , 451

Munakata, Y., 653 , 681

Munim, D., 452

Munroe, K. J., 710, 721

Munsterberg, H., 186, 201

Munte, T. F., 464 , 469

Munz, Y., 352

Munzer, S., 465 , 470

Murdock, J. W., 178, 183

Murnaghan, J., 350

Murphy, L. B., 429, 437

Murphy, M. D., 378, 379, 384

Murphy, R., 106, 107, 118, 123

Murphy, T. D., 342 , 352

Murray, C., 323 , 327, 328, 333

Murray, D. M., 395 , 402 , 710, 721

Murray, H. A., 157, 164

Musa, D., 735 , 741

Musa, J., 374 , 380, 386

Musen, M. A., 102

Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., 512 , 517

Musseler, J., 511, 518

Muth, D., 401

Mutter, S. A., 275 , 284

Muzzin, L. J., 352

Myers, C., 673 , 681

Myers, J., 98, 102

Myerson, J., 726, 740

Mynatt, C. R., 379, 387

Nadel, L., 548, 551

Nagai, A. K., 119, 122 , 757, 759

Nagy, Z., 674 , 677, 696, 700

Naik, V. N., 347, 352

Naikar, N., 209, 215 , 222

Nakagawa, A., 478, 486

Nakamura, K., 672 , 681

Nakayama, K., 667, 668, 680

Nanandiou, A., 481, 485

Nanja, M., 379, 386

Nardi, B., 13 1, 135 , 144

NTSB, 359

Naus, G. J., 234 , 238

Nayak, P., 95 , 102

Naylor, G. F. K., 595 , 608

Naylor, S. C., 278, 283

Neal, R. J., 234 , 238, 478, 483

Neale, I. M., 204 , 222

Nebes, R. D., 594 , 610

Neely, A. S., 548, 549, 550, 551

Neisser, U., 44 , 53 , 65 , 67, 191, 616, 631

Nemeth, C. P., 185 , 201

Nendaz, M. R., 346, 352

Nersessian, N. J., 21, 29

Neufeld, V. R., 46, 47, 62 , 350, 352

Neuman, Y., 228, 230, 240

Nevett, M. E., 234 , 239, 473 , 474 , 485 , 486

Nevill, A., 478, 486






808 author index

Neville, A. J., 351

Newell, A. M., 11, 18, 19, 41, 42 , 43 , 44 , 47, 54 , 57, 64 ,65 , 67, 87, 90, 102 , 134 , 144 , 168, 183 , 188, 191, 199,201, 226, 229, 240, 267, 285 , 510, 519, 525 , 528,530, 537, 577, 583 , 691, 763 , 786

Newell, F. N., 616, 630

Newell, K. M., 514 , 519

Newman, R. S., 711, 721

Ngang, S. K., 512 , 518

Nguyen, N. T., 618, 631

Nichelli, P., 533 , 537

Nickel, S., 27, 30

Nickerson, R. S., 438, 626, 631

Nicklaus, J., 706, 721

Nicolini, D., 623 , 628, 630

Nielsen, S., 237, 240, 698, 702

Nieminen, T., 356, 357, 362 , 371

Niessen, C., 15 , 51, 60, 235 , 373

Nikkei, A. I., 102

Nikzad, K., 429, 437

Nilsson, L.-G., 496, 502

Nilsson, N. J., 90, 102

Nimmo-Smith, I., 357, 360, 369

Nisbett, R. E., 176, 183 , 227, 230, 240, 628,631

Nissen, M. J., 274 , 275 , 286, 512 , 519

Nixon, P., 508, 518

Noice, A. A., 490, 491, 502

Noice, H., 16, 44 , 52 , 54 , 235 , 489, 490, 491, 492 ,493 , 494 , 496, 497, 502 , 672

Noice, T., 16, 44 , 52 , 54 , 235 , 489, 490, 491, 492 , 493 ,494 , 496, 497, 502 , 672

Nokes, K., 621, 632

Nolan, S., 710, 721

Noll, J., 594 , 596, 609, 610

Nollert, M., 120, 123

Nonaka, I., 615 , 623 , 631

Noon, S. L., 725 , 739

Norcini, J. J., 352 , 353

Norman, D. A., 48, 65 , 509, 519

Norman, G. R., 15 , 46, 47, 55 , 62 , 94 , 235 , 240, 250,346, 349, 350, 351, 352 , 353

Nougier, V., 475 , 486

Novak, J. D., 178, 183 , 211, 218, 222

Nunes, L. M., 370

Nyberg, L., 548, 550, 551, 661, 662 , 664 , 677

Nyce, J. M., 143 , 208, 219

Oates, G., 736, 741

Oates, J. C., 402

O’Boyle, M. W., 564 , 565 , 567

O’Brien, M. K., 255 , 261

Ochse, R., 296, 297, 301

O’Connor, E. A., 712 , 720

O’Connor, N., 463 , 470, 557, 567

O’Craven, K., 667, 680

Odella, F., 623 , 628, 630

Oden, M. H., 292 , 301

Odih, P., 305 , 317

O’Donnell, T., 304 , 317

Odoroff, E., 574 , 583

O’Dwyer, N. J., 657, 680

O’Hanlon, A. M., 550

O’Hara, R., 733 , 741

O’Hare, D., 356, 357, 363 , 364 , 367, 371, 644 , 650

Ohlsson, S., 175 , 180, 182 , 320, 325 , 333

Oit, M., 524 , 534

Okagaki, L., 625 , 626, 632

Okatcha, F., 621, 632

O’Keefe, J., 548, 551

Olbrechts-Tyteca, L., 574 , 583

Olby, R., 775 , 776, 786

Olesen, P. J., 662 , 681

Oleszek, W., 322 , 329, 333

Oleynikov, D., 251, 262

Olgiati, V., 108, 123

Oliver, I., 527, 536

Oliver, W. L., 491, 503 , 531

Olshausen, B. A., 667, 681

Olson, C. R., 669, 677

Olson, G. M., 374 , 386

Omodei, M. M., 445 , 452

Ones, D. S., 450

O’Neill, B., 356, 357, 359, 363 , 371

Onkal-Atay, D., 433 , 437

Onofrj, M., 533 , 537

Opwis, K., 532 , 533 , 538

Orasanu, J., 200, 206, 221, 403 , 404 , 405 , 414 , 417,422 , 436, 437, 440, 441, 443 , 445 , 446, 448, 451,452

O’Reilly, R. C., 653 , 681

Orlick, T., 712 , 720

Orr, J. E., 144 , 208, 222

Orzack, L. H., 108, 123

Osantowski, J., 313 , 314 , 317

Oser, R. L., 449, 453

Osgood, C. E., 43 , 65

Osheroff, J. A., 95 , 101

Oskamp, S., 25 , 29

Otway, H., 752 , 760

Over, R., 481, 487, 730, 740

Overby, L., 500, 503

Owens, D., 712 , 720

Oztin, S., 433 , 437

Paarsalu, M. L., 245 , 259, 478, 483

Paas, F. G. W. C., 599, 610

Paccia-Cooper, J., 510, 517

Packer, C., 555 , 567

Paivio, A., 391, 392 , 402 , 710, 721

Pallier, G., 32 , 38

Palmer, C., 463 , 470

Palmon, R., 602 , 611, 724 , 727, 732 , 733 , 741

Pannabecker, J. R., 6, 19

Pantev, C., 465 , 466, 468, 470, 508, 517, 674 , 678,695 , 701

Papert, S., 22 , 29, 91, 101

Papousek, S., 462 , 469

Papp, K. K., 348, 352

Paradis, J., 402

Paramore, B., 187, 200

Pare-Blagoev, E. J., 673 , 681

Pareto, V., 117, 118, 123

Paris, S., 57, 65

Pariser, D., 772 , 786

Park, D. C., 737, 738

Parker, P. M., 356, 357, 370, 359

Parker, S., 474 , 478, 483

Parkerson, J., 324 , 327, 335

Parkes, S., 237, 240, 255 , 259, 483

Parsons, L. M., 508, 517

Parsons, S., 553 , 566

Parsons, T., 107, 123 , 756, 760

Pascual, R., 409, 410, 411, 417, 445 , 452






author index 809

Pascual-Leone, A., 548, 551, 565 , 567, 662 , 663 , 671,674 , 679, 681

Pascual-Leone, J., 22 , 29

Pashler, H., 272 , 276, 277, 285 , 519, 663 , 676, 681

Passingham, R. E., 508, 518, 672 , 677

Passmore, S. R., 479, 486

Patalano, A. L., 424 , 438

Patel, V. L., 11, 18, 24 , 25 , 26, 28, 29, 52 , 55 , 56, 64 ,66, 88, 100, 102 , 179, 180, 181, 183 , 232 , 233 , 235 ,239, 240, 251, 261, 349, 351, 352 , 445 , 448, 452 ,598, 599, 610, 696, 701

Patil, R. S., 55 , 66

Pauker, S. G., 43 , 66

Pauker, S. P., 88, 102

Paul, R. W., 626, 631

Paulesu, E., 564 , 567, 672 , 681

Paull, G., 475 , 486

Pauls, J., 508, 518, 669, 680

Paulsen, A. S., 712 , 722

Pauwels, J. M., 476, 477, 478, 485

Pavio, 391, 392

Pavlou, O., 445 , 452

Payne, C., 4 , 18

Payne, D. G., 236, 241

Payne, J. W., 425 , 437

Pazzani, M. J., 97, 102

Pear, J. J., 710, 712 , 721

Pearce, C. L., 443 , 444 , 446, 448, 451, 452

Pearl, J., 96, 102

Pearlman-Avnion, S., 497, 502

Pearson, M., 402

Pechmann, T., 465 , 470

Pedersen, N. L., 593 , 595 , 608

Pejtersen, A. M., 144 , 208

Pellegrino, J. W., 47, 66, 279, 280, 283 , 686, 701

Pelz, D. C., 648, 650

Pember-Reeves, M., 304 , 318

Pendleton, L. R., 500, 503

Penner, B. C., 23 , 29, 47, 67, 570, 578, 584

Pennington, B., 563 , 565

Pennington, N., 378, 381, 386, 433 , 437, 700

Pentland, W., 305 , 318

Perani, D., 672 , 681

Pereklita, A., 211, 222

Perelman, C., 574 , 583

Perez, C., 186, 201

Perfetti, C. A., 54 , 66, 572 , 583 , 670, 677

Perkin, H., 107, 123

Perkins, D. N., 626, 629, 630, 763 , 764 , 775

Perkins-Ceccato, N., 479, 486

Perruchet, P., 274 , 285

Perry, S. K., 402

Pesenti, M., 554 , 560, 563 , 564 , 567, 568, 675 , 681

Pesut, D., 57, 65

Peters, M., 674 , 679

Petersen, S. E., 508, 519

Peterson, C., 444 , 453

Peterson, M. S., 657, 664 , 665 , 666, 678

Petersson, K. M., 548, 550, 551

Petjersen, A. M., 208, 222

Petrowski, N. W., 10, 18, 226, 238, 523 , 533 , 535

Petrusa, E. R., 47, 66

Pfadenhauer, M., 758, 760

Pfeffer, M. G., 177, 180, 183

Phelps, E. A., 668, 681

Phelps, R. H., 52 , 66

Phillips, J. K., 405 , 411, 417, 418, 422 , 437

Phillips, R. S., 434 , 437

Phillips, S. I., 253 , 258, 262

Piaget, J., 758, 760

Piazza, M., 563 , 566, 675 , 678

Pichon, M., 686, 703

Pick, A. D., 268, 284

Pickleman, J., 348, 353

Pierce, L. G., 414 , 418, 442 , 450

Pietrini, P., 533 , 537, 668, 677, 679

Piette, A., 369

Piirto, J., 402

Pinard, B., 348, 353

Pine, J. M., 64 , 527, 536

Pinel, P., 563 , 566, 675 , 678

Pintrich, P. R., 705 , 709, 713 , 716, 719, 720, 721

Pirola-Merlo, A., 448, 452

Pisano, G. P., 444 , 446, 448, 450

Pitrat, J., 530, 537

Plant, E. A., 699, 702

Plato, 5 , 19

Platt, G. M., 751, 760

Pleban, R. J., 645 , 651

Plimpton, G., 402 , 699, 702

Pliske, R. M., 170, 183 , 412 , 413 , 418, 445 , 452

Plomin, R., 724 , 740

Podd, J., 237, 240

Poewe, W., 671, 681

Poggio, T., 268, 283 , 284 , 669, 678, 680

Pokorny, R. A., 465 , 469, 727, 739

Polanyi, M., 12 , 19, 92 , 102 , 615 , 631

Polaschek, J. X., 89, 102

Poldrack, R. A., 654 , 658, 661, 671, 673 , 680, 681

Polk, H. C. J., 348, 352

Polonsky, W., 495 , 501

Polson, P. G., 54 , 64 , 237, 239, 373 , 375 , 376, 377,385 , 475 , 485 , 540, 550

Polya, G., 91, 95 , 102

Pomplun, M., 525 , 526, 535 , 537

Poon, L. W., 726, 740

Poon, P. P. L., 499, 500, 503

Pople, H. E., 98, 101, 102 , 445 , 452

Popper, M., 448, 453

Port, R., 57, 67

Portes, A., 756, 760

Posner, K. L., 425 , 436

Posner, M. I., 18, 47, 53 , 59, 60, 64 , 66, 83 , 85 , 288,297, 301, 462 , 468, 475 , 485 , 508, 512 , 513 , 517,519, 617, 630, 658, 678, 684 , 694 , 702

Post, A. A., 477, 486

Post, T. A., 23 , 29, 47, 67, 375 , 387, 570, 578, 584

Potter, M. C., 510, 518

Potter, S. S., 193 , 201, 208, 222

Potter, U., 728, 740

Poulton, E. C., 473 , 486

Pounds, J., 410, 416

Povel, D-J., 510, 519

Povenmire, H. K., 253 , 258, 261

Poznyanskaya, E. D., 524 , 538

Pras, A. A., 452

Preece, M. A., 688, 703

Premi, J., 352

Prerau, D., 207, 222

Prescott, C. A., 593 , 610

Press, M., 649, 650

Pressley, M., 237, 240, 710, 721

Pretz, J. E., 431, 437, 629

Preussler, W., 736, 739






810 author index

Prevou, M. I., 625 , 629

Pribram, K. H., 41, 44 , 65 , 226, 240

Price, C. J., 667, 668, 670, 679, 681

Price, P. C., 426, 438

Prieto, M. D., 618, 631

Prietula, M. J., 12 , 14 , 41, 42 , 51, 64 , 66, 87, 105 , 614 ,639, 653 , 658, 659, 667, 708, 730, 750, 763

Prince, C., 253 , 260, 641, 650

Prince, R., 621, 632

Prinz, W., 272 , 285 , 511, 513 , 518, 520

Procos, D., 304 , 312 , 317

Proctor, R. W., 15 , 19, 53 , 59, 265 , 271, 272 , 273 , 277,284 , 285 , 286, 462 , 658, 727, 737

Proctor, S., 406, 417

Proffitt, D. R., 26, 28, 514 , 516, 519

Proffitt, J. B., 599, 610

Profitt, A. W., 348, 353

Proteau, L., 475 , 483

Prusak, L., 217, 219

Psotka, J., 618, 621, 622 , 625 , 629, 630

Puce, A., 667, 668, 681

Pugh, H. L., 364 , 370, 408, 418

Pugh, K. R., 670, 671, 681, 682

Purcell, J. A., 356, 357, 361, 367, 368, 370

Purves, D., 511, 519

Pusey, A., 555 , 567

Putnam, R. D., 757, 760

Puxty, A., 106, 109, 121

Quenault, S. W., 356, 357, 359, 370

Quetelet, A., 320, 322 , 324 , 325 , 326, 329, 333

Quillian, R., 48, 66

Quimby, A. R., 648, 650

Quill, L., 218

Raab, M., 410, 416

Raag, T., 499, 501

Rabbitt, P. M. A., 548, 551, 595 , 602 , 610, 728, 740

Radomski, S. B., 352

Radvansky, G. A., 593 , 610

Raeth, P. G., 204 , 222

Ragan, T. J., 78, 79, 86

Ragert, P., 465 , 470

Raichle, M. E., 508, 519

Raiffa, H., 424 , 434 , 436

Rainer, G., 669, 681

Rall, E., 406, 411, 418

Ramirez, J., 426, 438

Ramsberger, P. F., 77, 86

Ramsey, N. F., 53 , 64 , 660, 661, 679

Randel, J. M., 364 , 370, 408, 418

Randell M., 26, 29

Rantanen, E. M., 253 , 258, 262

Rasher, S. P., 324 , 327, 335

Raskin, E. A., 321, 322 , 326, 327, 333 , 689, 702

Rasmussen, B., 13 1, 143

Rasmussen, J., 144 , 188, 196, 201, 208, 211, 222

Rathunde, K., 458, 468, 719

Rau, H., 466, 468

Rauner, F., 13 1, 143

Rauscher, F. H., 463 , 465 , 468, 470

Rawles, J. M., 24 , 28

Raymond, G., 132 , 134 , 141, 145

Raz, N., 593 , 610

Rea, C. P., 506, 519

Read, S. J., 598, 599, 609

Reason, J., 509, 519

Reber, A. S., 615 , 631

Recarte, M. A., 370

Recker, M. M., 178, 183

Redding, R. E., 192 , 201, 356, 357, 361, 367, 368, 370

Reddy, D. R., 92 , 101

Reder, L. M., 57, 66, 268, 283

Ree, M. J., 617, 631

Reed, M., 106, 107, 123

Reed, S. K., 364 , 370, 408, 418

Rees, B. I., 250, 254 , 262

Rees, E., 12 , 18, 24 , 27, 157, 163 , 175 , 182 , 305 , 316

Rees, G., 6, 19

Reese, E. P., 313 , 318

Reeves, L. M., 786

Rege, R. V., 347, 353

Regehr, G., 350, 353

Reichle, E. D., 662 , 678

Reif, F., 686, 702

Reilly, T., 261, 478, 486

Reinartz, K., 756, 760

Reine, B., 476, 486

Reingold, E. M., 525 , 526, 532 , 534 , 535 , 537, 693 ,697, 700, 730, 738

Reiss, J., 174 , 178, 181

Reitman, J. S., 50, 51, 65 , 66, 173 , 183 , 379, 386, 603 ,610

Reitman, W. R., 41, 66

Rellinger, E. R., 230, 238

Remington, R., 277, 278, 285

Rende, R., 724 , 740

Renkl, A., 230, 240

Renwick, J., 461, 470

Reppas, J. B., 668, 680

Resnick, L., 53 , 65

Restle, F., 510, 519

Rethans, J. J., 349, 353

Retschitzki, J., 524 , 536

Reuter, H. H., 51, 65

Rey-Hipolito, C., 657, 680

Reynold, C. A., 593 , 595 , 608

Reynolds, P., 513 , 516

Reynolds, R., 529, 537

Reznick, R. K., 348, 350, 351, 353

Rhodenizer, L., 244 , 248, 253 , 258, 261

Rice, G. A., 323 , 332

Richard, J. A., 673 , 680

Richards, D., 97, 102

Richardson, J. D., 348, 352

Richardson, J. T. E., 225 , 240

Richer, F., 664 , 676, 680

Richman, H. B., 19, 31, 37, 58, 66

Rickard, T. C., 267, 268, 281, 285

Ridolfo, H. E., 733 , 740

Riedl, T. R., 374 , 380, 386

Rieger, M., 55 , 66

Riehle, H. J., 533 , 534

Riesenhuber, M., 669, 678

Rieser, J., 626, 629

Riggs, L. A., 511, 520

Rikers, R. M., 353 , 599, 610, 699, 702

Riley, M. A., 513 , 519

Rimoldi, H. J. A., 591, 611

Ringer, F. K., 580, 583

Rink, J. E., 234 , 239, 474 , 485

Ripoll, H., 475 , 476, 486

Risemberg, R., 402

Rist, R. S., 377, 378, 386






author index 811

Risucci, D., 348, 353

Ritter, F. E., 268, 283

Rittman, A. L., 443 , 453

Rivera-Batiz, F. L., 553 , 567

Rizzolatti, G., 672 , 681

Roach, J. R., 494 , 503

Robergs, R. A., 695 , 702

Roberts, J. M., 75 , 86

Roberts, L. E., 465 , 470

Roberts, R. D., 32 , 38

Roberts, S. O., 695 , 702

Robertson, D. A., 497, 502

Robin, A. F., 167, 180, 182

Robinson, J., 26, 29

Robinson, J. P., 304 , 318

Robinson, R. E., 291, 299, 300

Robitaille, D., 428, 437

Robson, K., 106, 109, 121

Rockstroh, B., 465 , 466, 468, 508, 517, 674 , 678, 695 ,701

Rockwell, T. H., 356, 357, 362 , 370, 648, 650

Rodenstein, D., 464 , 468

Rodgers, W. M., 474 , 478, 483 , 499, 500, 503

Roe, A., 12 , 19, 158, 164 , 290, 293 , 301, 331, 333

Roebber, P., 25 , 28, 173 , 178, 183 , 217

Roediger, H. L., 615 , 631

Rogers, E. H., 401

Rogoff, B., 127, 144

Rohlman, D. S., 379, 387

Rohr, D., 9, 19

Roland, P., 664 , 665 , 679

Rolf, B., 491, 503

Rolfhus, E. L., 34 , 37, 38, 160, 163

Roling, P., 174 , 184 , 268, 286

Roman, S. A., 255 , 261

Romano, G., 120, 122

Rook, F. W., 204 , 222

Root, R. L., 402

Root-Bernstein, R. S., 323 , 333

Rosch, E. H., 176, 179, 183 , 342 , 353

Roscoe, S. N., 253 , 258, 261

Rose, C. L., 429, 437

Rose, G. J., 555 , 566

Rose, H., 117, 123

Rose, N., 111, 123

Rose, T. L., 549, 552

Rosen, A. C., 164 , 733 , 741

Rosen, B. R., 668, 680

Rosen, M., 15 , 439

Rosenau, J. N., 580, 583

Rosenbaum, D. A., 16, 47, 505 , 506, 507, 509, 510,515 , 517, 519, 636, 666, 729, 740

Rosenbloom, P. S., 267, 285 , 510, 519

Rosenthal, L., 305 , 318

Ross, B., 465 , 470

Ross, K. G., 15 , 52 , 54 , 192 , 200, 206, 216, 243 , 403 ,405 , 406, 411, 412 , 414 , 418, 430, 442

Ross. L., 752 , 762

Ross, M. M., 305 , 318, 709, 720

Ross, T. J., 662 , 678

Ross, W. A., 414 , 418

Rosselli, J., 9, 19

Rosser, J. C., 250, 261, 348, 353

Rosser, L. E., 250, 261

Rossi, F. F., 750, 755 , 760

Rosson, M. B., 686, 703

Rostan, S. M., 429, 437

Rotchford, N. L., 305 , 317

Roth, E. M., 193 , 201, 208, 445 , 452

Rothe, A. R., 493 , 497, 503

Rothman, S., 119, 122 , 757, 759

Rothrock, L., 628, 631

Rothwell, J. C., 671, 677

Rothwell, W. J., 81, 86

Rouder, J., 50, 63

Rouet, J-F., 572 , 583

Rouse, W. B., 192 , 201, 208, 405 , 418, 443 , 453 , 638,650

Rowe, C. J., 71, 86

Rowland-Entwistle, T., 72 , 86

Rozin, M., 576, 584

Rubin, D. C., 296, 301, 539, 551

Rubinson, H., 23 , 29, 44 , 53 , 65 , 172 , 181, 183

Rudik, P. A., 10, 18, 226, 238, 523 , 533 , 535

Rudlin, J., 491, 503

Rudolph, J. W., 444 , 450

Rueckl, J. G., 670, 682

Rueter, H. H., 379, 386

Rugg, G., 180, 182

Rumbaut, R. G., 756, 760

Rumelhart, D. E., 48, 65

Rumsey, J. M., 671, 679

Rumsey, M. G., 451

Runyan, W. M., 320, 333

Russell, D. G., 475 , 476, 483

Russell, S. J., 474 , 484

Ruthruff, E., 277, 278, 285 , 286

Rutledge, G., 89, 102

Rycroft, R. W., 120, 121, 753 , 759

Ryder, J. M., 361, 367, 368, 370

Rymer, J., 356, 357, 402

Rympa, B., 726, 738

Saariluoma, P., 233 , 241, 526, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532 ,537, 547, 551

Sabel, B. A., 737, 738

Sabers, D. S., 173 , 183

Sabherwal, R., 217

Sacerdoti, E. D., 48, 66, 222

Sachs, P., 140, 143

Sackett, R., 129, 143 , 313 , 317

Sacuse, S., 256, 260

Sadato, N., 549, 552

Sadler-Smith, E., 430, 437

Sadoski, M., 402

Saettler, P., 71, 72 , 74 , 77, 86

Safir, A., 96, 103

Sagi, D., 667, 680

Sainburg, R. L., 512 , 519

Sakai, K., 669, 672 , 681

Saks, M., 108, 110, 123

Salas, E., 15 , 154 , 201, 215 , 219, 244 , 248, 253 , 258,260, 261, 404 , 405 , 410, 414 , 416, 417, 439, 440,441, 442 , 443 , 444 , 445 , 446, 448, 450, 451, 452 ,453 , 641, 650

Salmela, J. H., 474 , 484 , 486

Salthouse, T. A., 59, 66, 293 , 301, 548, 551, 593 , 594 ,602 , 611, 697, 723 , 724 , 726, 727, 728, 730, 732 ,733 , 735 , 738, 740, 741

Salvendy, G., 200, 376, 378, 379, 381, 382 , 383 , 385 ,387

Salz, T., 671, 680

Samson, D., 554 , 560, 564 , 567, 675 , 681

Samuel, A. L., 42 , 66, 90, 102






812 author index

Sanborn, A., 733 , 740

Sandak, R., 574 , 584 , 670, 682

Sandblom, J., 548, 550, 551

Sanders, A. F., 270, 285

Sanderson, P. M., 209, 222

Sandgren, M., 692 , 702

Sanes, J. N., 283 , 285 , 671, 682

Sass, D., 400

Satava, R. M., 255 , 260, 261

Saults, J. S., 594 , 611

Saunders, A., 215 , 222

Saunders, N., 247, 248, 262

Sautu, R., 107, 123

Savalgi, R. S., 250, 261

Savelsbergh, G. J. P., 475 , 476, 486

Savina, Y., 532 , 535

Scalf, P. S., 657, 664 , 665 , 666, 678

Scardamalia, M., 82 , 86, 297, 300, 400, 402

Schaafstal, A. M., 193 , 194 , 195 , 196, 201, 449, 453

Schaal, S., 514 , 520

Schadewald, M., 26, 29

Schaffer, S., 115 , 123

Schaie, K. W., 326, 333 , 593 , 595 , 596, 611, 726, 741

Scheerer, 767

Scheflen, A. E., 130, 144

Schempp, P. G., 312 , 316

Schere, J. J., 402

Scherpbier, A. J. J. A., 349, 353 , 699, 702

Schiebinger, L., 117, 123

Schiflett, S. G., 244 , 259

Schijven, M., 251, 261

Schkade, D., 434 , 437

Schlauch, W. S., 554 , 568

Schlaug, G., 465 , 468, 548, 551, 565 , 567, 674 , 678,695 , 702 , 703

Schleicher, A., 565

Schliemann, A. D., 26, 29

Schlinker, P. J., 481, 487

Schmalhofer, F., 384 , 386

Schmidt, A. M., 442 , 450, 465 , 470

Schmidt, F. L., 33 , 38, 616, 631, 691, 702 , 724 , 741

Schmidt, H. G., 25 , 26, 28, 29, 235 , 238, 241, 349,350, 351, 352 , 353 , 463 , 467, 494 , 503 , 599, 610

Schmidt, J. A., 52 , 67

Schmidt, L., 211, 222

Schmidt, R. A., 273 , 285 , 413 , 475 , 486, 505 , 506, 519

Schmitt, J. F., 406, 410, 411, 418

Schnabel, T. G., 254 , 260

Schneider, J. A., 496, 503

Schneider, S. L., 438

Schneider, W., 16, 24 , 29, 31, 38, 46, 53 , 54 , 59, 60,66, 67, 267, 269, 285 , 286, 475 , 486, 512 , 513 , 519,532 , 533 , 538, 588, 597, 641, 653 , 656, 658, 659,660, 661, 663 , 665 , 670, 676, 677, 678, 679, 682 ,685 , 693 , 695 , 703 , 710, 721, 769

Scholtz, J., 377, 378, 386, 387

Schomann, M., 377, 384

Schon, D. A., 133 , 144 , 623 , 631

Schooler, C., 736, 741

Schooler, T. Y. E., 575 , 583

Schouten, J. L., 656, 667, 668, 677, 679

Schraagen, J. M. C., 15 , 46, 185 , 192 , 195 , 196, 197, 199,200, 201, 205 , 206, 229, 235 , 241

Schriver, K. S., 401

Schroder, J., 662 , 679

Schubert, T., 664 , 665 , 676, 682

Schueneman, A. L., 348, 353

Schuler, J. W., 408, 418

Schulkind, M. D., 296, 301

Schulman, E. L., 340, 341, 376, 387

Schultetus, R. S., 526, 529, 537, 538

Schulz, M., 465 , 470

Schulz, R., 319, 322 , 323 , 329, 330, 333 , 689, 690,703 , 735 , 741

Schum, D. A., 574 , 583

Schumacher, C. F., 254 , 260

Schumacher, E. H., 59, 67, 277, 285 , 662 , 680

Schumann, 377, 378

Schunk, D. H., 705 , 707, 710, 712 , 715 , 717, 721, 722

Schuwirth, L., 349, 353

Schvaneveldt, R. W., 180, 184 , 356, 357, 365 , 367,368, 370

Schwartz, B. J., 50, 51, 63 , 172 , 179, 182 , 228, 230, 240,431, 437

Schwartz, W. B., 43 , 55 , 66

Schwarz, N., 237, 241, 437

Schweitzer, S., 624 , 630

Schyns, P. G., 268, 284

Scinto, L. F. M., 402

Scott, A. C., 97, 102

Scott, C. L., 493 , 497, 503

Scott, D. J., 347, 353

Scribner, S., 142 , 205 , 222 , 758, 760

Scripture, E. W., 554 , 557, 562 , 567

Scruggs, T. E., 549, 551

Scurrah, M. J., 528, 538

Seah, C., 144

Seamster, T. L., 192 , 201, 356, 357, 361, 367, 368,370

Seashore, 457, 470

Seeger, C. M., 271, 284

Seely, 623

Seely-Brown, 48

Segal, L., 253 , 261

Seitz, R. J., 616, 630

Selart, M., 436, 437

Semenza, C., 560, 567

Senate of Surgery, 255 , 261

Senge, P. M., 130, 144

Serfaty, D., 206, 215 , 221, 244 , 259, 406, 418, 443 ,451

Seron, X., 554 , 560, 563 , 567, 675 , 681

Setton, T., 462 , 468

Sevsek, B., 498, 503

Sexton, B., 370

Seymour, N. E., 255 , 261

Seymour, T. L., 59, 67, 277, 285

Shadbolt, N. R., 97, 102 , 170, 176, 180, 182 , 183 , 192 ,198, 200, 206, 209, 215 , 220, 222 , 407, 416, 736,745 , 759

Shadmehr, R., 507, 517

Shafer, J. L., 15 , 52 , 54 , 138, 206, 216, 243 , 403 , 442 ,637, 640

Shaffer, L. H., 53 , 67

Shafir, E., 434 , 437

Shafto, P., 175 , 184

Shah, N. J., 674 , 679

Shakespeare, W., 489, 503

Shalev, R. S., 563 , 567

Shalin, V. L., 185 , 192 , 199, 200, 201, 617, 630

Shallice, T., 558, 566

Shamir, B., 448, 453

Shanks, D. R., 274 , 286

Shannon, C., 509, 519






author index 813

Shanteau, J., 4 , 19, 26, 29, 52 , 66, 88, 102 , 205 , 222 ,370, 405 , 418, 426, 432 , 437, 438, 686, 703 , 758,760

Shapin, S., 115 , 123

Shapira, Z., 434 , 437

Shapiro, D., 495 , 501

Sharp, C., 594 , 608

Sharp, J., 448, 450

Shattuck, L., 645 , 651

Shaver, P. R., 592 , 611

Shaw, J. C., 90, 102

Shaw, M. L. G., 102

Shaywitz, B. A., 671, 681

Shaywitz, S. E., 671, 681

Shea, J. B., 506, 519

Shefy, E., 430, 437

Sheiner, L. B., 89, 102

Shepherd, A., 185 , 190, 201

Sheppard, S., 374 , 386

Shertz, J., 175 , 184 , 379, 387

Sherwood, R., 626, 629

Shiffrar, M. M., 268, 269, 283

Shiffrin, R. M., 31, 38, 53 , 60, 66, 67, 269, 270, 281,286, 475 , 486, 512 , 513 , 519, 658, 659, 676, 682

Shima, K., 671, 672 , 682

Shin, R. K., 664 , 678

Shinar, D., 356, 357, 360, 371

Shipp, S., 57, 67

Shire, K., 107, 121

Shohamy, D., 673 , 681

Shook, R. W. C., 641, 642 , 650

Shortliffe, E. H., 43 , 46, 48, 63 , 67, 91, 92 , 94 , 96, 97,98, 101, 102 , 130, 135 , 142 , 204 , 222

Shriffin, R. M., 267, 269, 285 , 286, 761

Shrobe, H. E., 95 , 101

Shulman, L. S., 44 , 46, 47, 63 , 88, 101, 340, 341, 351

Shumway-Cook, A., 735 , 742

Shunn, C., 57, 66

Shuter-Dyson, R., 457, 470

Sidhu, R. S., 347, 351

Sieck, W. R., 405 , 417, 422 , 430, 437

Siegler, R. S., 24 , 29, 735 , 741

Sierhuis, M., 143 , 144

Sigala, N., 677, 682

Sigma-Mugan, C., 433 , 437

Siler, S. A., 177, 182

Silfies, L. N., 575 , 580, 584

Silverman, S. M., 327, 333

Simmel, G., 749, 760

Simmons, R., 204 , 219

Simon, D. P., 23 , 24 , 29, 44 , 65 , 88, 102 , 169, 177, 179,184 , 569, 583 , 614 , 630

Simon, H. A., 11, 12 , 17, 18, 19, 23 , 24 , 27, 28, 29, 31,37, 41, 42 , 44 , 47, 49, 50, 52 , 55 , 57, 58, 60, 61, 63 ,64 , 65 , 66, 67, 87, 88, 90, 96, 100, 102 , 103 , 134 ,144 , 168, 169, 171, 173 , 176, 177, 178, 179, 182 , 183 ,184 , 191, 200, 201, 205 , 207, 218, 219, 222 , 224 , 226,227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 235 , 236, 237, 239, 240,241, 244 , 245 , 259, 292 , 297, 301, 305 , 316, 318,351, 353 , 369, 374 , 386, 389, 402 , 405 , 406, 416,418, 431, 436, 474 , 478, 479, 484 , 485 , 493 , 501,510, 519, 523 , 525 , 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531,534 , 535 , 536, 537, 538, 569, 582 , 583 , 598, 600,601, 608, 611, 613 , 614 , 629, 630, 685 , 689, 696,700, 703 , 768, 785

Simon, J. R., 272 , 286

Simon, Th., 163

Simonson, I., 434 , 437

Simonton, D. K., 12 , 15 , 19, 21, 22 , 29, 60, 164 , 319,320, 321, 322 , 323 , 324 , 325 , 326, 327, 328, 329,330, 331, 333 , 334 , 335 , 458, 689, 703 , 735 , 741,766, 767, 771, 786

Simpson, S. A., 234 , 241

Sims, H. P., 444 , 452

Sinacore, J. M., 350

Sinangil, H. K., 450

Singer, 476

Singer, C., 6, 19, 690, 703

Singer, R. N., 256, 261, 476, 486

Singer, T., 734 , 741

Singh, H., 564 , 567

Singh, R., 667, 668, 677

Singleton, S., 305 , 317

Sinha, A. P., 376, 377, 378, 384

Skare, S., 674 , 677, 696, 700

Skinner, B. F., 45 , 64 , 67

Skovronek, E., 602 , 611, 724 , 727, 732 , 733 , 741

Skudlarski, P., 508, 517, 667, 668, 676, 678

Slagter, H. A., 53 , 64 , 660, 661, 679

Slamecka, N. Y., 497, 503

Slaughter, J. E., 323 , 324 , 325 , 330, 335

Slaven, G., 409, 416

Sleeman, D., 46, 67

Sloboda, J. A., 10, 18, 31, 293 , 299, 301, 459, 461, 463 ,468, 470, 692 , 703 , 725 , 739, 741, 767, 770, 786

Small, B. J., 593 , 606

Small, S., 674 , 682

Smeeton, N. J., 245 , 246, 247, 252 , 256, 257, 258, 261,262 , 476, 477, 478, 486, 487, 488, 697, 703

Smith, D. H., 91, 101

Smith, E. C., 204 , 219, 226, 228, 240

Smith, E. M., 235 , 240, 346, 352 , 440, 453

Smith, G. A., 726, 740

Smith, J., 3 , 11, 13 , 18, 23 , 28, 31, 37, 46, 59, 64 , 75 ,85 , 231, 232 , 239, 244 , 259, 266, 284 , 360, 370,374 , 375 , 385 , 400, 436, 471, 547, 549, 550, 551,614 , 630, 686, 687, 702 , 734 , 739

Smith, J. F., 405 , 418, 433 , 437

Smith, J. E. K., 512 , 519

Smith, M. C., 237, 240

Smith, M. U., 177, 184

Smith, P. L., 78, 79, 86

Smith, R., 100, 103

Smith, R. G., 91, 101

Smith, S. B., 554 , 555 , 557, 559, 560, 561, 567

Smith, S. M., 653 , 679

Smith, S. G. T., 250, 254 , 262

Smith-Jentsch, K., 445 , 448, 453

Smode, A. F., 253 , 261

Smyth, K. A., 496, 501

Smyth, M. M., 491, 500, 502 , 503

Snoddy, G. S., 267, 286

Snook, S. A., 32 , 38, 615 , 616, 618, 622 , 623 , 630, 631

Snow, A. J., 371

Snow, R. E., 159, 164

Snowden, P. T., 174 , 184

Snyder, A. J., 250, 260

Snyder, C., 53 , 66

Snyder, W. M., 623 , 624 , 632

Sohn, M.-H., 281, 286

Sohn, Y. W., 248, 249, 259, 261, 279, 280, 283 , 356,357, 365 , 366, 368, 369, 371

Soloboda, J. A., 31, 38

Solodkin, A., 674 , 682






814 author index

Solomon, M., 784 , 788

Soloway, E., 374 , 377, 378, 384 , 386

Solso, R. L., 499, 503

Somberg, B. L., 594 , 611

Somech, A., 618, 631

Sommerville, I., 374 , 386

Sonnentag, S., 15 , 51, 60, 235 , 373 , 374 , 375 , 376,377, 378, 380, 381, 382 , 383 , 384 , 386, 688, 695

Sorokin, P. A., 323 , 335

Sosik, J. J., 446, 451

Sosniak, L. A., 13 , 15 , 19, 60, 287, 289, 297, 301, 458,461, 470, 691

Soumerai, S. B., 349, 350

Sowden, P. T., 268, 286

Spangler, H., 727, 741

Spangler, W. D., 157, 164

Sparrow, P. R., 737, 741

Sparrow, W. A., 657, 680

Spearman, C., 589, 591, 611

Speelman, C. P., 266, 286

Spelke, E., 53 , 67

Sperling, G. A., 510, 520, 591, 593 , 611

Spiers, H. J., 548, 551, 673 , 674 , 675 , 679, 680

Spilich, G. J., 48, 51, 55 , 63 , 67, 179, 182 , 471, 484

Spilich, H., 25 , 30

Spiro, R. J., 46, 56, 57, 64 , 67, 83 , 86, 249, 260, 351,385 , 415 , 416, 675 , 767, 786

Spolin, V., 490, 503

Spradley, J. P., 128, 129, 144 , 208, 222

Sprafka, S. A., 44 , 46, 47, 63 , 88, 101, 351

Spurgeon, J. H., 234 , 239, 474 , 485

Squire, D., 348, 353

Squyres, S. W., 134 , 144

Sroufe, L. A., 592 , 611

Stadler, M. A., 615 , 631

Stafford, F. P., 305 , 317

Stagl, K. C., 439, 440, 441, 442 , 443 , 448, 450, 453

Staiger, J. F., 548, 551, 565 , 567

Staines, G., 496, 502

Stainton, C., 570, 574 , 583

Stajkovic, A. D., 383 , 387

Stammers, R. B., 730, 742

Stampe, D. M., 525 , 526, 535 , 537

Stanard, T., 414 , 418

Stanislavski, C., 490, 493 , 503

Stankov, L., 32 , 38, 595 , 596, 611

Stanovich, K. E., 164 , 292 , 301, 431, 437

Stanton, N., 185 , 192 , 199, 200

Star, S. L., 13 1, 135 , 144

Starkes, J. L., 3 , 12 , 14 , 16, 19, 46, 47, 60, 67, 231, 234 ,237, 241, 244 , 245 , 255 , 256, 259, 260, 261, 305 ,306, 307, 309, 311, 317, 318, 361, 369, 471, 472 , 473 ,475 , 476, 478, 479, 481, 482 , 483 , 484 , 485 , 486,487, 488, 498, 499, 500, 501, 503 , 505 , 513 , 516,520, 693 , 702 , 703 , 709, 715 , 721, 730, 741, 770

Starkey, P., 555 , 568

Stasser, G., 750, 760

Staszewski, J. J., 19, 31, 37, 58, 66, 252 , 258, 261, 268,283 , 531, 536, 599, 608, 735 , 741

Stearns, J., 498, 503

Stearns, M., 498, 503

Stearns, P. N., 570, 583

Steeh, J., 497, 503

Steele, R. J., 348, 353

Stefanek, J., 736, 739

Stehwien, J., 250, 253 , 260

Steier, D., 49, 67

Steiger, J. H., 606, 611

Stein, E. A., 662 , 678

Stein, E. W., 207, 222 , 753 , 760

Stein, J., 475 , 486, 713 , 721

Stein, J. R., 476, 486

Steinberg, G. M., 256, 261, 476

Steinhagen, P., 464 , 469

Steinmetz, H., 548, 551, 554 , 565 , 566, 567, 703

Stelmach, G. E., 277, 284

Ste Marie, D., 474 , 487

Stemwedel, M. E., 275 , 276, 286

Stephan, P. E., 322 , 335

Sterman, J. D., 427, 432 , 437

Sternad, D., 514 , 520

Sternberg, R. J., 10, 12 , 16, 19, 24 , 26, 29, 31, 32 , 34 ,38, 54 , 67, 88, 101, 205 , 222 , 349, 353 , 374 , 387,599, 610, 613 , 614 , 615 , 616, 617, 618, 619, 621, 622 ,623 , 624 , 625 , 626–627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632 ,725 , 736, 741, 762 , 766, 767, 769, 770, 772 , 786

Sterr, A., 466, 468, 666

Stevens, A. L., 205 , 219, 366, 370

Stevens, M. J., 384 , 387

Stevenson, H. W., 385 , 451

Stewart, D. D., 750, 760

Stewart, J., 234 , 238

Stewart, K., 409, 416

Stewart, T. R., 686, 703

Stigsdotter, A., 549, 551

Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., 172 , 183 , 598, 599, 610, 728,733 , 740

Stoffregen, T. A., 513 , 519

Stokes, A. F., 356, 357, 364 , 366, 367, 371, 445 , 453

Stoltzfus, E. R., 726, 738

Stone, R., 254 , 261

Storck, J., 623 , 624 , 625 , 631

Stout, R. J., 443 , 450

Strater, L. D., 645 , 646, 651

Stratman, J., 401

Strauss, A., 144

Strauss, O., 406, 417

Strom, P., 250, 261

Strub, M. E., 451

Strumilin, S. G., 304 , 318

Sturdivant, N., 770, 771, 787

Suß, H.-M., 157, 158, 165

Subotnik, R., 291, 301

Suchman, L. A., 13 1, 144 , 208, 222 , 405 , 418

Sudman, S., 237, 241

Sudnow, D., 462 , 470

Sulloway, F. J., 327, 335

Suls, J. M., 763 , 775 , 789

Sulzer-Azaroff, B., 313 , 318

Summala, H., 356, 357, 362 , 371

Summers, E., 291, 301

Sundberg, J., 464 , 470

Suomi, S. J., 592 , 608

Super, D. E., 158, 165

Suri, N., 212 , 218

Susukita, T., 540, 551, 552

Sutcliffe, K. M., 446, 450

Sutton, C., 254 , 261

Sutton, M. A., 158, 164

Svensson, L., 106, 123

Swaen, G. M. H., 729, 737, 741

Swanson, D. B., 51, 54 , 55 , 64 , 351

Swanson, H. L., 399

Swartz, C. W., 717, 721






author index 815

Swenton-Wall, P., 138, 142

Swinnen, S. P., 474 , 485

Szalai, A., 304 , 318

Szameitat, A. J., 664 , 665 , 676, 682

Szolovits, P., 55 , 66, 88, 95 , 101, 102

Szymanski, M., 132 , 134 , 141, 145

Taffinder, N., 254 , 261

Tagliabue, M., 272 , 273 , 286

Takeuchi, H., 615 , 623 , 631

Talleur, D. A., 253 , 258, 262

Tamblyn, R. M., 46, 62 , 353

Tan, H., 618, 621, 622 , 632

Tanaka, J. W., 176, 180, 184

Tanaka, K., 669, 680

Tanaka, S., 549, 552

Tanji, J., 671, 672 , 682

Tannenbaum, S. I., 441, 450, 453

Tanniru, M., 376, 377, 378, 384

Tarr, M. J., 667, 668, 676, 678, 682

Taub, E., 465 , 466, 468, 508, 517, 674 , 678, 695 , 701

Tawney, R. H., 107, 123

Tayler, M. A., 256, 262

Taylor, F. W., 186, 187, 192 , 201

Taylor, H. L., 253 , 258, 262

Taylor, I. A., 10, 19

Taylor, J. L., 733 , 741

Taylor, M., 176, 180, 184

Teachout, M. S., 617, 631

Teague, D., 277, 284

Teasley, B. E., 379, 387

Teichler, H. J., 756, 760

Teixido, A., 464 , 468

Tejada-Flores, L., 719, 721

Telford, C. W., 727, 741

Teller, T., 172 , 183 , 598, 599, 610, 728, 740

Tempini, M. L., 667, 668, 679

Temple, E., 671, 680

Temprado, J. J., 516, 517

Tenenbaum, G., 473 , 475 , 478, 484 , 487

Terman, L. M., 165 , 292 , 301, 321, 335

Tesch-Romer, C., 14 , 18, 23 , 28, 31, 37, 45 , 64 , 235 ,237, 251, 259, 292 , 297, 300, 305 , 306, 307, 308,311, 317, 369, 370, 375 , 383 , 385 , 400, 427, 436,459, 460, 468, 472 , 480, 485 , 561, 562 , 566, 600,601, 608, 613 , 630, 683 , 686, 689, 691, 692 , 695 ,697, 699, 701, 705 , 720, 727, 732 , 735 , 738

Tesfay, S. T., 347, 353

Tessor, A., 400

Tetlock, P. E., 579, 583 , 584

Thagard, P., 21, 29, 184

Thelwell, R. C., 718, 721

Theorell, T., 692 , 702

Thioux, M., 554 , 563 , 567, 675 , 681

Thomas, A., 533 , 537

Thomas, J. C., 376, 386

Thomas, J. R., 245 , 246, 259, 262 , 472 , 479, 482 , 483 ,485 , 486, 487

Thomas, J. T., 471, 483

Thomas, K. T., 246, 259, 471, 483

Thomas, P., 730, 740

Thomas, P. R., 481, 487

Thompson, B. B., 406, 416, 445 , 450

Thompson, C. P., 540, 542 , 546, 552

Thompson, J. A., 480, 485

Thompson, L., 435 , 437

Thompson, W. M., 347, 353

Thomsen, G. E., 89, 102

Thordsen, M. L., 408, 413 , 415 , 416

Thorndike, E. L., 150, 165

Thorndike, R. L., 165

Thota, J. J., 46, 67

Thucydides, 570, 584

Thulborn, K. R., 664 , 680

Thunholm, P., 411, 418

Tikhomirov, O. K., 524 , 538

Tindale, R. S., 443 , 451

Tisserand, D. J., 593 , 611

Tobin, K., 82 , 86

Toda, M., 424 , 436

Tolcott, M. A., 426, 437

Tombu, M., 277, 286

Tomlinson, B., 402

Tong, F., 667, 668, 680

Toole, T., 513 , 520

Tootell, R. B., 668, 680

Torkington, J., 250, 254 , 262

Torres, F., 565 , 567, 671, 681

Toulmin, S. E., 577, 584

Tovar, M. A., 89, 102

Trafton, G., 25 , 28, 173 , 178, 183 , 207, 217, 220

Traxler, M. J., 402

Trehub, S., 593 , 608

Trepos, J., 111, 123

Trollip, S. R., 641, 651

Trollope, A., 712 , 721

Trott, A. D., 235 , 240

Trott, A. L., 352

Trudel, P., 474 , 484

Tsang, P. S., 356, 357, 360, 371

Tschirhart, M. D., 15 , 41, 421, 637

Tsevat, J., 434 , 437

Tucker, R. G., 180, 184 , 356, 357, 365 , 370

Tuckman, B. W., 78, 86

Tuffiash, M. I., 524 , 532 , 534 , 535 , 693 , 697, 700,730, 738

Tugwell, P., 352

Tulhoski, S. W., 32 , 37

Tully, M. P., 349, 352

Tulving, E., 57, 67, 385

Tulviste, P., 576, 584

Turkeltaub, P. E., 670, 682

Turley, R. T., 374 , 383 , 387

Turnbull, J., 349, 353

Turne, C. W., 213 , 219

Turner, A. A., 54 , 64 , 373 , 375 , 376, 377, 385

Turner, R., 657, 662 , 663 , 671, 680

Turner, S., 106, 120, 123

Turvey, M. T., 513 , 514 , 516, 517, 519, 520

Tversky, A., 93 , 96, 103 , 404 , 405 , 409, 416, 418, 425 ,434 , 437

Tweney, R. D., 578, 584

Tyler, S., 47, 52 , 67

Tzourio-Mazoyer, N., 563 , 564 , 568, 675 , 681

Uehara, M. A., 414 , 418

Ujimoto, K. V., 305 , 318

Ulijaszek, S. J., 688, 703

Ullen, F., 674 , 677, 696, 700

Umilta, C., 271, 272 , 273 , 286

Underwood, G., 356, 357, 362 , 363 , 364 , 369, 371,648, 651

Ungerleider, L. G., 656, 657, 662 , 663 , 667, 668, 671,679, 680, 682






816 author index

Urcuioli, P., 273 , 286

U.S. Army, 410, 411, 412

U.S. Marine Corps

Valentin, D., 686, 703

Valentine, E. R., 11, 16, 21, 54 , 60, 235 , 236, 237, 241,460, 470, 539, 540, 541, 542 , 543 , 544 , 545 , 547,548, 551, 552 , 674 , 693

Valentine, R. J., 347, 353

Valentini, G. L., 533 , 537

van Amelsvoort, L. G. P. M., 729, 737, 741

van Berlo, M., 195 , 201

van Breukelen, G. J. P., 494 , 503

Van Cott, H. P., 187, 200

Van Daele, A., 208, 219

Vandenberghe, R., 667, 668, 679

van der Heijde, D., 349, 353

van der Kamp, J., 475 , 476, 486

van der Linden, S., 349, 353

van der Maas, H. L. J., 13 , 19, 232 , 241, 524 , 538

van der Vleuten, C., 349, 353

van de Wiel, M. W., 353

van Dijk, T. A., 249, 262

VanDoren, C., 76, 84 , 86

Van Essen, D. C., 656, 667, 678, 681

van Gelder, T., 57, 67

van Harskamp, N. J., 555 , 560, 563 , 566, 568

van Hoof, R., 140, 143

VanLehn, K., 48, 67, 87, 103

Van Rossum, H. J. M., 353

Van Selst, M. A., 277, 278, 285 , 286

van Wieringen, P. C. W., 480, 484

Varela-Alvarez, H., 237, 240

Vasyukova, E., 532 , 534 , 535 , 693 , 697, 700, 730, 738

Vaughan, J., 515 , 519

Vecsey, G., 710, 721

Veinott, E. S., 424 , 438

Vereijken, B., 514 , 520

Verhaeghen, P., 549, 550, 552

Verhofstadt-Deneve, L., 533 , 535

Verkoeijn, P. P., 353

Verner, L., 251, 262

Verplanck, W. S., 227, 241

Verwijnen, M. G. M., 699, 702

Vesonder, G. T., 25 , 30, 48, 51, 55 , 67

Vessey, I., 375 , 379, 383 , 387

Vicente, K. J., 11, 19, 25 , 29, 130, 144 , 170, 171, 181, 184 ,188, 201, 208, 209, 210, 211, 215 , 216, 219, 222 , 686,703

Vickers, J. N., 471, 477, 487

Vidulich, M. A., 200

Vilga, E., 495 , 503

Vineberg, S., 490, 503

Vinkhuyzen, E., 132 , 134 , 141, 145

Virji, S. M., 570, 574 , 583

Viswesvaran, C., 450

Vitalari, N. P., 381, 382 , 387

Viteles, M. S., 186, 201

Vitouch, O., 462 , 470

Vogt, S., 272 , 285

Volkmann, F. C., 511, 520

Vollrath, D. A., 443 , 451

Volmer, J., 15 , 51, 60, 235 , 373

Volpe, C. E., 441, 450

von Cramon, D. Y., 664 , 665 , 676, 682

Von Eckardt, B., 237, 241

von Holst, E., 511, 520

von Winterfeldt, D., 752 , 760

Vorberg, D., 729, 739

Voss, J. F., 16, 23 , 25 , 29, 30, 47, 48, 51, 52 , 55 , 63 , 67,179, 182 , 183 , 235 , 356, 360, 371, 375 , 387, 471,484 , 569, 570, 574 , 575 , 577, 578, 580, 583 , 584

Vu, K.-P. L., 15 , 53 , 59, 265 , 273 , 286, 462 , 658, 725 ,735

Vye, N., 626, 629

Vygotsky, L. S., 758, 760

Wadhwa, R., 657, 664 , 665 , 666, 678

Wagenmakers, E. J., 13 , 19, 232 , 241, 524 , 538

Wager, W. W., 78, 85

Wagner, A. D., 508, 517

Wagner, C., 464 , 470

Wagner, D. A., 528, 538

Wagner, R. K., 12 , 16, 32 , 38, 292 , 301, 613 , 614 , 615 ,616, 618, 621, 622 , 623 , 625 , 626, 628, 631, 632 ,725 , 736, 741

Wagstaff, D., 726, 740

Wahlin, A., 593 , 606

Wakely, M., 6, 19

Walberg, H. J., 324 , 327, 335

Walder, C., 348, 353

Waldman, D. A., 726, 741

Walk, R. D., 514 , 517

Walker, C. B., 451

Walker, J., 305 , 318

Walker, K. E., 304 , 318

Walker, T. C., 103

Wall, J. G., 648, 650

Wallace, I., 710, 712 , 721

Walls, J., 247, 248, 262

Walsh, D. A., 598, 599, 601, 602 , 609, 611, 728, 741

Walther, E., 27, 30

Wang, G., 669, 680

Wang, H., 271, 285

Wang, J. H., 11, 19, 25 , 29, 170, 181, 184 , 686, 703

Wang, L., 256, 261

Wang, M., 204

Wang, Y., 23 , 29, 44 , 53 , 65 , 172 , 181, 183

Wann, J., 255 , 259

Wanzel, K. R., 348, 351, 353

Ward, A., 431, 437

Ward, M., 215 , 221

Ward, P., 12 , 15 , 46, 60, 78, 234 , 237, 241, 243 , 244 ,245 , 246, 247, 252 , 255 , 256, 257, 258, 261, 262 ,472 , 475 , 476, 477, 478, 481, 486, 487, 488, 693 ,697, 703

Ware, M., 555 , 566

Warm, J. S., 429, 436

Warr, P., 157, 165

Warren, W. H., 480, 484 , 514 , 515 , 517

Warrington, E. K., 559, 566, 670, 681

Wasielewski, P., 363 , 371

Wason, P. M., 48, 66

Wasser, A., 291, 301

Wassermann, E., 671, 681

Waterman, D. A., 101, 191, 200, 204 , 220, 405 , 419

Waters, A. J., 527, 532 , 533 , 536, 537, 538

Watkins, C. L., 80, 84

Watson, F., 558, 566

Watson, J. B., 44 , 45 , 67, 223 , 224 , 226, 241

Watson, J. D., 165 , 775 , 776, 786

Watson, P. M., 67

Watzman, A., 495 , 503

Waylen, A. E., 371






author index 817

Wearing, A. J., 445 , 452

Weaver, G., 181, 182 , 237, 239, 543 , 545 , 550, 690,701

Weaver, W., 509, 519

Webb, R. M., 34 , 37

Weber, A., 464 , 468

Weber, M., 118, 123 , 753 , 760

Weber, N., 598, 599, 611

Webster, J. B., 272 , 286

Webster, R. W., 250, 260

Wegner, D. M., 128, 623 , 753 , 760

Weinberg, G. M., 376, 387

Weinberg, R., 710, 721

Weinbruch, C., 508, 517

Weiner, A., 205 , 220

Weiner, B., 750, 760

Weinland, J. D., 554 , 568

Weinstein, C. E., 710, 721, 722

Weir, P. L., 481, 482 , 485 , 487

Weisberg, R. W., 16, 21, 23 , 30, 46, 60, 462 , 470, 693 ,761, 762 , 763 , 767, 769, 770, 771, 772 , 773 , 775 ,776, 782 , 783 , 785 , 786, 787

Weiser, M., 175 , 184 , 379, 387

Weiss, S. M., 96, 103 , 405 , 419

Weitzenfeld, J. S., 205 , 221, 374 , 380, 386

Wellek, A., 457, 470

Wells, L. A., 275 , 276, 286

Wender, K. F., 384 , 386

Wenger, E. C., 128, 145 , 405 , 417, 623 , 624 , 628, 630,632

Wenger, M. J., 236, 241

Wenneras, C., 117, 123

Werder, J. K., 594 , 610

Wertsch, J. V., 576, 584

Wesseling, G., 599, 610

West, R. F., 363 , 369, 431, 437

Westerberg, H., 662 , 680, 681

Westerman, S. J., 730, 742

Westwood, J. D., 260

Weyhrauch, P., 495 , 502

Whalen, J., 132 , 134 , 145

Whalen, M., 132 , 134 , 145

Whalen, S., 458, 468, 719

Whishaw, I. Q., 657, 680, 695 , 702

White, B. Y., 278, 279, 284

White, H., 574 , 584

White, K., 431, 437

White, N., 626–627, 632

White, R. K., 323 , 335

White, W. C., 91, 101

Whitehead, A. N., 289, 301

Whiting, H. T. A., 514 , 520

Whitsell, S., 277, 278, 285

Whyte, W. H., 130, 145

Wickens, C. D., 249, 250, 253 , 259, 260, 362 , 369,636, 651

Widerhold, T. L., 444 , 450

Widowski, D., 378, 387

Wiechmann, D., 442 , 450

Wiedenbeck, S., 377, 378, 386, 387

Wiegmann, D. A., 364 , 371

Wienbruch, C., 465 , 468, 533 , 534 , 674 , 678, 695 ,701

Wierenga, S. A., 513 , 516

Wiener, C., 144

Wigdor, A. K., 33 , 38

Wiggins, M., 356, 357, 363 , 367, 371

Wikman, A. S., 356, 357, 362 , 371

Wilding, J. M., 11, 16, 21, 54 , 60, 235 , 236, 237, 241,539, 540, 541, 542 , 543 , 544 , 545 , 546, 547, 548,551, 552 , 674 , 693

Wilensky, H. L., 108, 123

Wiley, J., 16, 27, 30, 47, 235 , 569, 574 , 575 , 577, 583 ,584

Wilkins, D. C., 97, 99, 101, 103 , 530, 538

Wilkinson, L., 274 , 286

Willging, T. E., 755 , 759

Williamon, A., 460, 470

Williams, 616, 622

Williams, A. F., 356, 357, 359, 363 , 371

Williams, A. M., 12 , 15 , 46, 60, 78, 234 , 237, 241, 243 ,244 , 245 , 246, 247, 251, 252 , 255 , 256, 257, 258,261, 262 , 471, 474 , 475 , 476, 477, 478, 485 , 486,487, 488, 693 , 697, 703

Williams, B. C., 95 , 102

Williams, J. G., 245 , 246, 262 , 471, 475 , 476, 477,478, 487

Williams, L., 716, 721

Williams, M., 691, 703

Williams, P., 356, 357, 360, 369

Williams, W., 626–627, 632

Williams, W. M., 32 , 38, 615 , 616, 618, 622 , 623 , 630,631

Willingham, D. B., 274 , 275 , 276, 286

Willingham, W. W., 157, 165

Willis, S. L., 602 , 609, 732 , 735 , 739, 742

Willmott, H., 106, 109, 121

Willoughby, L., 348, 352

Willumeit, H.-P., 387

Wilson, I. B., 434 , 437

Wilson, P. A., 107, 121

Wilson, R. S., 496, 503

Wilson, T. D., 176, 183 , 227, 230, 240, 628, 631

Wincour, G., 668, 681

Wineburg, S. S., 177, 180, 184 , 570, 572 , 573 , 584

Winne, P. H., 705 , 721

Winner, E., 459, 470, 724 , 742 , 767, 787

Winograd, P., 57, 65

Winograd, T., 48, 67, 405 , 419

Winter, R. F., 557, 567

Wishbow, N. A., 402

Wissel, J., 671, 681

Witt, L. A., 381, 385

Witte, S. P., 390, 402

Wittmann, W. W., 157, 158, 165

Wohldmann, E. L., 276, 284

Wold, A., 117, 123

Wolf, A., 553 , 567

Wolf, R., 205 , 220

Wolf, S., 171, 183 , 406, 408, 410, 417

Wolfradt, U., 431, 437

Wolpert, D. M., 511, 512 , 516, 518, 520, 671, 677

Woltz, D. J., 163

Wong, S. S., 446, 453

Wood, T. J., 351

Woodbury, R., 501

Woodcock, R. W., 588, 590, 593 , 594 , 595 , 596, 597,610, 611

Woods, D. D., 170, 183 , 192 , 193 , 199, 200, 201, 205 ,208, 221, 445 , 452 , 453

Woods, F. A., 321, 326, 335

Woods, M. E., 304 , 318

Woods, N. N., 353

Woodward, E. A., 441, 452






818 author index

Woody, R. H., 464 , 470

Woolgar, S., 116, 122

Woollacott, M., 735 , 742

Worden, M., 656, 682

Worringham, C. J., 512 , 520

Wredmark, T., 250, 261

Wright, C. E., 512 , 519

Wright, D. L., 513 , 518

Wright, G., 13 , 17

Wuest, V. H., 312 , 316

Wulf, G., 413 , 513 , 518, 520

Wundt, W., 225 , 241

Wustenberg, T., 662 , 679

Wynn, E., 134 , 145

Wynn, K., 555 , 568

Wynn, V., 24 , 28, 559, 567

Wynne, B., 116, 123

Xiong, J., 508, 517

Yamauchi, T., 177, 182

Yang, L., 734 , 742

Yates, J. F., 15 , 41, 243 , 262 , 421, 422 , 424 , 425 , 426,427, 430, 432 , 433 , 434 , 437, 438, 635

Ye, N., 379, 387

Yengo, L., 47, 52 , 67, 205 , 220

Yesavage, J. A., 549, 552 , 733 , 741

Yeung, R. Y. M., 347, 352

Yin, R. K., 668, 682

Young, B., 482 , 487, 488

Young, C. A., 432 , 438

Young, J., 664 , 665 , 679

Young, K., 573 , 583

Yovel, G., 667, 668, 682

Yuasa, M., 327, 335

Zaccaro, S. J., 441, 443 , 444 , 451, 452 , 453

Zacks, R. T., 350, 726, 738

Zadeh, L., 96, 103

Zago, L., 554 , 563 , 564 , 567, 568, 675 , 681

Zajac, H., 664 , 680

Zakay, E., 448, 453

Zakrajsek, D. B., 314 , 315 , 316

Zall, P. M., 401

Zanone, P. G., 514 , 520

Zazanis, M., 444 , 453

Zeffiro, T. A., 670, 682

Zeidner, M., 705 , 713 , 719

Zeisig, R. L., 445 , 448, 453

Zeitz, C. M., 52 , 68

Zelaznik, H., 519

Zelinski, E. M., 593 , 609

Zhuang, J., 533 , 534

Zhuang, P., 662 , 663 , 679

Zhukov, L., 251, 262

Zickar, M. J., 323 , 324 , 325 , 330, 335

Ziegler, A., 464 , 468, 527, 536

Ziemann, U., 671, 681

Zimmer, H. D., 496, 500, 501

Zimmerman, B. J., 14 , 16, 55 , 60, 402 , 461, 469, 693 ,699, 705 , 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712 , 713 ,714 , 715 , 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722 ,760

Zorzi, M., 271, 272 , 273 , 286

Zsambok, C. E., 171, 183 , 200, 206, 221, 367, 371, 403 ,404 , 408, 410, 413 , 417, 419, 426, 436, 437, 438,451

Zuckerman, H., 12 , 19, 117, 123 , 291, 293 , 301, 323 ,332 , 335

Zusne, L., 322 , 335

Zwaan, R. A., 593 , 610






Subject Index

abacus, 53 , 549

Abelard, Peter, 74

abilities, 155. See also cognitive abilities; natural abilityage-vulnerable, 593

attention not focused specifically to level of, 161

attenuated by age-correlated factors, 725

characterizing expertise, 598

complex, 724

developing at different rates, 473

differential patterns of, 34

expertise as a form of, 616

expertise decoupled from, 730

mathematical, 554 , 563

in mature adulthood, 598

practical intelligence and general, 616

practice as compensation for differences, 459

principal classes of, 589–591

producing scores on a particular ability test, 589

selectivity of arithmetical, 560

skilled performance and determinants of, 459

supporting reasoning, 590

task-specific confidence in, 158

traditional notion of student aptitude as, 79

ability predictorsof individual differences, 162

matching with criteria, 157

absent evidence identification, 572

absolute expertise, 21, 22

absorption in writing, 395

Absorption personality trait, 159

abstract conceptsprogram comprehension based on, 378

rendering, 392

abstract disciplines, 71

abstract goals, 378

abstract language, 392

abstract questions, 25

abstract representationsessential in blindfold chess, 531

retrieving appropriate material from memory, 52

slow acquisition of, 52

abstracted features, 54

abstractionaiding utilization of knowledge and reasoning, 52

of events, 54

hierarchy, 188, 196

levels of, 210

in metacognition recall, 711

Abstraction-Decomposition matricesas an activity-independent representation, 210

including processes, 210

interactions with experts, 215

representing the work domain, 214

tutorial examples of, 210

in WDA, 209

abstraction-decomposition space, 211

academic achievementAfrican village priorities and, 621

practical thinking skills and, 627

academic intelligence, naturalistic intelligence and, 616

academic learning. See also learningperformance phase of, 710

practice methods in, 711

task strategies in, 710

technique-oriented strategies in, 709

time management in, 711

academic performance, prediction for children andadolescents, 155

academic qualifications, 22

academic success, too much formal, 327

819






82 0 subject index

academic writersanticipating readers reactions, 394

thoughts of blocked, 396

academic/intellectual fields, 295

academies for highly skilled athletes, 9

accelerated expertise acquisition, 329

acceleration of differential reward functions, 36

acceptability, 434–435

acceptable performance criterion, 83

acceptances, 422

accident rates, decreasing with experience, 358

accountabilityexperts and, 753

operationalized as audit, 112

accountancy, 109

accounting fraud, 235

ACC/pre SMA, 656

acculturation, 590, 605

acculturation knowledge. See Gcachievement(s). See also academic achievement

continued improvements in, 14

gauging acquisition according to the number of,324

particular as units of analysis, 323

talent and superior, 767

targets professionals subject to, 112

variation in students, 79

achievers, generations of, 328

acknowledged experts, 98

acquired knowledgein a domain, 48

expert performance and, 463

situational constraints interaction mechanism, 615

acquisition. See also expertise acquisitionof dance expertise, 498

of expertise, 705

of expertise as a function of time, 79

of expertise in acting, 491

of expertise in a given domain, 9

facilitated by expertise, 623

functions, 267

indicators in historiometric studies, 323–324

process for expertise, 324

of tacit knowledge, 625–626

ACT (Active control of thought), 479

actingacquisition of expertise in, 490–491

in dance, 501

empirical investigations, 491–495

expertise in, 489–497

history of, 489–490

long-term working memory and, 496

as a teachable system, 490

technique training, 490

theoretical issues on expertise in, 496–497

as unique performances, 490

acting quality as a control variable in the directorsstudy, 330

acting with, distinguished from being in the presenceof, 312

action sequences, 188

actionsacceptance of experts based on, 426

in activity studies, 313

consequences of, 512

as key decision features, 423

producing particular consequences, 574

in production rules, 92

tight coupling with perception, 480

activation strategies, self-regulatory training and, 718

active deployment period of cognitive systemsengineering, 193

active experiencingin actor role learning, 493–494

cognitive aging and Alzheimer’s disease research,496

non-actor memory enhancement and, 496

activitiesabbreviated list of, 309

adding to an Abstraction-Decomposition matrix, 210

adding up to minutes per day,for the diary format, 312

as how people “chunk” their day, 135

identity-related, 137

micro analysis of, 303

in national time studies, 311

in time diaries, 311

in a time use study, 309

activity episodes. See episodesactivity list, 309

activity overlay, 212

activity statements, 211

activity studies, 313

activity theory, 137

activity-dependent plasticity, 565

activity-oriented record, 139

actoraffective on-stage experience, 494

breathing and emotion generation by, 495

character intentions and meaning inferences by, 492

character utterance reasons and memorization, 491

communication by, 490

dramatic role emotions of, 495

dramatic situation involvement, 490

emotion generation, 494–495

emotional involvement of, 491

experiencing of character mental life, 493

expertise in physiological and psychologicalinvestigations, 495

as experts, 489

immune system and affective states, 495

learning stages, 493

learning strategies use by non-actors, 496

long-term retention of roles, 494

long-term role and verbal recall, 494

mask method of training, 491

memorization by, 491

performance feelings and, 495

role retention and access, 491–494

script segmentation and expert chunks, 493

Shakespearean role memory of, 491

subject-performed tasks and, 496–497

training program methods, 491

virtual reality scenario models, 495

word retrieval by, 491

actor’s paradox, 494

actual performance, measures of, 323

ADAPT, 368

adaptationeffective forms of, 713

expert team optimization and, 446

expertise as, 57–59

improving by straining physiological systems,695–696






subject index 82 1

input-throughput-output model of team, 442

musician perceptual-motor, 465

musician physiological, 464–465

adaptive abilities, 614

adaptive aiding, 192

adaptive cycle, 442

adaptive expertise, 377, 383

adaptive inferenceseffects of self-regulatory training on, 715–716

self-regulation and, 713

adaptive intellect, tacit knowledge as resource for, 617

adaptive performance of expert teams, 440

adaptive team performance, 442

adaptive training, 662

adult developmentcapabilities not declining during, 595–596

declining capacities during, 593–595

of expertise, 601–602

adults. See also older adultsbrain plasticity as limited in, 657

exceptional performance not yet predictable, 292

expertise development socialization, 757

perceptual learning capabilities of, 283

words known by college-educated, 178

writing as knowledge transforming, 398

advance visual cues, experts using, 476

advanced ages, general benefits of expertise, 735–736

The Advanced Decision Architectures CollaborativeTechnology Alliance, 207

Advanced Placement classes, encouragingparticipation, 36

advanced placement courses for gifted students, 34

adverse and stressful conditions, 382

aerobic fitness, 695

aerodromes, 777

aerospace engineers, 35

aesthetic decisions, jazz improvisation and, 460–462

affective experience of actors on-stage, 494

affective processes in self-regulation, 706

affective psychopathology, 157

affective statesof actors, 493

actors immune systems and, 496

of expert teams, 444

affective traits, 155 , 157. See also personality traitsAFQT. See Armed Forces Qualifying TestAfrica

drummers, 464

tacit knowledge inventory of Kenyan children, 621

Afro-American students, historical alternativenarrative and, 576

age. See also agingceilings in the Roe and Bloom studies, 294

as a chess skill predictor, 534

curve for expert performance in various domains,320

decline in memory with, 548

declines in general abilities with, 157

differences in cognitive performance, 549

effect on the expected performance of anindividual, 326

by expertise, 729

expertise decline compensation with, 462

for formal instruction in dance, 498

functions based on career age, 330

matching on, 358

performance changes as a function of, 323

practice efficiency and, 459

relation to achievement, 324 , 329

relation with expert performance, 326

Age and Achievement, 321, 329

age-achievement function for directors, 330

age-based interactions with practice, 481

age-by-expertise designs, 728

age-comparative studies, 728

age-creativity relationship, 330

age-effects, demonstration of expertise-moderationfor, 728

age-graded declines in performance IQ, 726

age-graded stability of performance, 729

agentsin decision making process, 429

experts as, 136

workers as, 128

age-performance curves, 329, 330

age-performance function, 331

age-performance studies, concerning world-classexpertise, 329

age-related changesin everyday cognitive functioning and leisurely

activities, 732

in processing, 725–726

in professional skills, 732

age-related constraints, 734–735

age-related declinedifferential sensitivity of skills to, 733–734

expert mechanisms as compensatory means for, 730

age-related deficits, 549

age-related performance declines, 726

age-related reductions in music performance, 699

age-related slowing, 723 , 726

age-vulnerable abilities, 593

aggregated data, artifactual decrement in, 326

aggregated longitudinal design, 325

aggregation error, 326

aging. See also adults; age; maturity; negativeage-effects; older adults; older experts

benefits of expertise during, 735–736

cognitive, 496

cognitive, perceptual, and psychomotor functions,726

compensatory effects of expertise, 365

decline in speed of performance and thinking, 594

expertise and, 723–737

interacting with knowledge processes, 534

learning skills, 657

medical expertise and, 348–349

AGL (altitude above ground level), 360

AI (artificial intelligence)applying to cockpit automation, 192

branches of, 89

brief history of, 89–91

common sense behavior in programs, 99

developments within, 48

earliest programs, 43

first computer program, 42

incorporating the knowledge of experts, 12

problem solving models and, 530

programming, 495

progression from weak to strong methods, 48

research focusing on expert systems, 90–91

as the “science of weak methods”, 43

scientific goal of, 87

Air Force, Academy cadet pilots and experienced, 250






82 2 subject index

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, 77

air traffic control (ATC)acquiring a scan pattern, 361

expertise in, 361

experts better at time-sharing tasks, 361

taxing skills to act upon unpredictable events, 733

training study, 725

air traffic controllersapprentice performing tasks serially, 361

expert solving violations and deviations alternately,367

expert team self-organization, 448

information skills and experience, 640

mental models, 366

skill acquisition experiment with tasks, 15 1

transcriptions of, 361

aircraft, control system development, 777–779

airline pilots, incidents attributable to errors made by,359

airline scheduling, 94

air-to-air and air-to-ground fighter concepts, 365

Aitken, Alexanderas a calculator, 560

natural all-round superiority, 545

number intimacy and, 561

study of, 554

superior memory of, 542

alexia, pure, 670

algorithm(s)based on task instructions, 267

for calendrical calculation, 561

as reasoning strategies, 48

use by expert calculators, 558

algorithmic procedures, 268, 281

altitude about ground level (AGL), 360

altruism. See service orientationAlzheimer’s disease, 496

American experts, studies focused on, 294

American Nobel laureates, 291

Americans, error to study only, 295

amnesic syndrome, 544

amygdula, 656

anaesthesia technical skills, 347

analogical reasoning, 92

aiding productive, 52

decision making depending upon, 33

analogiespermitting efficient problem-solving by experts, 344

reasoning with, 594

solving chess combinations, 532

analysesof tasks, 185

of tough cases, 206

analysts, 752

analytic concepts for what is happening in a naturalsetting, 137

analytic decision making as mode of, 430

analytical inquiry, 344

analytical intelligence, triarchic theory and, 616

analytical knowledge, 342 , 344

aligning with “semantic memory”, 342

vs. exemplar knowledge, 346

ancient period, expertise in, 72

ancient texts, 74

ancient views of skill building and expertise, 70–72

angular gyrus, 671

Annual Review of Psychology, music studies in, 467

antecedent eventshistorical causes and, 580

presence of temporally, 579

anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), 664

anterior cingulate cortex/pre-supplementary motorarea (ACC/pre SMA), 656

anterior insula, 656

anthropologists, cognitive, 243

anthropologydistinction between two kinds of data, 139

ethnography originally associated most stronglywith, 129

history and methods of, 137

time use literature on, 305

visual, 129–130

anticipationcognitive representations mediating skilled, 697

decision making and, 475–476

decision results as beyond, 424

anticipatory skill, 478

Antique Coin Problem, 764

anxiety, skill demands and, 395

apologist experts, 119

applicants, matching with suitable opportunities, 160

applications of expert systems, 93–95

applied researchers, carrying out task analysis, 186

applied skillsbuilding, 70

movement, 74

apprehension, studies measuring span of, 591

apprentice(s), 22

attempting to become, 218

changes in relations with masters, 9

of craftsmen, 5 , 74

specific deficits in structures of, 365

aptitudein Carroll’s system, 79

complexes, 159

Aquinas, 74

archery, 481, 709

architects, visualization abilities of, 602

architectural design, application of proxemics for, 130

architecture of the brain, 655–658

arete, taught by Sophists, 71

argumentsin a narrative, 574

as overall structures of problem solutions, 577

structure of, 573 , 581

aristocracy, 118

Aristotlediscussing arguments, 573

gathering knowledge from professional reports, 5

structure of sequences of thoughts, 224

arithmetic problems, 280–281, 560

arithmetical association, mathematical prodigies and,554

arithmetical facts, 560

arithmetical memory, 564

arithmetical prodigies, 554

Armed Forces Qualifying Test (AFQT), 33 , 36

Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery(ASVAB), 32

Armstrong, Lance, 711, 713

ArmyBattle Command Knowledge System, 624

infantry officer expertise and situation awareness,644–646






subject index 82 3

infantry situation awareness, 644–646

officers tacit knowledge acquisition and reflection,structured professional forums of, 624 , 625

Army Air Corps, Link Trainer used by, 252

army command and controlcritical decision making in, 409, 411, 412

rationale for, 410

arrested development, 601, 694

art. See also painting; sculpturecreative value and, 762–763

Cubism as domain redefinition, 784

expertise in, 16

style recycling in, 783

arthroscopy, 254

artifacts, 325

artifactual decrement, 326

artifactual results, 326

artificial force fields, 512

artificial intelligence. See AIartificial methods, 42

artistic creativity, 765 , 766

artistic fields, 295

artistic interests, 159

artistic performanceacting as, 489–497

dance as, 497–501

artists as explorers, 783

Asimov, Issac, 325 , 399

Asperger’s syndrome, 541

assessmentscase-study scenarios, 619–620

domain specific knowledge and tacit knowledge andintelligence, 621

included in historiometric inquiries into expertise,323

of tacit knowledge and practical intelligence, 618,627

association tests, measuring TSR, 590

associations, 557

avoiding spurious, 325

episodic coding of, 656

facility in forming, 596

by mathematical experts and calculating prodigies,560

in naturalistic decision making, 405

retrieval of answers via, 280

variety of in numerical fact recall, 559

associative phaseof improvement in performance, 685

of perceptual-motor skill acquisition, 512

of skill acquisition, 267

assumptionsabout decision making expertise, 426

expertise in a program resting on, 98

astrologers as relative experts, 746

astronomy, required for calculating dates, 72

ASVAB (Armed Services Vocational AptitudeBattery), 32

ATC. See air traffic controlathletes

biographical data on the family pedigrees of,321

cognitive tasks directly tapping their role, 478

cyclical self-regulatory processes used by, 713

deliberate practice limited by level of concentration,699

differentiating within groups, 319

dream teams of, 439

history of demands on, 466

imagery used by, 710

negative outbursts of, 710

perceptual and cognitive skills equally important,482

performance standard of elite, 782

taxonomy used to code diary data, 311

testing skilled and less-skilled, 471

verbal protocol analyses of expert, 471

atonal music, imitation by savants, 463

attentioncapacity constraints of, 59

correlates approach for measures of, 524

declining capacity for focusing, 595

deliberate, 705

driver projection skills and, 648

expertise development and, 705

inexperienced aviation pilots and, 644

influencing learning of all types, 282

influencing the specificity of learning, 666

as an intellectual bottleneck on human thought, 36

limited in novices, 57

limits and situation awareness, 636

loss of focused, 605

maintaining focused, 595

in making judgments, 425

of novices vs. experts in jazz skill acquisition,458–462

overload and psychomotor skills in novice, 644

in perceptual-motor control, 512–513

as situation awareness model factor, 636

in skilled performance, 359–360

stress in decision making, 432

team stress and member, 443

weighting mechanism of perceptual learning, 268

attentional control, 656

attenuation effects, 732

attitudesabout performance of musicians, 464

in a learning outcome taxonomy, 78

Attitudes learning outcome, 80

attributionexpert as personal causal, 749–751

of expert status, 747

personalization and perceived uncertainty, 750

transactional memory and expertise, 753

attribution theorycausality in, 750

expert role in, 743

expert-interaction and, 750–751

atypical experiences, giving drivers, 368

audiencesactor character performance and, 491

actor dramatic role emotions and, 495

actors ability to move, 494

anticipating the needs of multiple, 394

art and reaction of, 763

artist and scientist competition for, 768

expert-lay interaction with, 747

audio, combining, 140

auditor evaluations, performance decreasing withlength of experience, 686

auditors, expert versus less experienced, 4

auditory discrimination in musicians, 465

auditory memory in computation, 559

auditory probe, during writing, 392






82 4 subject index

auditory processing. See Gaauditory rehearsal, memory superiority and, 542

auditory Simon effect, unaffected by prior practice,273

auditory type of prodigies memories, 554

augmented realities, 243

aural representation, 461

authoritygained by scientific expertise, 115

of people with experts, 135

of professions and bureaucratic organizations, 107

authorized procedures, departures from, 215

authorsage of first work and best work, 689

dissociating into multiple characters, 393

writing by famous, 699

autistic savants, musical performance and, 463

autobiographical memory, 296

automakers, design decisions by, 435

automated basic strokes, 53–54

automated consistent tasks, 661

automatic activation, 272

automatic attraction of attention, 269, 270

automatic decision making, 430

automatic perceptual processes, 360

automatic performancecognitive complexity mediation by, 464

not predicting safer driving, 363

automatic processeslater in practice, 266

not modified easily, 269

operating in parallel, 269

resistant to disruption, 53

automatic processing. See also processingas control network regions released, 660

controlled management of memory and knowledgeapplication, 54

in network models, 271

from a neural perspective, 660

weakness and strengths to controlled processing,659

for well-practiced consistent tasks, 659

automatic responsesexpertise and, 767

tacit knowledge and, 617

automatic stage of perceptual-motor skill acquisition,512

automaticityaviation student pilot situation awareness errors

and, 642

behavioral fluency similar to, 80

as central to the development of expertise, 53

cognitive tasks and, 639

creativity and, 767

developing with consistent mapping, 269

driver hazard awareness and, 648

expert performers avoiding the arresteddevelopment associated with, 694

within expertise, 58

expertise and the development of, 639

experts executing skills with, 24

functions of, 53–54

over load and psychomotor skills in novice, 644

physical skills and, 644

providing a necessary foundation for expertise, 282

recent research designed to examine notions of, 479

restructuring procedures to circumvent workingmemory, 58

automationpremature, 685

in situation awareness model, 635

automatizationarrested development associated with, 601

consequences of, 684

higher-order, 266

instance theory of, 267

automatized processes, 458

automotive spatial navigation, 673

autonomous decision-making, 113

autonomous phase of skill acquisition, 267

autonomy of professionals, 108

aviationaccidents, 641–642

dynamic environment of, 358

research, 248

aviation pilots. See also pilotsacquiring weather related data from a menu-driven

display, 363


anticipating the consequences of the currentsituation, 250

assessing the skills using simulation, 248–250

examining attentional flexibility and monitoringskills of expert, 249

experience and situation awareness, 643

handling of emergency situations, 693

integrating conflicting information, 364

in low-attitude flight, 359

LT-WM scores, 249

modifying a VFR model, 364

novice situation awareness, 643

over load and psychomotor skills in novice, 644

prioritization of, 368

recalling messages, 172

recalling more concept words, 366

scanning the horizon and instruments, 361

selection and aptitude tests of military andtransport, 358

situation awareness, 640–644

situation awareness and task prioritization, 644

situation awareness concept and experts, 649

situation awareness errors, 634 , 642

in a situation recognition task, 364

staying within specified bounds, 249

student situation errors, 642

taxing experts skills to act upon unpredictableevents, 733

babies, Jolly Jumper use by, 514 , 516

baby chicks, discriminating the sex of, 268, 269

baccalarii status, 73

back stage work, 135

Backhaus, Wilhelm, 733

backtracking, working-memory demands for, 56

backward chaining, 92

backward reasoning, 346

backward span memorymeasuring, 589

negative age relationship for, 593

backward span STWM, 600

backwards-masked objects, 669

backward-working search, 169

backward-working strategy, 177

Bacon, Roger, 6, 690

Bacon, Sir Francis, 6

badminton, 475 , 476






subject index 82 5

balance in dancers, 500

Balanchine, George, 497

balletdance as performance art, 497

dancer memory in, 498

expertise sensitivity to, 672

training methods, 498

ballet dancersdevelopment of “turn out” of, 696

female and male coding movements differently,673

recall of verbal and motor information by, 498

bank managersolder showing decline on psychometric ability

measures, 725


Bannister, Roger, 690

Barishnikolv, Mikhail, 497

basal ganglia, 657

base ratesextreme, 154

issues, 154

baseballevent sequences recalled by experts, 179

expert advantage evidenced, 475

expert players representation of the game situation,234

high and low-knowledge individuals, 48

improvement in both the level of the pitcher andbatter, 690

memory for game descriptions, 732

recall of expert fans compared to casual, 51

basic information-processing skills, 268–276

basic levelobjects classified at, 676

objects learned at, 669

basic sciencephysicians reverting to reasoning based on, 346

role in expertise appears to be minimal, 343

basic-object level, 175 , 179

basketballcoaches, athletes, and referees differentially skilled,

478

free throw expertise development, 421

microanalysis of, 714

multi-phase self-regulatory training in, 715–716

Olympic dream teams, 439

practice methods in, 713

reaching the highest professional ranks in around sixyears, 689

recalling patterns of play in, 245

varsity players recalling more positions, 245

Batchelor, Charles, 780

Bateson, Gregory, 130

Battle Command Knowledge System, 624

battle experience, 324

battlefield commanders, 644

battles, 323 , 324

Bayes’ Theorem, 93

The Beatlesmusic composition case study, 770

ten year rule and, 462 , 771

Becker, Gary, 14

Beethoven, Ludwig vanearly music training of, 770

music expertise domain redefinition and, 784

single-case designs applied to, 325

Beethovians, 393

before and after situation, 181

behavior(s)acting as truthful on-state, 490

actor communication with, 490

of actors as real, 492

behavioral traits as probabilistic patterns of, 588

decision tradeoffs and, 434

decisions and bizarre, 432

documents disagreeing with in the workplace, 135

frequency of, 313 , 314

indicating behavioral traits, 588

in naturally occuring interactions, 141

observing in terms of quality, 314

recording duration of, 314

recording in activity studies, 313

selection of, 313

tacit knowledge as enabler of practically intelligent,615

behavior analysts, recommending collection of thinkaloud protocols, 44

behavioral fluency, as similar to automaticity, 80

behavioral genetics, estimates of heritability forgeneral intelligence, 724

behavioral manifestations of expertise, 23

behavioral performance, 654 , 706

behavioral relevance, M1 representation reflecting,674

behavioral self-regulation, 706

behavioral skill development, 653

behavioral task analysis, 205

behavioral theory, questions left unaddressed by, 78

behavioral traits, 587

behaviors indicating, 588

as stable and dynamic, 588

behaviorally-relevant objects, 658

behavior-genetic research, 588

behaviorismobservable environment considered as legitimate, 43

as a rationale for programmed instruction, 77

reign of, 43

behaviorist models, alternative to, 42

behaviorists, 44 , 237

behaviorschanges in, 653

decision making as intentional, 423

as probabilistic, 582

subjective dimensions, 314

belief bias in historical reasoning, 579

beliefsabout decision making experts, 425

law of small numbers and, 425

as social constructions, 426

beneficiaries, targeted in decision making, 423

beneficiary satisfaction, 428

Berlin Academy of Music, 459

Bernstein, Jeremy, 394

best practice analysis in military decision making, 411

best solution, experts generating, 23

between-individual standard deviationson the Kanfer-Ackerman Air Traffic Controller task,

152

on the noun-pair lookup task, 153

on TRACON, 153

biasesethnographers and, 135

exposing by explaining interests, 138

in military decision making, 409

as serious handicap of experts, 26–27






82 6 subject index

bicycles, airplane control system development and,777

Bidder, George Parker, 557, 559

big switch, expertise as, 54

bi-lateral DLPFC activity, 665

billiards, compared to chess, 697

bimanual coordination and hand independence, 729

bimanual pendulum swinging, 516

binary (“yes/no”) decision, 509

Binet, Alfred, 554 , 561

binge writing, 396, 397

biographical dataapplying quantitative and objective techniques, 320

of exceptional contributors to society, 34

biological capabilities, individual potential limits and,684

biological differences between the sexes, 563

biological systemscharacterized by structure, behavior or function, 178

variation in, 515

biological trait, 587

biologists, studied by Roe, 290, 294

biomedical knowledge, 343

bird watchers, 669

birds, 778

birth order, influencing acquisition of expertise, 327

birth year as a control variable, 328

blackboard model of reasoning, 92

blind individuals, M1 representation for (reading)index finger, 671

blindfold chess. See also chessabstract representations essential in, 531

analysis of players, 225

blunders not increasing much, 531

chess experts ability to play, 599

chess masters playing, 56, 233

chess masters recalling of random moves in, 531

studies of, 530–531

blitz games of chess, 171

Bloch, Susana, 495

blocking by writers, 396

Bloom, Benjamin, 287

approach to the challenge of control or comparisongroups, 294

comparing experts in one domain with experts inanother, 295

early start in, 298

failing to make comparisons with siblings, 295

interest stirred by Carroll’s model, 79

interviews of international-level performers, 13

reflecting the interests of educators, 292

sample may have excluded others similarlyexceptional, 293

studies as theory driven, 295

transition between precision and generalization, 297

blueprints, hierarchical representation of, 172

blunders. See also errorsin blitz games, 171

in chess, 529

due to decreased thinking time, 529

thinking time only marginally affecting, 529

bodily and health functions, age-related changes in,735

bodydance training changes to, 498

kinematics, 672–673

placing under exceptional strain, 695

Bolletierri, Nick, 710

books, traditional chess training practice based on,532

Boolean rules, 281

boredom, skill demands and, 395

bottom-up backward strategy, 377

bourgeois family, 756

bowling, 481

box solution to Candle Problem, 763

Brahms work practice simulation system, 140

Braille reading, brain plasticity demonstrated in, 548,671

brainadaptability of the function and structure of,

695–697

anatomical mechanisms of learning in, 671

anatomy of, 655–658

cerebrum of, 655

changes occurring in as skills acquired, 653

cognitive functions in the female, 563

differences, 548

domain specific representational areas in, 656

front to back specialization of, 657

misconceptions/myths about, 657

only acquired movements uniquely coded by theexpert, 673

organization and perceptual-motor expertise,508

processing of music, 464

specialised number of areas, 555

specialized processing regions of, 655–658

speed of processing as IQ related, 548

subsystems in and memory superiority, 544

systems for mathematical expertise, 563–564

training compared to muscle training, 675

using more as better, 657

brain activationchanges differing substantially across areas, 654

competing in specific representational areas,657

during different memory tasks, 675

example of changes in, 653–655

as a function of practice, 654

during mathematical calculations, 675

patterns of change during skill acquisition, 655

practice effects on, 661–666

brain activityin abacus experts, 549

during calculation, 560

noninvasively tracking human, 653

shift in the location of reflecting a reorganization ofregions, 661

during training in acquisition and use of the methodof loci, 548

brain areasactivity during memorising, 548

determining common modulation, 660

functional reorganization of, 655

generalized in mathematical calculations, 554

brain damageabilities vulnerable to conditions associated with,

593

computation and, 559

brain imagingof chess skills, 533

future memory research and, 550

in memory expert study, 540






subject index 82 7

brain plasticityas a function of experience, 548

in the reading circuit, 670

brain regionsin music listening by experts and novices, 465

sensitive to motor expertise, 672

Braque, Georges, 784

breathing, actor emotional experience and, 495

Brecht, Bertold, 491

bridgeage-comparative studies, 728

depictions of bridge deals, 51

experts suffering when bidding procedure changed,26

players having better general reasoning abilities,736

British Science Technology and Mathematics Council,553

brittleness of expert systems, 96

Bruner, Jerome, 191

Brunswik Symmetry, 157, 158

bugs. See also errorsremoving from a computer program, 379

Bureau of Labor Statistics, 304

bureaucratic elites, 120

bureaucratic organizations, authority of, 107

burnout, 699

bursts of words, generated by writers, 392

business administration, time use literature on, 305

business management, tacit knowledge and, 622

Buxton, Jedediah, 557, 561

CA (conversational analysis), 141

calculating experts as self-taught, 562

calculating prodigies, cognitive abilities and, 555

calculationdistinguished from memory, 557

mental, 558–559

mental owing to isolation of mental arithmetic,556

working memory and, 557–558

calculators (human)algorithms used by, 558

attracting the attention of experimentalpsychologists, 554

Binet’s study of, 554

brain systems of expert, 564

cognitive ability of, 556

eminence suggesting exceptional cognitive abilities,556

matching against cashiers, 561

number facts and procedure learning, 561

number intimacy, 561

as number obsessed, 561

professional, 561

reducing memory load, 557

studies of, 554

calculus, AI research focusing on knowledge-basedmethods, 90

Calder, Alexanderexpertise and creativity in, 781

mechanical engineering of, 773

mobiles case study, 773–774

sculpture domain redefinition and, 784

ten year rule and,callouts. See activity statementsCampbell, Donald T., 758

Canadafirst general population survey, 304

first time use study, 304

Candle Problem, 168, 763–764

CAP2 model, 660

capacitiesfundamental, 23

in Galton’s tripartite theory of eminence, 556

capitalist economy, interrelating with modernprofessions, 107

capitals, possession and/or control of, 118

capitularies, implementing educational reform in law,72

capoeira, expertise sensitivity to, 672

Capote, Truman, 398

cardinal decision issuesdecision making process as resolution of, 427–435

type of, 427

career ageage functions based on, 330

of an individual, 324

career choices, 36

career development, 113

career onset, differences in age at, 330

carrier landings, 81

Carroll, John B., 78

case presentations, iterative refinement of a knowledgebase, 97

case studiesThe Beatles music composition, 770–771

Calder, Alexander, mobiles, 773–774

of creative thinking, 769–780

Edison light bulb development, 779–780

generated by CDM, 215

musical composition, 769–772

Pollock, Jackson poured paintings, 774–775

scenarios, 619–620

Wright Brothers creative thinking, 776–779

case-based or analogical reasoning, 92

case-oriented learning for medical students, 55

casesexperts retaining detailed memories of

previously-encountered, 209

individual as highly memorable, 345

cashiers, matching against professional calculators,561

cast studies, 627

Catalogus Historarium Particularium, 6

categorical form for developing an argument, 574

categorizationas a contrived task, 174–176

exemplar models of, 342

of professionalization, 113

prototype theories of, 342

category search task, 659

category verification task, 175

category-to-response associations, 272

cathedral canons, 73

Cathedral Schools, 70

Cattell, James McKeen, 321

caudate, 673

causal arguments, 574

causal knowledge, 342–343

causal mechanisms, reasoning from, 96

causal reasoning by historians, 579–580

causal relationships, 180

causal thinking by historians, 580






82 8 subject index

causationin attribution theory, 750

as a component of history, 570

of events as, 580

issue of, 382

as a narrative quality criterion, 574

CAVE-based American football simulation, 248

CDM (Critical Decision Method), 192 , 209, 407

army command and control, 409

coded protocol, 209

combining with other procedures, 214

describing practitioner reasoning, 214

electronic warfare technicians and, 408

example of a coded transcript, 209

platoon commanders and, 408

strengths of, 217

CEBES (Cognitive Engineering Based upon ExpertSkills), 252

Cendrars, 711

cerebellar disorders, perceptual-motor expertise and,508

cerebellum, smooth sequential processing, 657

cerebrum, basics of, 655

certification as expertise, 569

certified performance controllers (CPCs), 361

ceteris paribus, 150

CFIT (controlled flight into terrain), 360

chaining of IF-THEN rules, 92

challenging situationsexpertise responding well in, 45

in representative chess games, 232

challenging standards, setting of, 712

chance factors, causal attribution of errors and, 712

changesinducing stable specific, 698

measurement of, 150–153

Chanute, Octave, 776

character rolesactor retrieval of, 491

learning stages of actors, 493

Characteristics of History Experts. See CHEscharacterization of expertise, 46–60, 761

charactersacting and motivation of, 490

actor active experiencing of, 493

actor line memorization and understanding, 492

actor performance feelings and, 495

actors on-stage feelings and, 494

intentions and actor roles, 492

charisma, 118

Charlemagne, 72

checker-playing program, 42 , 90

chefs, 746

chemical plant, operating a continuous process, 190

chemistry professors as novices in political science, 47

chemists, emulating the expertise of world-class, 90

CHEs (Characteristics of History Experts), 571

1 (source evaluation), 571–572

2 (heuristics), 572

3 (mental representations), 572–573

4 (specialization), 573

5 (narrative construction), 573–574

6 (narrative quality), 574

7 (narrative and expository components), 575

8 (alternative narratives), 575–577

8A (differential source use and interpretation),575–576

8B (time and cultural milieu), 576

8C (disagreement on historical-political-socialthinking), 576

8D (differences in cultural backgrounds), 576–577

9 (reasoning and problem solving methods),577–579

10 (causal reasoning), 579–580

chess. See also blindfold chessage-comparative studies, 728

age-performance studies, 329

choices of the best moves, 524

compared to typing, 697

description of, 524

expertise in, 44 , 523–534

expertise research and, 569

expertise strategies in, 569

experts in, 305 , 478

experts playing multiple games simultaneously, 600

historical background, 523–524

Knight’s Tour, 21

knowledge building blocks, 526

laboratory task capturing superior performance in,688

library size of as a rating predictor, 534

macrostructure of search in, 528–529

measurement scale for evaluating, 524

pattern of maximal performance, 735

patterns required to reach master level, 528

perceptual-motor expertise and, 506

political culture expertise development role, 757

process model approach to understanding expertisein, 524

rating system of, 524

ratings depending on deliberate practice, 730

recognition experiments and, 528

research, 534

sharing similarities with puzzle and other “toy”domains, 168

solitary practice and acquired performancedemonstrated in, 306

chess board, recall of randomized much reduced, 24

chess books, number owned by participants, 734

chess expertiseclassic work on, 305

compared to medical expertise, 341

mechanisms mediating, 232–233

pioneering studies of, 232

as a prototype for many domains of expertise, 696

study on age and, 730

chess expertsability to play blindfold chess, 599

choosing the next move, 599

compared to writers, 393

considering more alternative move sequences, 234

discovering reasons for the chess master’s superiormove, 697

interference task appearing to extract relations inparallel, 526

participation in chess clubs, 34

performing better in non-chess visuo-spatial tasks,533

recognizing structured patterns of play, 478

Stroop-like interference task evaluation, 526

chess games, 232 , 530

chess grandmasterschoosing better moves, 528

chunk requirements of, 528






subject index 82 9

level of chess, 524

macrostructure of search by, 528

quality of play, 529

reproducing the entire chessboard, 11

chess mastersaccess to stored positions, 344

building, 532–534

chess moves based on acquired patterns andplanning, 11

choosing better moves, 527

discovering new moves during planning, 233

following multiple games presented move by move,56

little memory advantage for, 523

memory use, 431

organizing in larger cognitive units, 49–50

perceiving coherent structures in chess positions, 169

performing better in a memory task, 527

playing blindfold at a relatively high level, 233

playing chess games blindfolded, 56

recall for briefly presented regular game positions,685

recalling a series of different chess positions, 56

recalling chess positions almost perfectly, 171

recalling of random moves in blindfold chess, 531

recognizing a superior move virtually immediately,697

superior performance with meaningful positions,169

chess moveschoices in, 524

choosing the best, 524

experts thinking aloud while making, 41

number possible, 525

planning out consequences of, 233

quality of, 730

retrieving potential from memory, 696

chess patterns, 172 , 526

chess piecesconfigurations by experts, 50

memorization and, 531

new relational patterns for unusual placements, 529

number recalled, 11

chess playersability to play “blindfolded”, 225

capturing the memory feats of expert, 244

critical decision making by, 408

diminishing return for cumulative deliberatepractice for older, 734

first move of experts, 171

IQ not distinguishing the best among, 10

mechanisms mediating superiority of world-class,232

memory for chess positions, 226

memory skills of skilled, 523

neurological characteristics of, 533

not relying on transient short-term memory, 50

number of chunks or patterns known, 178

percentage not right-handers, 533

planning and consequences evaluation by, 52

positions representation in working memory, 696

practicing, 697

prediction of strength, 527

presenting with meaningful chess boards, 171

rarely encountering the same chess positions, 232

testing the basic abilities of world-class, 226

world-class reporting many strong first moves, 232

chess positionsencoded by experts in long-term working memory,

50

experts superiority the largest with meaningful, 532

generating the best move for the same, 687

masters mentally generating for multiple chessgames, 233

rapidly perceiving the relevant structure of, 233

recalled in rapid bursts, 171

recalling, 529

representing and manipulating in long-termmemory, 696

selecting the best move for presented, 13

viewing structured, 523

chess programssearch algorithms of, 528

searching many moves, 525

chess skill, 602

age correlated near zero with level or ratings of, 602

correlating with the quality of chosen move, 529

intelligence a prerequisite to, 533

intelligence measures correlating with, 533

psychometric approach to, 524

rating predictors, 533–534

transferring to other domains, 532

chess-playing children, 48

Chi, Micheline, 12

Chicago Manual of Style, 393

chicks, classifying as male or female, 268, 269

child developmentcognitive stages and, 758

handwriting and written fluency, 398

child prodigiesin chess, 524

performance of showing gradual, steadyimprovement, 688

childhoodpractice-related myelination thickening greater for,

674

signs of precocious intellect in, 321

writing development in early, 396

childrenacquisition of expertise by, 706

becoming experts at relatively young ages, 482

chess-playing, 48

cohesion of texts produced by, 398

environment and expertise, 562

formal instruction in dance and, 498

goal setting strategies used by, 709

learning about calculating, 559

music skill training effect on, 467

music societal factors and, 466

musical aptitude testing of, 457

musical practice supervision, 461

musical skill development in, 462

psychological factors and expertise in, 757

self-regulation in, 707

social and cognitive competence of, 706

tacit knowledge inventory of rural Kenyan, 621

thinking skills cognitive reorganization training, 626

written production strategy of, 398

choice RT, 594

choices, as types of decisions, 422

choose-a-move task, 526

choruses, acting history and, 489

CHREST computer simulation program, 526, 527,528






830 subject index

chronological agedefining longitudinal curves, 330

as a gauge of accumulated domain-specificexperience, 324

chronology, as a narrative quality criterion, 574

chunking, 474

basic phenomena attributed to, 50

by decision making experts, 431

efficiency of in memory, 602

entwined with automaticity, 58

expertise framework based on, 54

of experts, 58

higher-order, 266

mechanisms of, 58, 476

in perception and memory, 49

of perceptual information, 475

in perceptual-motor expertise, 509

via task-specific memory structures, 478

chunking theoryproblems with, 527

of skilled performance in chess, 524

chunks, 49

actor script segmentation and expert, 493

dancer music cues use by, 500

of experts, 341

functional nature of, 54

held in LTM memory, 526

importance of the identification of, 523

as independent pieces of information, 59

larger for experts, 50

of meaningful chess patterns in memory, 169

number recalled by experts and non-experts, 172

organizing knowledge in greater and moremeaningful, 379

significance of, 569

Cicero, 539

cinematic output, 331

cinematic performance of movie directors, 331

circuit fault diagnosis, 172

circulation of elites, 119

circumstances, naturalistic decision making and, 403

Cirrus flight yoke, 249

classes of expert systems, 94–95

classical composers, cross-sectional time series analysisapplied to, 325

classical musiccomposition of, 328

expert performance attainment and, 462

classical musicians, practice and, 460

classificationconcept of, 160

of drivers, 355 , 356

class-inclusion, hierarchical relationship of, 179

classroom lesson, watching a videotape of, 173

Clerical/Conventional trait complex, 159, 160

clinical diagnostic problems, 340

clinical knowledge, 342

clinical learning environments, simulation in, 255

clinical psychologists, 686

clinical reasoning, 235 , 339

clinical skills, 47

cliniciansuse of biomedical science, 343

written cases recall by, 341

clip and cut cystic artery and duct task, 251

closed sports, 473

CM (consistent mapping), 269, 659

CmapTools, 212

COA. See course of actioncoaches. See also teachers

essential role in guiding practice activities, 698

more skilled on cognitive tasks directly tapping theirrole, 478

necessity of for chess, 532

requisite skills for, 474

coactive sports, 473

cockpit automation, 192

coded CDM protocol, 209

codes of conduct for professionals, 108

codingcapturing how people perform, 177

converting observed behaviors or events intoquantitative data, 314–316

spelling out episode and activity organization, 309

verbal and imaginal by readers, 392

cognitionactive experience principle and, 494

automatic performance mediation, 464

as basis expertise, 614

classical views on, 48

computer programs as formal models of human, 42

embodied, 497

knowledge-free methods of, 90

in military decision making, 410, 411

renewed interest in human, 226

role of in sport, 480

shared in teams, 443

skilled performance and, 462

socio-cultural approach to adult, 758

team effectiveness precursor as shared, 443

theories of human computational models, 229

cognitive abilitiesacademic achievements and tests of, 724

adaptive use of, 614

aerobic exercise and, 735

astonishing number and variety of, 589

of calculating prodigies, 555

of calculators, 556

correlates of, 588

development of, 592

evidence of structure among, 589

factor-analytic studies of, 544

measures of, 155

memory experts and, 548

modification with practice, 478

neophobic and neophilic reaction patternspromoting, 605

variety of mathematical calculating, 564

cognitive activityof actors in active experiencing, 493

additional changing the sequence of generatedthoughts, 228

cognitive aging, actor expertise and effortful activitiesin, 496

cognitive anthropologists, 243

cognitive approach of Gagne, 78

cognitive architecture, 277

cognitive authenticity in training, 414

cognitive automaticity, 639

cognitive basis of expertise, 614

cognitive capabilities, 758

cognitive competence, 33

cognitive complexity, expert team roles and, 439

cognitive control, 512






subject index 831

cognitive deficits in exemplars of high intellect, 596

cognitive demandsof operations, 53

of writing, 390–391

cognitive developmentof children, 758

importance compared to physical skill, 478

cognitive differences between experts and novices, 44

cognitive effort, retrieving domain knowledge andstrategies, 24

cognitive elements in naturalistic decision making, 414

cognitive engineering. See also knowledge engineeringemergence of, 186

foundational methods of, 208

Cognitive Engineering Based upon Expert Skill(CEBES), 252

cognitive expertise, 598

principal attributes of, 598–600

reaching the pinnacle of, 602

requiring experience, 36

cognitive functionscontent-free measures of, 724


transferring expertise to some broader, 727

cognitive information processing, language of, 87

cognitive instruments, 574

cognitive involvement, 480

cognitive load, writers managing, 392–393

cognitive mechanismsadaptive abilities and, 614

case-study scenario and, 620

expertise level combinations and, 640

musical knowledge and, 464

situation projections and, 636

cognitive operations, 53

cognitive performance, 549, 649

cognitive phaseof improvement in performance, 685


cognitive plasticity, decreasing in later adulthood, 734

cognitive probes in CDM, 192

cognitive processesacquired knowledge in a domain associated with

changes in, 48

associated with changes in performance, 230

chess players selecting superior moves, 232

creativity and, 761

of designers’ and programmers’, 374

knowledge acquisition and executive, 616

in knowledge acquisitions, 616, 625

in musical practice, 460

in self-regulation, 706

situation awareness information transformation by,645–646

verbal-reporting procedures changing, 228

cognitive psychologistsdescribing mechanisms responsible for superior

human performance, 83

differences with software engineers, 192

suggesting the information processing perspective,82

cognitive psychologycollaboration with Computer Science, 42

information processing language and computermetaphor, 44


taking a turn toward applications, 205

Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications, 287

Cognitive Psychology by Neissen, 191

cognitive reorganization, 626

cognitive representationsof experts, 50

mediating performance and continued learning byexperts, 59

mediating skilled anticipation, 697

of musical structure, 463

cognitive research on sport, 472

cognitive resourcesdriving hazard detection requirements, 648

increasing demand of bodily functions in older age,735

overloading of novice, 649

pooling by teams, 442

released by practice, 53

cognitive science, 42

computational problem solving models and, 530


cognitive skill and expertise, study of, 14

cognitive skillscombining with movement skills, 472

relationship between fundamental and higher order,53

for team sport experts, 482

cognitive stage of perceptual-motor skill acquisition,512

cognitive strategiesin a learning outcome taxonomy, 78

of writers, 393

Cognitive Strategies learning outcome, 80

cognitive structures, 266

cognitive systems, designing joint, 192

cognitive systems engineering, 193

cognitive task analysis (CTA), 130, 177, 192–193 , 204 ,229

of air-traffic controllers, 367

analyzing transcriptions of air traffic controllers, 361

denoting a large number of different techniques, 192

era of, 206–208

major issues remaining to be resolved, 192

novel systems a major challenge for, 192

in reaction to behavioral task analysis, 208

review of methods, 213

from the study of instructional design and enhancedhuman learning, 208

of troubleshooting, 196

understanding expert decision making in fieldsettings, 192

usability of the products of, 192

cognitive tasksautomaticity and, 639

not directly addressed by Taylor and Gilbreth, 187

practice leading to functional decreases, 663

cognitive text process theory, 572

cognitive training, increasing plasticity, 657

cognitive traits, 148, 155–157

cognitive units, larger and more integrated, 49–50

Cognitive work analysis, 138

cognitive work, independent of particulartechnologies, 215

cognitive/behavior adaptation, expertise as, 748

cognitive/intellectual correlations with initial taskperformance, 156

cognitive-motor performance, systematic age-relateddeclines, 726






832 subject index

cognitive-motor tasks, reduced speed or accuracy, 723

cognitivism, rise of, 78

coherenceas decision making perspective, 424–425

expected utility and, 425

historians providing, 574


as process decomposition, 427

using to appraise expertise, 425

cohort effectsas challenges to retrospective interviews, 296

on the expected performance of an individual, 326

co-incidence or co-construction of expertise, 299

Colburn, Zerah, 562

collaborative process, knowledge elicitation as, 216

collectivesdecision making proficiency and, 436

excluding female actors to a large degree, 117

as a unit of analysis, 137

college students,college-educated adults, words known by, 178

color discrimination task, 666

colour vision, 555

Columbia mission, 136

Comenius, Jan, 74

commercial flying, expertise in a function of theaircraft, 358

commitment, 423

common sensein AI programs, 99

large body of “good enough”, 99

commonalities, among abilities, personality, andinterests, 159

commonly-held knowledge, 99

communality, among predictors and trait complexes,159–162

communicationassessments of, 383

aviation pilot situation awareness and cockpit, 643

development of a formalized system for science, 115

errors by new platoon leaders, 646

of exceptional software designers, 380

in expert teams, 443 , 446, 448, 449

overload and psychomotor skills in novice, 644

skills and experience, 640, 646

in the software design and programming domain,380–381

training in, 384

communities of practice, 128, 403

Army structured professional forums as, 624

civilian organization sponsored, 624

domain of interest tacit knowledge sharing by, 623

expert standard definition by, 746

ordered world of, 134

professional cultures as, 757

research on, 624

for respective talent fields, 290

tacit knowledge and, 623–625

companies, power and organization, 754

CompanyComand.mil, 624

comparison groupsabsence of, 294

possible created by key findings, 295

compatible mapping, 271

compensationin extant frameworks of adaptive aging, 731

by older experts, 731

as psychological mechanism for superiority, 757

in the SOC-model, 731

compensatory behaviors of drivers, 358

compensatory mechanisms, 730

compensatory strategies in expert performance,731

competenceefficacy and, 444

expertise and, 762

networks and individual, 757

overlap with expertise, 81

in sports, music, and chess, 687

stated goal often for ISD, 81

strong positive correlation with years of experience,349

transition to expertise, 297

competitionof creative domains, 768

to enter medical school, 339

excessive restrained by professionalism, 110

between professions, 754

compilation phase of skill acquisition, 267

Compiled level of expertise, 344

completenessof knowledge, 178


complex abilities, developing, 724

complex acquired movement, 672

complex computation, brain system for, 563

complex human activity, 43

complex systems, high fidelity simulations of, 243

complex tasks. See also tasksdecomposing into distinct subtasks, 278

skill at, 276

subtasks as, 663

complex units. See chunkscomplexity

of environmental information and situationawareness, 634

as a situation awareness model feature, 635

component skills among experts, 733

componential training approach, 670

composersof classical music, differential eminence of, 328

expertise acquisition in classical, 324

faster start for outstanding, 329

composite eminence measure for classical composers,328

composite evaluation, 330

composition instructors, 397

compositional fallacy, 326

compositional preparation for classical composers,328

compositions, 329

comprehensioncoding for readers during, 392

of conjunctions, 591

relationship to reading skills, 53

situation awareness and, 646

as situation awareness level, 634

of a text, 391

computationperceptual-motor skill acquisition and, 507

supporting intelligent behavior, 42

as visual processing, 559

computational methods, describing humanperformance with, 41






subject index 833

computational modelsof human performance, 229

of problem solving, 530

computer applications, expertise research and, 405

computer chess programs. See chess programscomputer databases as efficient chess training tools,

532

computer files, 140

computer models, incorporating the knowledge ofexperts in, 12

computer programmers. See also programmersexperienced performance not always superior to

students, 686

recall of experts compared to novices, 51

computer programming. See programmingcomputer programs

implementing human problem solving models, 11

performing challenging cognitive tasks, 226

strategy of reading and comprehending, 380

computer sciencecollaboration with cognitive psychology, 42

study of expertise in, 14

computer simulationsconfirming chunking and template predictions, 527

with MAPP,527

of performance, 570

computer software developers, 237

computer systemdecomposition for a course on, 196

users ideally involved in requirement analysis, 374

computer users, 13 1

computer-based education, expertise as goal state, 46

computer-based information systems, 138

computer-based models, emulating experts’performance, 12

computersas efficient chess training tools, 532

judgment policy execution by, 433

processing “symbols and symbol structures”, 42

conative traits, 155 , 158

concentrationfor deliberate practice, 699

increasing typing speed, 698

mnemonic training and, 549

points of reference for, 314

requirement for, 692

self-regulatory training and, 718

strong positive relationship with relevance, 307

concept formationmeasures of, 594

prototype theories of, 344

Concept Map(s), 211–213

about cold fronts in Gulf Coast weather, 213

composing, 212

eliciting forecasting knowledge, 217

knowledge models, 215

screen shot of, 212

Concept Mapping, 211–213

for the elicitation of domain knowledge, 214

representing practitioner knowledge of domainconcepts, 214

strength of, 217

Concept Mapping interviewsarticulation by domain experts, 216

demonstrating comfort with the notion of a “mentalmodel”, 217

triggering recall of previously-encountered toughcases, 215

concept networks, data collected in, 141

concept-centered mode of reasoning, 55

concepts. See also abstract concepts; analytic conceptscentral to human learning and problem solving, 226

in Concept Maps, 211

learning, 343

conceptual foundations period of cognitive systemsengineering, 193

conceptual framework, or model, of an expert system,91

conceptual structure, expertise as, 767

conceptualization of expertise, 381

concert piano. See pianistsconcert violinists. See violinistsconclusion of a problem statement, 577

concrete entities, higher number cited by novices, 181

concrete instances, 48

concrete language in text, 392

concrete questions, novices better at answering, 25

concrete words, recalled by older adults, 549

concurrent component tasks, 663

concurrent measure for identifying exceptionalexperts, 21

concurrent performance, 664

concurrent-validation assessment, 150

condition in a production rule, 92

condition-action rules, 479

condition-action statements, tacit knowledge as, 615

conditional sentence, 92

The Conditions of Learning, 80

confabulation of answers, 230

confidenceof deciders in quality of decisions, 430

expert team efficacy and, 448

personal theories in decision making and over-,433

for a rule, 93

confidential knowledge of some professionals, 108

configuration class of expert systems, 94

conflict management in the brain, 656

confounding variables in the transportation domain,358

congruence, maximization of, 162

conscientiousness, 429

Conscientiousness personality trait, 159

conscious cognitive control, 512

conscious effort, maintaining, 601

consciousnessactor emotional double, 494

flow state of in writing, 395

consensual judgments, avoiding, 293

consequences, prediction of, 512

consistent mapping. See CMconsistent practice, 660

consistent search task, 659

consolidationblocking, 671

of experts’ representations, 180–181

perceptual-motor skill learning and, 507

consolidation process of M1, 671

consonant item-recognition task, 660

constant relationship between stimulus and response,32

constant time of exposure model, 80–81

constituency perceptions of experts, 746






834 subject index

constrained processing tasks, 205 , 206, 364. See alsotasks

constraint satisfaction, as an expert solution strategy,579

constraintsage-related, 734–735

articulation of, 578

negating an aspect of a solution, 578

psychological, 61

situational, 380, 615

task, 382 , 463

time, 473

construct validities, 149, 591

constructions as types of decisions, 422

constructivismadvent of, 82–83

limiting the bounds of, 82

constructivist learning environment, 83

constructivist perspectives, 83

consultantsin decision making process, 429

expertise as probability judgment, 426

consultations, experts spending more time in, 380

contemporary dance. See modern dancecontent

as changed by innovation, 783

important to expertise, 47–49

of knowledge, 179

problem space, 391

of a simulation system, 252

of training, 256

validity, 149

content-free measures of basic cognitive functioning,724

contextexpert-in-, 743

expertise in, 13 1–132

of experts, 753–755

individual and, 758

relative experts and, 744

of skill building and expertise, 75–84

context specific, expertise as, 250

context-bound informal modeling, 404

context-dependence, 25–26

context-free formal modeling, 404

contextual aspects, historical analysis and, 573

contextual conditions of the development of expertise,105

contextual cues, experts relying on, 25

Contextual design, 138

contextual enabling information, 26

contextual factors, naturalistic decision making and,403

contextual inquiry, 138

contextualizationas a historical source heuristic, 572

importance of in history, 571


Continental Army Command, 77

contingency detection mechanism of perceptuallearning, 268

contingency planning by new platoon leaders, 646

continued training, role of, 725

continuing education training, 9

Continuing Professional Development (CPD), 111

continuity as a component of history, 570

continuous process plant, HTA for, 190

continuumexpertise as an, 300

of task difficulty, 713

contralateral M1 encoding, 674

contrived tasksadvantages of asking experts to perform, 170

in laboratory studies of expertise, 170–178

limitation of, 170

for radiologists, 173

study of performance at, 170, 205

contrived techniques, 206

control and planning, abstracted layers of, 55

control elementshigher-level, 509, 510

low-level, 509

control focus, 479

control groupsabsence of, 294 , 579

comparing experimental groups to, 256

control movements, 249

control network, 655

of brain regions, 660

as domain general, 660

major parts of, 656

reduced activation with maintained perceptualmotor activity, 655

Control personality trait, 159

control processesdevolvement of, 480

underpinning expert performance, 475

control routines, 658

control variablesfor classical composers, 328

permitting statistical adjustment, 325

control/comparison groups, 294–295

controlled flight into terrain. See CFITcontrolled processes

attention-demanding, 266

causal attribution of errors and, 712

efficient resource management of, 363

focus on, 716

modified easily, 269

operating serially, 269

controlled processingcharacteristics of, 659

more sensitive to stressors, 269

in novel or varied tasks, 659

representing in network models, 271

resulting in explicit learning, 269

shift to automatic, 661

visual search as an example of, 659

controlled search, requiring effort, 269

controlled setting, superior performance of experts in,13

controller situations, resolving undesirable, 361

controlsattribution and illusion of, 751

implementing statistically, 325

Conventional interests personality trait, 159

convergence of findings, across methodologies,296

convergent validity, 149

conversation as social action, 141

conversational analysis (CA), 141

cooperationcompetencies displayed in difficult situations, 380

skills assessments of, 383






subject index 835

in the software design and programming domain,380–381

training in, 384

cooperative activity, technology mediating, 208

cooperative work settings, 380

coordinationexpert teams and, 442 , 449

expert team shared mental models and, 446

improving as skills are refined over time, 251

of medical knowledge, 346–347


corporate knowledge management, 217

corrective actions for malfunctioning devices orprocesses, 94

correlates, inferring ability from, 589

correlation analyses for classical composers, 328

correlational data analyses, 322

correlational data, statistical techniques suitable forthe analysis of, 332

correlational method, lacking causal inference, 331

correlationsattenuating between measurements, 155

maximizing between predictors and criteria, 157

corroboration as a historical source heuristic, 572

cortex, faces areas in, 668

cortical activityconsistency and practice modulating, 660

functional connectivity studies of correlated, 671

modulating, 656

cortical areaschanging and adapting function, 283

very different tasks activating the same, 660

cortical plasticityof normal elderly, 657

on a slower time scale through extensive training,662

cortical reorganization in musical experts and novices,465

cortical representation, increased, 674

cortical tissue, increasing for a task, 655

cost of failure (c), 190

cost savings of expert systems, 94

Coughlin, Natalie, 709, 712

counselorscategorizing based on abstract information, 175

categorizing client statements, 175

listening to a counseling session, 174

novice, 175

counter-elitesemergence of, 119

role in the generation of cultural change, 119

counterfactual reasoning, historians use of, 579

counterfactuals, 580

countingprodigious abilities growing out of, 554

stages in the development of, 559

course of action (COA)experience and, 409

expert recognition and, 410

generation of, 410

mental simulation of, 406

mental wargaming and, 410


natural production of, 410

preferred, 411

prototype linked to, 406

quality of, 410

situation assessment and, 409

situation awareness comprehension, 646

court-appointed experts, 755

as expert witnesses, 755

as relative experts, 746

roles of, 755

status authority of, 755

use of, 755

Covering Law, 571

Covering Model, 571

covert self-regulation, 706

Cox, Catherine, 321

CPCs (certified performance controllers), 361

CPD (Continuing Professional Development), 111

craft guilds, 74–75 , 203

crafts, skilled, 6

craftsmen, 5 , 74

creative accomplishment, expertise and, 762

creative achievement, 785

creative activities, role of deliberate practice, 693

creative advancesdomain specificity-general mode transfer, 765

as expert redefined domains and, 783–785

expertise in real world, 764

performance standards and, 783

in real world settings, 764

technique and, 782–783

techniques and skills in, 762

creative development, 328

creative domains, curvilinear function seen in, 330

creative expertise, 320

creative intelligence, 616

creative output, quantity and quality of, 320

creative performance, 329

creative process, 761

creative productivity, 320

creative productsdouble helix domain specificity expertise and, 776

valued and, 763

creative solutions, 27

creative thinking. See also thinkingCalder’s domain specific expertise in, 774

case studies, 769–780

as cognitive, 761

critical vs. random, 771

Darwinian theory of, 771

deliberation and, 767

double-helix model and, 775–776

Edison light bulb development, 779–780

evolution of, 771

expertise and, 762

expertise facilitation of, 768


expertise modes and Wright Bothers, 779

information and, 782

knowledge and habit in, 767

in scion and technology, 775–780

ten year rule and, 768–769

of Wright Brothers, 776–779

creative thought, 758

creative writers, 395 , 399

creativityarising from chance and unique innate talent, 22

decision expertise scholarship and, 429

as decision option expertise, 431

definition, 761, 762

deliberate practice and, 768






836 subject index

creativity (cont.)domain redefinition and expertise, 783–785

domain-specific expertise innovation and, 782

domain-specific expertise insufficiency for, 782

enhancement of, 431

expertise and, 761, 763–766, 767, 781

expertise as sufficient for, 782

expertise tension with, 766–768

general expertise and, 763 , 782

general expertise in Edison and Wright Bothers and,780

of innovation vs. value, 763

necessity of expertise in, 781–782

out-of-box thinking and, 767

past use in, 767

tension with expertise, 766–768

in visual arts, 772–775

visual arts expertise, 775

Crick, Francis, 775–776, 782 , 784

cricket, 475 , 718

crisis in Bamberger’s work with prodigies, 297

criterionbreadth of, 157

for finding experts, 3

for identifying experts, 686

measures defined for exceptional performance, 293

reliability of, 147

criterion performancesdeveloped by subject matter experts, 80

against an expert standard, 81

judging competence in highly consequential tasks, 81

learning requirements for, 83

criterion-referenced instruction, 81

criterion-referenced testing, 80

criterion-related validity, 149

critical activities (practice), selection of, 731

Critical Decision Method. See CDMcritical decisions, cases involving, 209

critical incident technique, 188

critical thinking, child thinking skills instruction,626

cross-national survey research, 304

cross-referencing strategy, 378

cross-sectional designs in historiometrics, 324

cross-sectional research, 593 , 736

cross-sectional time series analysis, 325

crossword-puzzle solving, 602 , 728

crystallized abilities, 604

development of, 159

encouraging development of, 595

major classes of, 590

crystallized intelligence. See Gc (crystallizedintelligence)

CTA. See cognitive task analysiscues

awareness of, 408

cognitive automaticity and, 639

novice situation interpretation and, 637

patterns of, 407

recognition in schema pattern matching, 639

cultural backgrounds, student differences in, 576–577

cultural construction, expertise as part of, 13 1

cultureacquisition in expertise development, 756

decision implementation and, 435

Gc tests as specific to, 32

historical narrative alternatives and, 576

knowledge and language of the, 590

shaping the particularities of cognition, 137

skill value systems and, 466

value or importance assigned to an activity, 328

curriculum reform in the United States, 81

curve fitting in dynamical systems analysis, 515

curvilinear functionin creative domains, 330

describing the output of creative products, 330

customer serviceimproving in a reprographics store, 132

skill set development, 132

customer-employee interactions, 132

customersobserving and working with, 138

providing assistance to, 132

CYC Corp., 99

CYC KB, 99

cycling, couplings between respiration and cycle rate,480

da Vinci robotic surgical system, 251

daily activities, time-budgeting of, 736

daily journal, 140

D’Alembertas Galton’s example, 556

working on assembling all available knowledge, 6

dance. See also ballet; modern danceas artistic performance, 497–501

empirical investigation of, 498–499

expert/novice research, 499

expressive aspects in, 500

history of, 497

imagery use in teaching, 500

skill acquisition, 498

technique indispensability in, 497

ten year rule and, 498

dancersimagery and proprioception, 499–500

memory of ballet, 498

mental representation of movement, 499

movement encoding processes of, 499

music cues use by, 500

sensorimotor proprioception dominance, 500

dartsgender differences, 481

physical stature not affecting, 481


solitary practice and, 693

Darwin, Charles, 565

Darwinian theory of creative thinking, 771

Dase, Zachariasas calculator for Gauss and Schumacher, 556

as a self-taught calculator, 562

dataaggregated, 326

conversion to directional coordinates, 477

kinds of, 139

observer discussing with workers, 139

data analysesof observational studies, 140–141

of verbal report methods, 177

data collectionmethods for critical incident techniques, 189

methods of time use studies, 303

reporting descriptive, 295

databases, semantic memory as, 539






subject index 837

data-driven processingforward-working, 24

in situation analysis, 636

situation awareness, 636

in situation awareness, 636

Davis, Geena, 709

de Groot, Adrian D.analysis of experts’ “think aloud” protocols, 696

influential and pioneering work on expertise, 11

modern era of experimental studies, 523

study of chess next move problems, 528–530

de la Rocha, Alicia, 710

debugging, 374 , 379

deceased individuals in historiometric samples,322

decision(s)about expertise, 421

aesthetic, 460–462

characteristics of, 422–423

conventions about, 422

as course of action commitment, 422

definition as understood in scholarship, 422

definition key features, 423

as distinct from judgments, 432

by expert teams, 448

good and bad as outcome, 424

high-quality as satisfying result, 424

implementation as project vs. action, 435

overconfidence difference, 430

requirements yielded by CDM, 209

solutions to problems, 431

speed and accuracy trading for expert, 441–443

speed of chess grandmasters, 528

as uncertain, 424–425 , 426

varieties of, 422

decision aidsexpertise embedded in, 405

medical, 407

decision makersagents and consultant use, 430

assumptions about, 426

as decision making beneficiaries, 423

decisions about expert, 424–425 , 426

dimension performance and, 427

domain knowledge used by, 410

efficiency as expertise dimension, 430

expert as high-quality decision makers, 424

expertise beliefs and, 425

as focus of naturalistic decision making, 405

identification of expert, 425

methods used by, 430

possibility anticipation by, 432

stress resistance of, 432

targeting of taste by expert, 433

vigilance maintenance and, 429

decision makingacceptability and, 434–435

accuracy and recall correlations, 478

anticipation and, 475–476

in the brain, 656

CDM focus on, 209

cost minimization, 431

creativity measures and, 431

culture and speed in, 435

defects in, 404

definition of, 441

deliberation in, 408

on emergency management teams, 449

errors in, 404

expert and novice proficiency, 686

expert systems used as assistants in, 93


expertise beliefs as social construction, 426

expertise research impediments, 422

by flight crews, 445

formal, 408

formal experts and, 752

information and military, 644

by jurors, 433

memory use, 431

military. See military decision makingmodels and, 441

models of, 404

naturalistic. See naturalistic decision makingoverconfidence and personal theories in, 433

paradigms of research, 404

problem finding and creativity in, 429

as problem solving special case, 422

process decomposition perspective and, 426–427

quality and expertise in, 423

quality improved by expert systems, 94

quality in, 423–427

rarity of, 435

recognition-primed, 363

research as incapable of answering, 422

results and, 423



situation diagnoses and performance stress, 443

situational cues in, 442

studies of, 426

subject matter expertise and, 426


team adaptation and, 441–443

in teams, 441, 445

uncertainty and task judgments, 26

various aspects of, 15

Decision Making in Action: Models and Methods(Klein et al.), 403

decision modes as qualitatively distinct, 429

decision points, used in actual practice by pilots, 198

decision problemsbeneficiary specification in, 423

judgment and, 432

value issues in judgments in, 433

decision processesas cardinal decision issue resolution, 427–435

core of overall, 428

decomposition and, 427

deep contributor role in, 428

importance of constraints in, 579

decision qualityaccuracy as upper bound of, 432

decision making expertise and, 423

evaluation of, 404

expert decision making and, 423–427

outcome, 424

decision researchjudgment in, 432

possibility issues in, 432

tradeoff issues and, 434

values in, 433

decision tree in medical knowledge, 343

Decision-Centered Design (DCD), 413–414






838 subject index

declarative knowledgeexperienced pilots more able to apply, 366

job knowledge and, 617


vs. procedural knowledge, 88

procedural knowledge, 617

utilizing data-bases of, 48

declarative rules, underlying decision-making of noviceperformers, 479

decomposition processguided by a knowledge representation, 377

levels of, 210

decontextualization in task-based testing of elderly,736

dedicated service, appeal of professionalism, 113

deductive reasoning, Gf-Gc theory and tests of, 599

deep comprehension, 391

deep features, represented by experts, 178

deep principles, graduates sorting with, 175

deep structure of problems or situations, 23

DeepBlue chess program, 100, 525

defense bias procedures, 579

defensive inferences, self-regulation and, 713

deliberate attention, expertise development and, 705

deliberate practice, 600–601. See also extendedpractice; music practice; practice

acquired performance determination by, 306

active maintenance of specific mechanisms, 727

age and, 729–732

age and investment in, 729

age and recuperation from, 735

age and returns of, 730

age as a constraint of engaging in, 731

age-related constraints improved through, 734–735

altering performance through, 237

amount of, 601

amounts needed, 734

assessing role of, 534

The Beatles and, 770

characterization, 761

of chess players vs. tournament play and gameanalysis, 533

chess skill acquisition and, 533–534

contrasted to simple experience or exercise, 732

core assumption of, 692

creative superior performance and, 768

daily limit for, 699

decision making and, 427

in decision skills training, 412

effectiveness of, 60

engaging in, 696

environment optimization encouragement of, 562

expert performance requirement, 83 , 266

expert performance requirement of, 383

expertise attainment maintenance by, 601


expertise maintenance with, 729–732

extended period to acquire and define mechanismsof superior performance, 16

general characteristics of, 699–700

as goal directed optimized, 460–461

high-relevance/high-effort definition of, 307

importance of, 480–482

improving particular aspects of target performance,237

involvement of experts in, 306

mathematical expertise and, 565

model of, 472 , 727

by Mozart, 770

musical proficiency and, 459

musical styles and, 458

nature of, 731

in older chess players, 730

performance improvement design of, 698

pianists and, 602

by Picasso, 772

potential for maintenance through, 736

quantity of, 705

scientific study of, 699

skill maintenance by, 699

skill weakness and development with, 731

social identity development and, 756

as structured activity, 459

sustained investment in, 259

tasks beyond current performance, 692

technique development and, 762

theoretical framework of, 698

theorizing on role of, 45

typing speed improvement by, 697

for violinists, 691

weakness analysis requirement in, 732

by writers, 396–397

deliberation. See decision makingdemand-led theory of professionalization, 109

democracy, 119

demographic informationin a diary survey, 310

on surgical ability, 348

DENDRAL research project, 90, 91

dentists, 35

Department of Labor, method of job analysisdeveloped by, 187

depthof knowledge, 180

of search, 602

derivative features, experts solving a problem on thebasis of, 181

dermatology, 345 , 346

descriptive-analytic instruments of behavior, 312

designactivities range, 378

goal setting in, 375 , 376

problem decomposition, 377

programming language experiences and, 377

strategies in, 374

studies on tasks of, 375–378

survey protocol analysis and, 237

use as context in, 130

Design at work: Cooperative design of computer systems,138

design engineers, 408

desision making, training in, 412–413

desktop simulators, 257

detailsexperts glossing over, 25

tradeoffs with usability, 309

detector creation mechanism, 268

detector sets, 268

developmentcategories of leading to expertise, 82

cognitive, 478

contemporary view of lifespan, 684

creative, 328

expert performance research and, 613






subject index 839

of expertise at the graduate level, 575

labeling levels of, 300

relationship of Bloom’s model to expertise, 79

specific goals set for expertise, 601

Development of Talent Project, 287, 288

developmental differences, domain-specific knowledgeoverriding, 532

developmental disorders, numerical conceptacquisition deficits, 555

developmental process, expertise as a long-term, 46

developmental psychology, focusing on schools, 130

developmental researchof age differences and cognitive abilities, 588

on expertise, 598

Gf-Gc theory and, 592–593

developmental reserve capacity, age-related decline in,549

Devi, Shakuntala, 556

Dewey, John, 76

diagnoses, 179. See also medical diagnosisaccuracy of experts in, 341, 342

accuracy of Reduced to Compiled, 344

clinician hypotheses as, 340

efficiency in generating, 235

empirical knowledge of dermatologists and, 346

expert systems for, 94

experts giving more accurate, 235

as a general skill, 340

generating based on domain of knowledge, 27

hierarchical representation of knowledge in, 179

of problems by experts, 343

professional work outsourcing, 752

professional work task, 751

by radiologists, 173

strategy for, 194

by students, 343

diagnosticians, organizing diagnostic hypotheses, 52

diagrams, usefulness of, 95

Diamandi, 561

diaries. See also time diariescollected by Statistics Canada, 304

completed by Halifax study respondents, 304

completed by violin students, 306

examining the development of expert performancein sport, 306

practice times in, 308

survey parts, 310

time use data accuracy, 307

time use data appropriateness, 304

time use data macro analysis, 308–312

ways of presenting, 309

diathermy task, training in, 255

Diderot, Denis, 6, 203

differential accessgiving away to differential utility, 216

hypothesis, 176, 206

possibility of, 215

differential reward indices, 35

for occupational groups within our society, 35

varying markedly across occupations, 36

digit (finger) movement, defining for a particular brainregion, 677

digit spanof Aitken, 542

improving with practice, 542

recalling digits in, 236

digital resources, ability to hyperlink, 212

digitsencoding as running times for various races, 236

highly unitized when used as stimuli, 269

visualising on a kind of mental blackboard, 559

digit-symbol substitution test, 725

dimensional performance of decision makers, 427

dimensionalization mechanism of perceptual learning,268

dimensions, collected in diary time slots, 311

dinghy sailing, 247, 248

directors. See movie directorsdiscounting models, decision behavior and, 434

discourseappealing aspects of, 112

concept of, 111

discriminant validity, 149

discriminationfiner by expert radiologists, 173

task specificity of learning in, 666

diseasesmedical knowledge of consistent with prototype

theory, 344

relating signs and symptoms to, 343

dispositionattribution error and, 751

as personal characteristic, 750

distance, region of, 57

distributed interactive simulations, process of, 78

distributed representation view, of FFA response, 668

dithyrambs, 489

division of laborexpert-interaction as, 747

as occupation categorization, 748

as organizational context, 753–754

as social form, 749

Djerassi, Professor, 91

DLPFC, 665

DNAmodel as creative thinking in science, 775–776

Wilkins and structural modeled of, 776

doctors, training of American, 6

documentation, non-literal nature of, 136

documentsdisagreeing with behavior in the workplace, 135

researcher analysis bootstrapping in, 215

writers hired to improve the clarity of, 394

domain(s), 21, 88

brain control architecture as single, 657

building representations of, 209

change and mechanism perfection, 784

communities of practice and tacit knowledge, 623

comparing one domain’s experts against another’s,295

conducting studies across a greater range of, 299

control areas, 656

control network as, 660

creative, 330

creativity and expertise redefinition of, 783–785

of expertise, 618, 761

expertise and, 785

expertise in real world, 170

expert-performance approach application to,233–235

experts across, 305

formal, 21

heuristics of exceptional experts, 22

informal, 21






840 subject index

domain(s) (cont.)innovation and borders of, 783

knowledge of, 100

network, 659

observation systematically organized by, 138

reasoning abilities, 23

redefinition and domain-specific expertise, 784

redefinition by Wright Brothers, 784

refinement and, 784

relationship to expertise, 785

as structured, 569

tacit knowledge, 627

domain expertsacademic rigor and, 82

Concept Maps agreement and, 211

designing instruction, 81

expert systems construction by, 204

as informants, 189

long-term memory use by, 394

propositions elicited from, 211

as a task information source, 81

teaching control over, 76

domain independentcognitive mechanisms, 365

spatial working memory skill, 365

domain practitioners, systematic study of proficient,203

domain redefinition, Calder and, 784

domain specialization of medieval universityinstructors, 73

domain specificityof expertise, 49, 405 , 412

expertise as widening, 765

expertise generality and, 763–764

prototype view of expertise and, 614


of situationally important information, 637

training and practice requirements of, 748

of writing expertise, 393

domain-general cognition, specific domain trainingand practice, 735

domain-limited expertise, 24

domain-novice analogies, lacking appropriate domainknowledge, 167

domain-specific experienceattaining reproducibly superior performance,

688–690

importance of, 478

domain-specific expertiseCalder and, 773

domain redefinition and, 784

domain-specific information and expertise and,776

in Edison light bulb, 779, 780

identifying the essence of, 231

innovation and, 763

insufficiency for creativity, 782

music composition as, 770

in Picasso’s Gruenica, 772

problem solving and, 764

in visual arts, 775

of Watson and Crick, 775 , 776

in Watson and Crick creativity, 782

Wright brother bicycle construction and airplaneresearch, 777

in Wright Brothers flight control development, 55

domain-specific informationactor expertise and, 496

ballet dancers and, 498

processing quickly and efficiently, 475

domain-specific knowledge and skillsacquired as a result of practice, 478

acquisition, 48

development of, 159

expert with greater in-depth, 598

of experts, 178

experts as having acquired more, 23

of history, 581

increasing relevance of for older professionals, 725

individual differences in the amount of time tomaster, 327

influencing even basic cognitive abilities, 47

jobs predominantly associated with, 157


overriding developmental differences, 532

practical intelligence assessment and, 621

prerequisites for cognitively demanding real-worldjobs, 156

in PUFF, 89

representation of, 169

tacit knowledge and general ability, 616

tacit knowledge and intelligence assessments and,621

task encapuation in procedural representation, 463

tasks intrinsic to, 170

tasks predicting individual differences, 162

of teams, 440

trait complexes as useful predictors of individualdifferences, 160

domain-specific perceptual tests, 478

domain-specific performance of experts, 10

domain-specific prototype, expertise as, 614

domain-specific representation regions in the brain,656, 657

domain-specific role models, availability of, 328

domain-specific skills of historians, 573

domain-specific training, 412

domain-specific vocabulary, encoding of knowledge in,89

domain-specific working memorycomputing, 365

measuring, 365

skill, 365

dominant hand, M1 activity typically encodingindividual movements in, 674

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), 656, 664

double-helix model as creative thinking in science,775–776

dramatic art, 489

dramatic situations, actor playing of character real in,492

dramatic works, tabulating into consecutive ageperiods, 320

drivers. See also experienced driversapprentice driving more poorly, 359

apprentice fixation in hazardous events, 364

atypical experiences and, 368

differing in styles and risk acceptance, 358

experience and performance disconnection and, 359

experience labels for, 356

expert, 355

hazard awareness and training, 648






subject index 841

hazard awareness of expert, 648

hazard reactions and experience, 648

hazard scanning and experience, 648

as poor judges of a process requiring attention orresource management, 361

scan pattern of new, 361

scanning strategies of situations, 362

situation awareness (understanding) of, 364–365

style compared to driver skill, 363

task load and expertise, 363

drivingautomaticity and, 639

dynamic environment of, 358

hazard awareness predictive ability in tests, 648

improving skills, 369

safety and tacit knowledge, 623

situation awareness and expertise in, 646–648

drug therapy, 349

du Pre, Jacqueline, 458

dual-task conditions, single-task comparison, 663

dual-task learning, learning of, 661

dual-task methodology, methodology in, 663–665

dual-task performance, 360–361

effects of practice on, 53

not always resulting in brain activity increases, 664

studying using the PRP paradigm, 276

untrained, 665

dual-taskswith longer, fixed ISI (non-PRP tasks), 666

post-training performance, 59

practice effects on, 665–666

prefrontal activity and, 664

processing and domain concept, 664

processing interference and, 664

single-task experiments and, 664

specific areas of, 664

Duchamp, Marcel, 783

durationof observational studies, 139

reporting in a time study, 312 , 315

of targeted behaviors, 314

dynamic environmentsexpertise in, 358

freedom from constraints accompanying expertise,360

game viewpoint task experience, 245

mental models developed in, 366

naturalistic decision making and, 403

perceptual, 173

of transportation, 358

understanding of, 364

dynamic function allocation, 192

dynamic phase space, 57

dynamic systems, representing, 180

dynamical systems theoryto perceptual-motor expertise, 505 , 513–516

role in the future understanding of performance insport, 472

dyscalculia, 563

dyslexics, angular gyrus region in reading, 671

The Early Mental Traits of Three Hundred Geniuses, 321

early startcollege choice and, 298

importance of, 298–299

value of, 298

EasyBowling (virtual bowling game),248

ecological psychologylearning and performance according to, 480

perceptual-motor expertise and, 505 , 513–516

research perspective of, 268

role in the future understanding of performance insport, 472

ecological representationincreasing for an action component, 245

increasing with respect to the action component,258

ecological validity, perception/decision task andperformance, 482

economic capital, 118

economic elites, pacts with bureaucratic,120

economics, time use literature on, 305

Edison, Thomas A.creative thinking in light bulb development,

779–780

domain redefinition and, 784

inventiveness of, 782

non-domain expertise and, 782

single-case designs applied to, 325

editingcomplexity of, 390

dissociating the author from, 393

educationadvanced requirements for, 298

after the Industrial Revolution, 70

in ancient times, 70

attention, 480

becoming a science, 76–77

characteristics of, 46

early philosophies of, 70

elite status and, 757

evolution and expertise studies, 45

of expertise as a phenomenon, 83–84

formal, 327

genius and exceptional talent and, 327

history of, 46

inner state of, 71

investment return in expertise, 748


medieval, 72

modernization and, 75–76

prior to the Industrial Revolution, 75


Education of a Wandering Man, 397

educational institutions, children having equal accessto, 119

educational psychology, discipline of, 76

educational theory and practicein chess training, 532

industry mass-production techniques,75

instructor as expert in, 70

of ISD, 81

of medieval European educators, 70

research on deficiencies of past, 83

under the sway of behaviorism, 45

education-occupation research, 588

Edwards, Ward, 424

effective scaffolds, knowledge elicitation proceduresas, 216






842 subject index

efficacycollective competence and, 444

expert teams, 444

process decomposition and, 427

self-diagnoses in team, 448

team member collective, 448

efficiencydecision mode cardinal issues and, 430

as expert social function, 748

of knowledge elicitation methods, 214

eidetic memory, 225

Elaborated level of expertise, 344

elderly. See agingelectric power utilities, 217

electrocardiograms (ECG), 234 , 345

electronic warfare technicians, 364 , 408–409

electronics experts, 51

element-level SRC effects, 271

eliciting, expert knowledge, 213 , 217

elicitors, skill of, 216, 218

elite(s)achievement as expertise, 12–13

circulation of, 119

current definitions of, 117

experts and, 106

issue of control or comparison groups for, 294–295

power of, 118

self-purification by, 119

social background of, 757

talented non-elite member admission, 119

elite performanceformal equivalent of for medicine, 339

improving beyond the age of physical maturation,688

non-transferability of, 47

elite performerslongitudinal studies of, 693

skater ice time use, 308

soccer player deliberate practice, 693

elite positionshigher selectivity in the staffing of, 119

historic mechanisms of transferring from onegeneration to the next, 118

mechanisms of reproduction, 118

elite science, Zuckerman’s primary focus on the worldof, 291

Elliot, T. S., 399

Elo rating scale of chess tournament performance, 524

emergency management teams, coordination andcooperation in, 449

emic categories, 139

eminenceindividual attainment and, 323

of participants, 322 , 323

teachers and mentors status and, 324

eminent individualsachiever examination, 331

analyzed in many domains in Great Britain, 10

family pedigrees of, 321

offspring as, 555

personalities of, 320

emotionsactor double consciousness of, 494

actor generation of situation and task specific,494–495

on actor intentional generation of, 495

actor involvement of, 491

of actors in dramatic roles, 495

in actor’s paradox, 494

brain processing of, 656

in writing, 395–396

empirical psychology, 82

Empirical Studies of Programmers, 374

employeesmanagerial excellence and organizational fit, 754

as professionals, 112

encodingof dancers, 499

knowledge acquisition and selection, 624

in knowledge acquisition experiment, 625 , 626

for memory enhancement, 497

memory skills and, 547

in superior memory, 547

verbal and enactive, 497

Encyclopedia of Chess Openings, 524

Le Encyclopedie, 203

Encyclopedie ou dictionnare de rainsonne dessciences . . . , 6

end-game positions, 602

endoscopic procedure, 254

engineered systems, diagnosis of surpassing medicaldiagnosis, 94

engineeringdearth of American students in, 36

mechanical, 773

practice principles, 193

engineers, aerospace, 35

enthymeme, 573

environment. See also dynamic environments; homeenvironment

cues in social judgment, 628

expertise and, 562

external, 511, 514

information processing and contextual, 615

learning and cognitive traits, 604

optimal, 562

seeking data from, 58

selected by writers, 396


self-regulation in, 706

situation assessment of, 442



social context and opportunities, 289

structuring of, 711

for study, 711

environmental expertise, demand for, 120

environmental factorsaviation student pilot situation awareness errors

and, 642

musical performance role of, 458

episodes, 309

aggregating identical or similar, 309

capturing in a stylized activity log, 309

evaluation of, 311

generating in SEARCH, 530

as the unit of analysis in a time diary, 311

episodic information, semantic memory and, 539

episodic memory, 544

expertise in, 539

recall of, 540

epistemologyCYC KB construction, 99

expert systems and, 91






subject index 843

gender and, 117

scientists claims and, 115

equal-odds rule, 330, 771–772

ergonomics, 188, 191, 208

Ericsson, K. Anders, 83

errors, 448. See also blunders; bugs; faults; mistakesin attribution of expertise, 750

by aviation pilots, 641–642

causal attribution of, 712 , 714 , 716

correction and expertise development, 705

decision implementation and, 435

in expert decision making, 433

expert team and, 448

medical under close scrutiny, 255

novice situation awareness and, 637

in novice situation interpretation, 637

primed by prior problems, 280

in situation awareness and comprehension, 634

in situation awareness and perception, 634

essayists, interviews with professional, 391

ethics, family subculture maintenance of, 756

ethnic group, expertise development role of, 756

ethnographic approach to expertise, 116–117

ethnographic researchon management team effectiveness, 448

methods of, 13 1, 208

observation in, 13 1

practice in, 141–142

revealing heuristic strategies of experts, 205

ethnography, 128

analytic orientations in, 13 1

expertise studies and, 208–213

information triangulating, 136

MER teams issues in, 132

problematic aspects of, 141

stakeholders identification, 136

systematic investigation, 138

technological design and, 138

ethnomethodology, 128

analytic perspective of, 133–134

emphasizing common-sense knowledge andpractices, 133

example of, 13 1

relation to technological design, 138

shifting focus to how people succeed, 133

etic categories, 139

evaluationof decisions, 422

of expert systems, 98

of expertise in history, 570

of historical sources, 572

eventsabstraction of invariances of discriminating cues, 55

antecedent conditions enabling, 580

contingency mediation by law, 571

experts anticipating future, 246

human activity as causing, 570

interpreting in terms of present conditions, 576

ISDV movement instruction and, 81

model of, 572

particular as units of analysis, 323

producing particular consequences, 574

recording, 314


situation projection of, 636

variability in, 54

Evert, Chris, 710

everyday activitiesage-related cognitive changes and, 732

expertise in, 614

initial proficiency in, 685

performing at a functional level, 684

reaching a satisfactory level that is stable andautonomous, 685

everyday expertisepractical intellectual abilities in, 613

practical intelligence and tacit knowledge in, 621

everyday problem solving, Sternberg TriarchicAbilities Test and, 618

everyday skillselderly adult problem solving, 732

expertise vs., 59

learning mechanisms extended, 11, 26

not sufficient for the development of expertise, 60

stages of, 694

evidenceconfirming and disconfirming, 295

consultant expertise and, 426

as criterion in history, 571

of decision making success, 427

for innate abilities, 458

strength assessment methods, 96

evolutioncognitive acts as, 497

creative thinking and, 771

excellencedevotion to, 613

heritability of, 458

school talent selection and norms transmission, 756

exceptional achievementdevelopmental antecedents of, 326

examining across the entire life, 322

historiometric inquiries into the role of genetics in,321

precursors of, 724

exceptional experts, identification of, 21

exceptional individualsbasis of choosing, 21

creators and political anarchy, 328

encouraged and supported in considerable learning,289

not showing unusual promise at the start, 288

exceptional mathematical abilities, early reviews of,554

exceptional memory, 539–550

for arbitrary information requiring sustainedattention, 237


as either specific or general, 544

as general or specific, 544–545

identifying the mediating encoding and retrievalmechanisms of, 236

for numbers, 236

restricted to one type of material, 560

study of, 540

tracing from average performance to the bestmemory performance, 236

exclusion process of women from scientific expertise,117

executive control system of working memory, 661

executivesrisk and managerial expertise of, 434

tacit knowledge-practical intelligence research and,628






844 subject index

exemplar theory, 344

knowledge in, 346, 347

processing in, 349

exhaustivity. See completenessExpCS (expertise cognitive speed), 603

ExpDR (expertise deductive reasoning)abilities as distinct from Gf, SAR, and Gs, 603

characteristic of the intelligence of adults, 605

measures of the ability traits of, 603

in particular domains, 604

reliable age-by-expertise interaction for, 604

expectationsindividual, 326

perceptual-motor skill acquisition and, 509, 511–512


experienceactors on-stage affective, 494

affecting driver psychology, 359

affective, 494

age and heightened levels of, 723

age in dual-task performance and, 360

age-related declines in knowledge-rich domains and,726

aviation pilot training and levels, 641–642

bicycle control and, 777

codifying expertise gained through, 96

compared to deliberate practice, 699

compiling of, 412

context interchange with information processingcapability, 615

cost of, 349

decision accuracy and, 434

domain-related performance improvement and, 306

of drivers, 355

of emotional states and outward expression, 493

expert truth presumption and, 750

expertise acquisition and, 623

expertise and, 96

expertise as consequence of lengthy, 686

expertise as everyday skill and, 11


expertise mastery and, 60

expertise operationalized as, 375

expert-novice differences influence of, 482

general aviation pilots and situation awareness, 643

improvement and, 683

improvements not automatic consequence of, 14

information gathering skills and, 646

information skills acquisition with, 640

knowledge-acquisition and, 616

in medicine, 349

in military decision making, 410, 411

performance effects of, 683

performance improvement and, 688

as a personnel selection predictor, 384

planning strategy moderation and, 368

Pollock’s technique and, 775

as a prerequisite to human expertise, 96

qualitatively different, 297

situation awareness information transformation and,645–646

situation awareness mechanism and, 637

tacit knowledge and, 615 , 617

tacit knowledge enhancement, 623

in time-pressured, high-stakes decision making, 406

in transportation, 358–359

use in problem solving, 345

use of experts specific, 406, 758

weak performance and representation, 358, 639

in Wright Brothers flight control development,779

experience-based learning, thought role in, 626

experienced driversdistance judgment, 362

in hazardous conditions, 365

reaction to hazards, 363

shifting cognitive load, 360

threat-related knowledge, 364

experienced physicians. See physiciansexperienced pilots, prioritization by, 644

experienced programmers. See programmersexperienced software designers. See software designersexperimental groups, superior performance of, 257

experimental tasks, ecological representativeness of,246

experimentation, domains permitting the use of, 569

expert(s), 22. See also apologist experts; domainexperts; medical experts; subject matter experts

accomplishments by older, 723

accountability and, 753

adaptivity of, 713

as agents, 136

as already-acknowledged, 426

American, 294

behaviorally-relevant objects processed by, 658

categorizing at the subordinate level, 176

circumstances of acting as, 745

cognitive differences from novices, 44

definition of, 3 , 706, 743

democratic control of, 119

differentiating from novices, 168, 342 , 373

distinguished from laypersons, 105

duties of, 743

establishing who is, 471

field monopolization by, 118

flexibility versus rigidity with increased skill, 249

legitimizing use of, 754

meaning of, 762

as more opportunistic than novices, 24

not accepting limited information, 199

novices comparison with, 22

power implications, 106

recalling surface features and overlooking details, 25


role of formal, 752

routine tactics of, 405

separating from non-experts, 106

shifting and knowledge domains status, 746

situation monitoring by, 52

social-personality development of, 33–34 , 36

sociological view of, 105

typology of, 745–752 , 753

unexceptional performance by, 686

varieties of, 758

ways in which they do not excel, 24–27

ways in which they excel, 23–24

work of, 744

working at becoming, 31

expert class of objects, processing faces as members of,668

expert cognition as the goal state for education, 45

expert generalist, expertise studies and, 46

expert knowledge, 598–599. See also knowledgecapturing prior to the retirement of experts, 217

created and maintained through collaborative andsocial processes, 206






subject index 845

creating a model of, 24

dimensions of, 95

eliciting, 213

entering directly into a computer as responses toquestions, 204

expert function interpretation and, 747

facilitating the elicitation and preservation of,218

information-processing and, 614

living repositories of, 213

multiple forms of, 346

professionals using to deal with uncertainty, 108

as tacit, 412

expert mechanisms, age-related decline compensation,730–732

expert memory, 599–600

as long term retention, 463

expert modelintelligent tutoring systems use, 46

training blueprint, 252

expert panels, 755

expert performance, 4. See also performanceacquired gradually, 692

acquisition of the necessary competence, 323

age and experience and, 688

applying to a wide range of domains, 233–235

assessment of at the level of individuals, 323

cognitive mechanisms and, 728

compensatory strategies in, 731

concept of intelligence and, 736

contexts of, 687

criteria, 745–746

deliberate practice, 602

deliberate practice requirement, 266

domain task constraint adaptation, 463

effortful practice requirements and, 61

examining people with exceptional memory,236

experience as related to, 383

to expertise, 49, 231

extended preparation and, 613

as a function of age, 689

generalized theory of, 471

historiometrics findings, 329

human possibility and, 17

laboratory tasks design and, 471

medieval craftsmen and, 75

not easily captured, 61

practice and, 297, 458, 561

predicting non-practice specific factors, 481

prediction of, 150–154

primary unit of analysis in the examination of,311

reasoning associated with, 599

representative task superiority and, 13–14

reproducible structure mediating, 236

research and development of, 613

research investigating, 83

resources limits and novice performance, 360

rewards for, 35

schematic illustration of, 695

in simulated sports tasks, 245–248


skill acquisition as an extended series of gradualchanges, 694

social context of, 743

social function in, 743

in sport, 471–483

stages in examining, 471

tasks capturing, 244

theoretical accounts of in older age, 726–727

theoretical framework for the acquisition of,306

time use and, 305–308

tracing across time, 324

work settings promotion of, 383–384

expert performers. See also performersattaining lower levels of achievement, 17

automaticity avoidance, 685 , 694

characteristics study, 305

deliberate practice by, 12

design constraint integration, 382

development paths of, 60

differences between, 153

eye movements of, 471

knowledge and acquired skills of, 235

performance asymptote avoidance, 694

performance improvement by, 694

practice without rest by, 699

primary as advanced level teachers, 9

psychological and physiological constraints on, 61

reported thoughts differences of, 235

specialized techniques employed by, 83

expert reasoning, 599

as inferential and deductive, 599

proceeding from the general to the specific,599

expert roleassignment as social validation, 750

assignment in groups, 750

as attribution, 743

as interactions, 743

professionalism and, 744–753

relative experts and, 744–753

social form and, 751

typological types and professional work, 751–752

expert superiority, postural cues and lying in, 257

expert systems, 87, 88

abilities of, 88

applications of, 93–95

in artificial intelligence, 48

benefits of, 94

brief history of, 89–91

building blocks of, 91–93

classes of, 94–95

development of, 88

emergence of focus on in AI research, 90–91

era of, 204

evaluation of, 98

expert knowledge required by, 191

expertise preserved by using, 94


explanation by, 97–98

industry, 43

issues arising from, 95–98

issues in, 95

knowledge and, 100

knowledge sharing by, 99

as models of human expertise, 93

parts of, 91

pioneers in the development of, 14

questions addressed by work on, 88

questions defining, 88

research on, 95

science as, 106

ways of building, 93






846 subject index

expert teamsadaptive abilities of, 441

collective trust, 448

cooperation and coordination by, 449

decision making abilities of, 441

definition, 440

feedback cycles, 446–448

field observation studies on, 444–445

leadership and, 443–444

leadership of, 448

in organizations, 440

outcome management, 448

performance, 439–446

performance characteristics, 446–449

performance effective processes and outcomes, 447

research on, 440–444

resource optimization by, 446

roles and responsibilities, 448

routine problem solving expertise of, 440

self report method use,as set of experts, 439

shared cognition in, 443

shared leadership in, 443

shared mental models and, 446

shared visions of, 448

social interaction expertise in, 441

stress conditions and, 443

theory of, 441

work allocation in, 449

expert value as return on education investment, 748

expert versus novice performance in a specific domain,471

expert-driven projects, disadvantage of, 120

expert-expert differences in performance byhistorians, 573

expert-in-context as unit of analysis, 743

expert-interaction, 747

attribution theory and, 750

constituents of, 746–747

expert-lay dichotomy and,model social usefulness, 748

as social form, 744

social mechanisms of, 749–751

truth and fact-checking in, 751

value as truth, 750

expertise. See also domain-specific expertise; everydayexpertise; medical expertise; memory expertise;musical expertise; subject matter expertise

acquired nature of, 61

adaptive, 377, 383

ascertaining the nature of, 170

attribution and audience, 747

belief basis of, 425

characterization of, 9, 10–14 , 46–60, 293 , 569

classic types of, 745

as co-construction between individuals anddomains, 291

codified to solve complex problems, 88

co-incidence or co-construction of, 299

conceptions of, 4

as continuum of states, knowledge, and skills, 781

creative, 320

definition of, 3 , 167, 206, 706

development of, 292 , 383 , 600–602 , 705–719

dispersed level of, 344

as domain-limited, 24

domain-specific vs. general, 763–764

enhancement, 623 , 627

in everyday life, 614

execution of, 414

first appearance of as a topic, 287

as a general set of inner ethical andknowledge-based traits, 71

general theory of, 9

historical overview of, 569–570

knowledge and content matter in, 47–49

knowledge, skills, and heuristics in, 217

limited scope of, 47

meaning of, 762

measurement of differential, 321

modes of, 764

modes of transfer, 765

motor, 672

operating at the level of being able to perform themovement, 672

path to as not fully monotonic, 601

postulates amplifying the functional importance of,119

psychological definition of, 614

as social construction, 426

studies of the long-term development of, 299

study and development of, 70

study approaches to, 21

study themes, 31

ten years of training and practice to attainworld-class, 327

theory derivation and, 588

theory of, 588, 598–602

tradeoffs and, 434

transition toward, 412

in transportation, 368

types of, 33 , 36, 377, 598

valuation of, 748

viewing as an orderly progression from novice tointermediate and to expert, 686

weaknesses and strengths of methods for studying,296

expertise abilitiesage and patterns of, 603

age and skill rating in playing GO, 604

age increases and patterns of, 602

Gf-Gc theory, 602–604

intellectual capacities and, 602

of intelligence, 604

expertise acquisition. See also acquisitionaccelerated, 329

developmental correlates, 331

empirical findings of historiometrics, 326–329

historiometric investigation contributing toscientific understanding of, 328

individual differences in expert performance, 328

expertise cognitive speed. See ExpCSexpertise deductive reasoning. See ExpDRexpertise research. See also research

in history, 580

systematic observation in, 313–316

using simulated task environments, 245–252

expertise studiescommon patterns of findings, 297–299

development of, 41–46

development of natural observation in, 130–13 1

field of, 44

framing of, 138

as a large and active field, 46

from psychological perspectives, 62

in psychology, 204–205






subject index 847

expertise working memory. See ExpWMexpertise-driver specific abilities account, 727

expertise-related mechanisms, 730

expert-lay dichotomyexpert-interaction and, 747

knowledge gradient and,as relational notion, 746

expert-novice differencesin dance, 499

features of expert-interaction in, 746

leading directly to new methods of instruction, 46

musician tonality recall and, 463

experts. See also memory experts; older expertsexplanations

coding methods for, 177

compared to thinking aloud, 228

expert experience use in, 758

by expert systems, 97–98

insuficiency, 204

of the line of reasoning, 93

verbal reporting as, 176

explicit awareness, sequential learning not dependenton, 274

explicit concrete entities, novices solving a problem onthe basis of, 181

explicit-instruction training groups, contrasted, 257

exponential law of practice, 267

expository writing, 574 , 575

expression in dance, 500

ExpWM (expertise working memory), 600, 604

abilities as distinct from Gf, SAR, and Gs, 603

abilities indicated in displays of expertise, 605

as different from STWM and memories of SAR, 600

indicative of intelligence, 605

level-of-expertise-by-age interaction for, 604

measures of the ability traits of, 603

reliable age-by-expertise interaction for, 604

extended Gf-Gc theory. See Gf-Gc theoryextended practice. See also deliberate practice

leading to improvements in performance, 31

PRP effect persisting across, 277

refining and improving rules as a function of, 479

extended training, 61

extensive experienceof activities in a domain, 683

necessary to attain superior expert performance,687

extensive watching, not the same as extensive playing,691

external demands, performing in response to, 687

external supports, elimination of, 706

external variables in Carroll’s system, 79

extreme base rates, problem of, 154

extrinsic rewards, writer’s creativity and, 395

extroversion, decision vigilance and, 429

Extroversion personality trait in the Social Traitcomplex, 159

eye fixationsmeasured by Chase and Simon, 526

recording and analyzing, 233

sequences of, 229

eye movementsof chess experts, 525–526

data indicating expert search strategies, 246

developments in the recording and analyses of, 471

of experienced vs. inexperienced drivers, 362

by flight instructors versus student pilots, 250

of music instrumentalists, 465

recording in an action component, 246

recording techniques and occlusion studies, 476

search patterns of skilled performers, 476

simulated by CHREST, 527

of surgeons’ laparoscopic simulation, 251

vs. external environment, 511

eye-hand spans of older skilled typists, 731

face inversion, prosopagnosia patients not impaired in,668

face-like expertise, developing for a non-face objectcategory, 676

facesinverted activating object-sensitive regions, 668

processing, 667–668

same race, 668

tests for, 545

treated like objects by object processing regions, 668

working-memory task, 662

facial expression, emotional experience and, 493

facilitative trait complexes, 159

factor analysis, 589

factor analytic studies, 589

failuresattention in perceptual-motor expertise and, 513

essential to the development of expert levels of skill,45

of experts, 23 , 56

likely to arise in deliberate practice, 698

viewing as opportunities to improve, 601

false associates, activating by way of other problems,280

familiesof Calder as artistic, 774

expertise socialization and, 756

of German musicians, 756

mental development and bourgeois, 756


musical abilities and, 457–458

as subcultures for expertise, 756

support by, 13

family background, world-class expertise emergingfrom, 327

family circumstances, influencing the acquisition ofextraordinary expertise, 327

family influences, providing early experiences andmotivating learning, 298

fast learning phase of M1, 671

Faulkner, William, 713

faults. See also errorsconsidering possible, 193

detecting in writing, 390

diagnosing, 94

feather, sharpening for writing with ink, 6

features, identifying, 268

feedbackin adaptive expert teams, 442


in deliberate practice for writers, 396

in expert teams, 446–448


in the ISD process, 81

for motor control, 273

perceptual-motor skill learning and, 506, 508

required for deliberate practice, 601

responding to, 511–512

situation analysis information development and, 636

vital role of, 45

to writers from composition instructors, 397






848 subject index

feelingsactor active experiencing of character, 493

actors on-stage and character, 495

as decision making mode, 430

intense negative in writers, 396

Feigenbaum, Edward, 12 , 204

Feltovich, Paul, 12

females, brain and mathematical expertise, 563

FFA (Fusiform Face Area), 667

activating differently based on experience withdifferent types of faces, 668

activation greater for faces, 667

greater activation for same-race faces, 668

not responsive to face parts, 668

response to items learned at high levels of expertise,667

response to non-face objects, 667

Fialkowska, Janina, 711

fiberoptic bronchoscopy, 254

fiction writers, 393

fieldsanalysis of, 138

focusing on the underlying principles and processesof, 297

newly emerging requiring different processes, 298

fieldwork, 128

examination, 243

with expert practitioners, 208

notes, 140

observational studies, 444–445

fighter pilots, 365

figural abilities assessment, 618

figure skaters. See also skaterselite spending more time on challenging jumps, 601

practice activities of, 306

rating practice activities for, 307

film and video technology, creating improvedsimulations, 256

film directors. See movie directorsfilm strip, creating, 140

film-based simulation, 255

films. See also motion pictures; movie directorsdirected as an acquisition indicator, 324

for each director evaluated, 330

financial auditors, tacit knowledge and, 622

financial business advisors, compensation closely tiedto success, 35

financial decision making class of expert systems, 94

findings, physical observations interpreted in terms of,179

fine-motor control, systematic age-related declines,726

fingers. See also manual dexteritybilateral oscillation, 516

defining movement for a particular brain region, 677

flexibility of, 696

M1 thumb opposition response, 671

movement in calculation, 563

movement in older adults, 733

music brain processing and, 464

opposition paradigm, 663

opposition sequence performance, 662

rapid movement of, 729

tapping rate, 727

Finkelstein, Salo, 554 , 559

fire fighters, 52

fireground commanders, 407

Fischer, Bobby, 689

fishermen, 175

fixationsexperts extracting more information from one, 476

of eye movements by chess players, 525

longer by apprentice drivers, 362

Flanagan, 188–189

flight crews, 445

flight elements, rating the priority of, 368

flight instructors, 249. See also pilotsflight simulation

assessing the effectiveness of, 253

development of and application to training,252–254

dynamic examining pilots’ ability to adapt tochanging constraints, 249

training efficiency of, 253

flow statesof consciousness in writing, 395

positive affect of, 395

flowcharts, data collected in, 141

fluency of retrieval from long-term storage. See TSRfluid intellectual abilities, individual investments of,

159

fluid intelligence. See Gffluid reasoning. See GfFly! software, 250

flyingexpert and novice pilots’ action consequences

anticipation, 248

positive expertise effects on, 733

situation responsiveness and constraints, 249

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 654.See also MRI

right posterior hippocampus (RPH) activation intaxi drivers, 673

studies of brain activity in abacus experts, 549

studies of shifts, 53

threshold selection causing an area to appear active,663

focal dystonia, 466

forecast skill scores,forensic analysts, 199

forethoughtgoal shifting and, 717, 718

motivational beliefs and, 707, 708

self-regulation and, 706, 710, 713

strategy selection and, 714

formal and public knowledge versus informal andprivate, 96

formal assessment in the 20th century, 70

formal domains, 21

formal experts, 752

formal instructionin dance, 498

small amount of time on, 289

formal vs. informal knowledge, 95

formal-empiricist paradigm of decision making, 404

forthcoming action sequencesplanning for, 509, 511

prediction of, 511–512

forward chaining, 92

forward reasoningexperts greater use of, 342

as a methodological artifact, 346

forward span STWM, limit for, 600

forward-backward search patterns, 177






subject index 849

forward-span memory, negative age relationship for,593

forward-working search strategyexpert’s representation characterized as, 169

used by the physics expert, 177

frame. See structured objectframe theory, 178

frameworks, 134–136

Franklin, Benjamin, 397

Frasca 142 flight simulator, 364

fraud detection, 235

free recall, 171

Freud, Sigmund, 615

fronto-parietal networkssupporting performance of routine numerical tasks,

675

use in numerical tasks, 563

frustration, skill demands and, 395

Fuller, Thomas, 557, 561

functional fixedness, 27

functional hierarchical representation, 195

functional magnetic resonance imaging. See fMRIfunctional organization in brain activation, 653

functional reorganizationof brain areas, 655

versus process efficiency, 662

functional validity of behaviors, 313

functionsbehavioral trait fluctuations in, 588

behaviorally valid, 313

expert performance as, 743

expertise as knowledge of, 747

named in a production rule, 92

fusiform cortex, 656

Fusiform Face Area. See FFAfuture events

experts ability to anticipate, 246

projection as situation awareness level, 634

g (general intelligence), 32 , 591


discovery and measurement of, 591

as a factor at early stages of skill acquisition, 725

heritability for, 724

as missing, 591

practical intelligence and, 616, 620


Ga (auditory processing), 590

Gagne, 80

Galton, Sir Francisattempts to measure a generalized, inheritable

intelligent quotient, 71

criteria of eminence, 553

first behavioral scientist to publish a truly influentialhistoriometric study, 320

hypothesis of a general superiority for experts, 10

on inherited abilities, 556

innate biological capacities limiting an individual’spotential, 684

innovation setting the groundwork for empiricalstudies of thinking, 224

on natural ability and mathematical expertise,555

precursors of exceptional achievements, 724

gameschunking of arrays in, 171

presenting situations to chess players, 232

scenarios and recall, 478

time constraints in, 473

Gamm, Rudigeractive brain areas, 560

brain activity of, 564

brain of, 675

brain regions used by, 565

calculating prodigy, 557

learning to use LTWM facility, 559

memory specificity, 560

neural network for calculation processes, 564

on practice, 561

practice and, 561

as self-taught, 560

study of, 554

visual processing computation and, 559

gatekeepers, 745

Gates, Bill, 14

Gauss, Carl Fredrich, 554

gaze-contingent paradigm for chess player perception,525

Gc abilitiesin the Intellectual/Cultural trait complex, 159

no decline or improvement of with aging, 593

Gc (acculturation knowledge), 590

abilities increasing with acculturation, 605

correlating with the educational or economic level,592

development of associated abilities, 592

as dilettant breadth of knowledge of the culture,604

improvements for some individuals with age muchlarger than for others, 595

increasing in adulthood, 595

indicating dilettante breadth of knowledge, 605

measures of, 597

operational definition not adequate, 597

security conducive to the development of, 592

Gc (crystallized intelligence), 32 , 161

characterization of, 617

components within a person, 32

correlating with Gf, 32

domain general tacit knowledge inventories and,621

instruments for measuring, 32



genderaccounting for performance differences in sprint

events, 481

scientific expertise perspective of, 117

in self-regulatory training, 715–716, 717, 718

general ability, importance of, 616

general expertisecreativity in Edison and Wright Brothers, 780

as mechanical in Wright Brothers, 770

in Wright Brothers flight control development,779

general intelligence. See gGeneral Problem Solver, 11, 42 , 90

general systems theory in military problems, 77

generalists, 46

generalized reasoning ability. See Gfgenerate and test weak method, 43

genetic endowment, relevance of, 327

genetic inheritance, as a relevant component forexpertise in music and sports, 22






850 subject index

Genetic Studies of Genius, 321

geneticsforward-backward search patterns with experts and

novices, 177

mathematical problem solving and, 562–563

musical talent and, 458

genius, not randomly distributed across space andtime, 327

geographical locationsgenius and talent clustering in, 327

information on, 312

geography, aviation student pilot situation awarenesserrors and, 642

geology, practice of changing during the MER mission,134

geometry, required to design new church buildings,72

Geometry Theorem Proving Program, 90

German Democratic Republic, 756, 757

Germany, 755 , 756

gerontology, time use literature on, 305

Gf abilities, aging decline of, 593

Gf (fluid intelligence), 32 , 161

correlating with Gc, 32

domain general tacit knowledge inventories and,621

instruments for measuring, 32

practical intelligence and, 616

as a predictor of performance, 549

substantial correlations with measures of workingmemory, 32

tests of, 32

Gf (fluid reasoning), 590

age-related declines in, 593

declining during adulthood, 594–595

development of abilities, 592

evidence for decline cleanest for novel or equallyfamiliar reasoning, 594

as much the same as Spearman’s g, 591

negatively related to skill rating in GO, 604

not representing a concept of general intelligence,592

parting the Gs measure out of, 594

reasoning as inductive, 599

social class and, 592

tests defining, 591

g-factor, 724

Gf-by-age interaction, positive for GO, 604

Gf-Gc theory, 588–598

descriptive concepts of, 590

not measuring capabilities best characterizing theintelligence of adult humans, 597

problems and limitations of, 596–598

relation with expertise abilities, 602–604

tests typically used in the research on, 597

gifted, career choices of, 34

gifted studentslongitudinal studies of, 34

making use of advanced placement courses, 34

giftedness, Mozart and, 769

Gilbreth, Frank, 187

girls, music societal factors and, 466

Glaser, Robert, 12 , 45

Glenberg, Art, 497

glidersChanute glider control research, 777

research of Lilienthal, 776

Glm. See long-term memory

GOage-comparative studies, 728

establishing official levels of expertise, 606

expertise as very complex in, 603

expertise in playing the game of, 603–604

objective of, 171

GO expertsasking to draw circles showing related stones, 173

partitioning patterns as overlapping sub-patterns,173

GO playersasking to recall briefly presented patterns, 171

memory for brief displays for expert, 47

poor performance on Gomoko displays, 47

goal orientation as motivational belief, 709

goal processing in the brain, 656

goal settingchoice of strategy, 714

self-regulatory process of, 708

in self-regulatory training, 718

goal shifting, 716

forethought and, 717, 718

self-satisfaction and, 717

goal-directed production, creativity and, 761

goal-direction, actor script segmentation in actorpreparation, 492

goal-driven processingin situation analysis, 636


goals. See also outcome goalsabstract, 378

decomposing, 375

design, 375 , 376

learning, 709

naturalistic decision making and, 403

need for clear, 45

outcome, 708, 716

performance evaluation and, 716

personal, 705

process, 708, 716

relating to long-term social-organization objectives,136

setting beyond one’s current level of performance,601

team and individual discrepancies in, 442

unpacking to reveal a nested hierarchy of goals andsubgoals, 189

Gobet, F., 529

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 710

golfcompared to chess, 697

control processes underlying skilled performance in,479

interactions of skill-level with attentional focus inputting, 479

situation awareness expertise in, 634

golferscausal attribution of errors by, 712

perceptual-motor expertise in, 513

Gomoku, objective of, 171

Gomoku playersasking to recall briefly presented patterns, 171

memory for brief displays for expert, 47

poor performance on GO displays, 47

GOMS model, 191

goose feather. See featherGould, Stephen Jay, 394

gourmet critics, 746






subject index 851

Goya, Francisco de, 772

Gq (quantitative knowledge), 590, 605

grades in medical school failing to correlate withsurgical ability, 348

graduate schooldiscipline-related expertise development at, 575

historians expertise characteristics emerging in, 581

Graham, Martha, 497

grammaractor memorization units, 491

as a reader prompt, 392

grammatical usage advisor, expert system acting as, 95

graphemic representations, 390

graphic designers, negative age effects, 733

The Great Mental Calculators: The Psychology, Methods,and Lives of the Calculating Prodigies, 554

greatness, arising from chance and unique innatetalent, 22

Greece, acting history and, 489

Gretzky, Wayne, 633

Griffiths, Arthur, 561

group Rorschach, administered to scientists by Roe,294

groupsbehavior of experts in, 750

expert area differentiation and, 753

expert assignment and unshared information, 750

preference for studies of, 293

Gs (processing speed), 590

of adult-age differences in cognition, 726


declining during adulthood, 593–594

ExpCS tests like those measuring, 603

measure parting out of the Gf measure, 594

older pianists slower, 602

parting out of the Gf-slow-tracing residual, 595

requiring focused concentration, 595

guided-discovery training groups, 257

guildsadministering tests to assess level of performance, 5

formed by craftsmen, 5

guarding knowledge and monopoly of production, 6

Gv. See visual processing

Halifax study, 304

Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology, 137

handicaps of experts, 24

handwritingheavy demands made on working memory by, 398

mastering the mechanics of, 398

hardware features of sport, 478

Hayden, Franz Joseph, 770

hazard detectionby drivers, 363–364

explicit training, 369

gathering and interpreting cues from theenvironment, 363

speed of as a factor in driver performance, 363

hazard perceptioninterference on, 363

as not automatic but controlled, effortful, 363

hazardsdriver scanning and experience, 648

driving performance predictive ability and, 648

HCI (human-computer interaction), research in, 13 1

hearing loss, musicians and, 465

hedonic forecasting, decision research in, 433

Heider, Fritz, 751

help seeking, 711

Hemingway, Ernest, 712

Hereditary Genius, 684

Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws andConsequences, 320, 553

heritability, 118

determining the upper bound for performance, 684

increasingly inappropriate in elites, 118

level of performance and, 10

limiting the role of to motivational factors, 480

heritability estimatesin behavioral genetics, 737

smaller in twins undergoing systematic musicaltraining, 725

for specific capacities, 724

heritable characteristics, intellectual abilities and, 555

Heritable Genius, 10

Herodotus, 570, 571

heuristicsdecision making and, 405

expert strategies as, 205

in an expert system knowledge base, 91

of experts, 215

experts use by, 758

historians use by, 572

in historical source analysis, 572

humans use to manage search in chess, 528

SEARCH use by, 530

searching chess moves, 525

Hewlett-Packard, 624

hierarchical attention network, determining optimallevel of processing, 667

hierarchical model, 330

assessing the performance of film directors, 325–326

of intelligence, 32

hierarchical organization, characterizing expert orexperienced memory, 54

hierarchical regression, power to detectage-differential changes as limited, 728

hierarchical representationchunking of patterns into, 172

experts and novices differences as, 179

of knowledge, 179

hierarchical structurememory superiority and, 542

in perceptual-motor control, 510

slipperiness of memory, 180

of the Star Wars game, 179

Hierarchical Task Analysis. See HTAhierarchies, experts differentiation, 176

high knowledge individuals. See expert(s)high offices, individual attainment and, 323

high performance, experience as predictor of, 375

high performance levels, self-efficacy and, 383

High School teachers, 35

higher education, adult expertise socialization and,757

hippocampus, 656, 673

historiansbackground knowledge of, 573

causal reasoning by, 579–580

causal thinking by, 580

characteristics of expertise, 581

constraint articulation, 578

construction of narratives, 573–574

context and analysis of, 573

counterfactual reasoning use, 579

counterfactual use of, 580






852 subject index

historians (cont.)cultural milieu of, 576

domain-related skills, 573

domain-specific knowledge of, 581

expert-expert differences in performance, 573

goal of, 571

graduate school and, 581

heuristics use, 572

inter-related tasks of, 571

knowledge compared to the history buff, 581

major factors of expertise, 581

mental representations of, 572–573

narrative construction of, 573–577

narrative quality by, 574

political belief system and, 580

providing coherence, 574

questions raised by, 573

reasoning and problem solving, 577–580

research skills of, 581

scoring skills of, 580

selecting and defining issues to be studied, 573

solution standards of, 582

source evaluation as expertise, 571–572

specialization of, 573

understanding and explanation by, 581

historic investigator, 69

historical accounts, rules of writing, 571

historical data, applying quantitative and objectivetechniques, 320

historical developments, identifying in observationalstudies, 140

historical eventsconstructing understanding of, 177

interpreting in terms of present conditions, 576

historical individuals, 319, 323

historical narratives. See narrativeshistorical periods, 327

historical reasoningideological belief and, 579

if-then statements and, 579

inferential process and, 577

weak methods used by, 577

historical sources, historian evaluation of, 571–572

historical time, performance increases over, 690–691

historical trends, impacting educator’s views ofexpertise, 70

historical-political-social thinking, narratives and, 576

historiography, 570

historiometric methods, methods, 331

historiometric researchas correlational rather than experimental, 325

liabilities decreasing, 332

methodological issues entailed in, 322

methods, 319–332

participants in, 331

sample distinctive nature, 322

sample including deceased individuals, 322

single-case studies, 320


historiometrics, 319

defined as a technique, 321

empirical findings of, 326–331

history of, 320–322

methodological artifacts, 325

methodological issues, 322–326

research designs in, 324–325

sampling procedures, 322

variable definitions in, 323–324

“Historiometry as an Exact Science”, 321

history. See also official historiesof acting as artistic performance, 489–490

as a change of context or scene rather than lineardevelopment, 577

contextualization in, 571

of dance, 497–498

definitions of, 570

difficulties of causal analysis in, 579

as a domain of expertise, 570–571

effect on the expected performance of anindividual, 326

as an expertise domain with ill-structured problems,570

expertise in, 569–580, 582

expertise research in, 580

experts in, 569

as ill-structured, 569, 578

learning from, 580

musician achievement demands in, 466

official, 576

as secular, 570

similarity to psychology, 582

sources for learning, 576


trustworthiness as a source for understanding,572

unofficial, 576

using heuristics, 572

hockeyplayers, 513


teams, 439

Hogan, Ben, 712

Holding, D. H., 528

holistic development, 70, 670

Home Cooling system, 210

home economists, time use studies, 304

home environment. See also environmentmusical excellence and, 458

musical skill informal acquisition and, 462

homme moyen (or “average person”), 320

honors, 323

horizontal time referent, 309

Horowitz, Vladimir, 462

hostile targets, higher percentage recalled thanfriendly, 364

How Working Men Spend Their Time, 304

HTA (Hierarchical Task Analysis), 189–191

as a generic problem-solving process, 191

time intensive compared to other methods, 191

variability in the application of, 191

Hughes, 107

human capital, 118

as division of labor, 748

expertise as, 747–749

as a key competitive difference for companies of thefuture, 14

Human Characteristics and School Learning, 79

human factors, 188, 358

human factors engineering, cognitive terminologyadoption by, 188

human intelligence. See intelligenceHuman Patient Simulator, 254

Human Problem Solving, 11

Human Resources Research Organization(HumRRO), 77

human-computer interaction. See HCI






subject index 853

human-machine systemsdecision making proficiency and, 436

describing the structure of for process control, 209

designing joint, 192

Hunter College Elementary School, 291

hyperlinks, 212

hypothesis-driven (backward chaining) approach, 24

hypotheticals, awareness of, 408

ice hockey. See hockeyice skaters. See figure skaters; skatersideas, 783

ideas test, 596

Ideational fluency personality trait, 159

identical-elements model, 281

identificationof experts, 207

of memory experts, 540

identify schema for historians reading documents, 573

identityexpertise training and, 756

known in historiometric studies, 322

identity-related activities, 137

ideologyhistorical narration alternatives and, 576

in historical reasoning, 579

in historiography, 571

IF part of a production rule, 92

IF-THEN rules, chaining to form a line of reasoning,92

if-then statements in historical reasoning, 579

if-then-do rules, 479

ill-defined problems, software design tasks as, 374

illness script, 343

ill-structured domains, 570

ill-structured problemsnaturalistic decision making and, 403

solving in political science, 578

in writing, 391

ill-structured taskimproving the structure of, 572

writing as, 389

An Illusive Science: The Troubling History of EducationalResearch, 81

illustrative frames, catalog of, 141

imageless thoughts, 225

imagerycorrelates approach for measures of, 524

in the domain of chess, 523

Galton’s list of questions about, 225

name recall enhancing, 549

self-regulatory process of, 710


use by dancers, 499–500

imaginationof actors in active experiencing, 493

dance subject performed task, 500

mathematical prodigies and, 554

musician outcome representation by, 464

imagined faces, eliciting FFA activation, 667

imagingbrain processing of music, 464

meta-analysis across-cultural language processing,670

immediate awareness, 590

Immersion Corporation Laparoscopic Impulse Engine,251

immune systems, actor affective states and, 495

immutable limit, attainable through practice, 684

impeding abilities trait complexes, 159

implementationas cardinal decision issue, 435

culture and speed in decision, 435

implicit learning, evidence for, 273 , 274

Imprimerie entry in Diderot’s Encyclopedie,improvement

caused by changes in cognitive mechanisms, 698

in expert performance versus everyday activities,685

greatest early in training, 266

as the ultimate goal of task analysis, 186

improvisation, jazz skill development, 462

Inaudi, 561

inaugural lecture (inceptio), 73

Incident Selection step in CDM, 215

incidental learning, 282

incidents, 189

inclinationmathematical prodigies and, 554

for numbers, 561

incomeexpertise as a determiner of, 36

on a fee for service basis, 35

incompatible mapping, 271, 273

incomplete descriptions, 93

inconsistency, testing more for, 379

incremental transfer functions for simulation training,253

independence, indicating for abilities, 591

independent index, identifying exceptional experts,21

independent learning, 83

index of reliability, 148

indicators of thought processes during problemsolving, 229

indirect visual information, 254

individual levelfaces classified at, 667

selectivity allowing objects to be coded at, 669

individual longitudinal designs, 325

individual prerequisites for expertise development,757–758

individual sports simulations, 257

individualism, community needs and, 107

individualized instruction, 70

Individually Guided Education, 79

Individually Prescribed Instruction, 79

individuals. See also person(s)absence of improvement by experienced, 686

becoming “tuned” to “pick up” information, 268

as context, 758

creative, 761

decision making service to, 423

differences between, 147

differences within, 147

displaying unusual ability to memorise information,539

domain knowledge use by creative, 763

expertise as an attibute of, 323

expertise prerequisites, 757–758

identification balanced against personalconfidentiality, 210

inherited talent and learning by, 613

overestimation of expertise, 750

potential limitations of adaptations, 733

inductive reasoning, 590

industrial education model, 76






854 subject index

industrial psychologists, 186

Industrial Revolution, 75

industrial-organizational psychology, 33–34

inefficiency, novice situation awareness and, 637

infantry officers, situation awareness and expertise,644–646

infants, 514 , 516, 555

inference engines, 92 , 93

inferencesadaptive, 713 , 715–716

bias creation, 230

drawing, 58, 591

historical, 577

historical reasons, 577

necessary to report why, 230

professional work and, 751, 752

rules of writing, 97


as uncertain, 93

inferotemporal neurons. See IT neuronsinformal assessment, ancient, 70, 72

informationacquisition and experience, 640

age-related loss model, 726

aggregation of historical, 574

amount of, 711

aviation pilots and, 641

decision making expertise and, 424

desire for increased amounts of reported, 224

driver intake of, 648

evaluation by software professionals, 379

gathering skills and experience, 646

gathering skills of new platoon leaders, 646

group expert assignment and unshared, 750

group transactional memory and, 753

historians obtaining, 571–573

intellectual learning and declarative, 507

maintenance mechanisms, 56

management strategies of novices, 648

memory experts organization of, 539

military officer processing of, 645

as object, 134

occluding temporally or spatially, 476

overload and novice situation awareness, 637

quick access representation format, 463

recall, 711

recording massive amounts as counter productive,198

relevance continuum, 766

schema inclusion of, 639

search expertise, 413

selective, access of relevant, 54–55

ship pilot use of, 197

in situation analysis, 636


situation awareness and volume of, 637

situation awareness importance and, 636


situation classification of, 638

situation environments perception and, 634

tacit knowledge acquisition instruction encoding of,625

tasks handling novel, 156

types of, 764

understanding of, 477

unshared and expertise, 750

Wright brothers acquisition of, 776

information gathering stragegies, gathering strategiesand expertise, 649

information processingabilities of novices, 649

acquisition and retention of basic skills, 268–276

age of, 191–193


computational models and, 226

context interchange with experience, 615


fundamental limits on, 57

metacognition within, 55

model of human and machine cognition, 42

models of good chess moves, 524–531

models of human problem solving, 11

situation data processing and, 636

viewpoint, 44

Information Processing Theory of Atkinson andShiffrin, 78

information system design, Scandinavian approach to,129

information technologyArmy supported communities of practice and, 624

communities of practice and, 624

informative movement cues, skilled players moreadept at picking up, 247

innate factors. See also talentachievement and dispositional, 724

evidence for, 458

Galton’s arguments for the importance of, 684

genetics and domain-specific, 562

individual domain specific, 724

limiting maximal performance, 684

limiting performance improvements, 683

musical capacity, 457

versus specialized acquired skills and abilitiesrequired for expertise, 223

inner speech, 226, 227, 228

innovationBeethoven as, 784

as beyond domain borders, 783

Calder motorized mobiles domain specificexpertise, 773

Calder’s mobiles as, 773

cognitive processes in, 761–780

creative and value of, 762

creativity and, 761

creativity and domain redefinition, 784

domain specific expertise and, 763

domain specific expertise in visual art, 775

domain-specific expertise and creativity using, 782

as highest level of achievement, 768

influence on Calder creativity, 782

as valued and creative, 763

input-output orientation in decision making research,404

input-throughput-output model, team adaptation and,442

inquisitiveness, 626

insight problems, 168

instancesautomatization theory, 267

categorical sorting, 174

knowledge capture and, 217

memory encoded retrieval of, 267

perceptual-motor skill acquisition and retrieval of,507






subject index 855

Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, 212

Institute of Social Research (ISR), 304

institutional structures, scientific knowledgedemonstration and, 115

institutionalizationof expertise, 105 , 114 , 736

of scientific expertise, 115

institutions, professions as, 108–109

instructiondance formal, 498

early availability of, 13

individualized, 79

instruction classes and teachers in, 75

of ISD movement, 81

in knowledge acquisition, 625

learning fit and, 83

in mathematical expertise, 561

programmed, 77

in Socratic context, 71

systematic design of, 79

teachers and trainers, 79

theatrical forms and, 491

time spent on, 289

instruction design by domain experts, 81

instructional designpioneers in the development of, 14

research projects on, 204

instructional sequence, student self-assessment as, 77

instructional systems, 81

of Bloom, 79

development, 77

experts and, 81

by intelligent tutoring, 46

Instructional Systems Development movement. SeeISD movement

instructional techniquesmedieval, 74

systematic nature of sophist, 72

instructivist perspectives versus constructivist, 83

instructors, changing the role of, 70

insurance companies, 383

integrationof experts’ representations, 180–181

as interaction of features, 180

intellect, adaptive, 617

intellectual ability. See cognitive abilitiesintellectual and cultural activity interests, 34

intellectual capabilities, 588–598

intellectual capacity, mathematical expertise and,564

intellectual development, investment theory of,159

intellectual endeavor, tasks captured in an expertsystem, 88

intellectual skillsacquisition of, 506


vs. perceptual-motor expertise, 506–508

Intellectual Skills learning outcome, 80

intellectual stage of perceptual-motor skill acquisition,512

Intellectual/Cultural trait complex, 159, 160

intelligence. See also academic intelligence; AI;analytical intelligence; creative intelligence; g(general intelligence); Gc (crystallizedintelligence); Gf (fluid intelligence);logical-mathematical intelligence; multiple

intelligences; naturalistic intelligence; practicalintelligence; psychometric intelligence; workingintelligence

ability in mathematics and, 556–557

as-process, 161

as-reasoning, 33

calculator ability and, 557

chess skill and, 533

cognitive skills covered by, 87

computational device approaches to, 43

creative, 616

denoting stable, interindividual differences, 724

extended theory of fluid (Gf) and crystallized (Gc),588

hierarchical model of, 32

inheritance of, 321

integrating trait theory of with theory of expertise,588

as lacking in self-taught calculators, 562

memory and, 547–548

as a reasonably good predictor of performance earlyin learning, 32

role of, 32

successful use of, 34

tests designed to measure abilities of, 606

theory of, 587

working, 758

intelligence research, pioneers of, 724

intelligence tests, tacit knowledge and, 621

intelligent behaviorartificial methods for producing, 42

child thinking skills instruction and, 626

intelligent systemscreation, 217

interfaces for, 213

for tutoring, 46

intensity. See qualityintentions

actor identification of character, 492

actor long-term memory and, 496

actor performance and, 492

actor script segmentation and expert chunks, 493

as key decision feature, 423

interaction analysis, 130, 141

interaction patterns between people, 207

interestsclusters of, 34

expertise and, 34

matching with job characteristics, 158

talents channeled by, 34

interferenceattributing to different stages of processing, 664

in a dual-task environment, 676

dual-task specific processing and, 664

related to strategy choice, 666

interindividual differences, 147, 727

factors leading to changes in, 15 1

individual kinship differences, 737

during learning or skill acquisition, 15 1

practice reducing the range of, 31

intermediate levelsacquisition by future experts, 62

non-experts and, 179

intermediatesmedical student recall as, 341

performance assessment by, 408

situational assessment by, 409






856 subject index

International Master level of chess, 524

International Master level performance in chess,529

interns, 98, 434

interpersonal relationsin Bloom’s spectrum of talents, 295

as expertise, 162

networks of top performers, 380

team members risk taking in, 444

interpretationargument claims, 574

of expert function, 747

historian schema use, 573

interpreters of the past, 570

interpretive procedures, skill acquisition and,267

Interservice Procedures for Instructional SystemsDevelopment, 77

interstimulus interval. See ISIinterval level rating scale for chess, 524

interviewing techniques, 177

interviewsof experts, 223 , 231, 288

as free-flowing, 176

in-depth career,people analyzing, 135

as quasi-naturalistic approach, 407

question answering, 176

ratings and sorting tasks and, 206


video use, 140

introspection, 176. See also self-observationby actors on mental operations, 492

in philosophy, 224

problems of, 237

responses of highly trained observers, 225

thinking structure and, 225

verbal reporting and, 176

intuitionas decision making mode, 430

of experts, 12


inversion effectface object-sensitive region activation and, 668

FFA sensitive to, 668

Investigative interest personality trait, 159

Investigative interests, 159

investmentas cardinal decision issue, 430–431

of human capital and productivity, 747

investment theoryof adult intellectual development, 159

of Cattell and Horn, 724

investors, 236

Iowa Writer’s Workshop, 397

IPL computer language, 42

IQacademic success and measures fo, 155

brain processing speed and, 548

compared to representing numerosities, 555

as a distinct construct from memory, 548

Gf and Gs decline, 594

of memory experts, 547

not distinguishing the best among chess players,artists, or scientists, 10

as a poor early exceptional adult accomplishmentindicator of, 292

IQ scoresmathematical, 556

reasonably reliable estimates of for Cox’sunquestionable geniuses, 321

IQ tests, 590

highest validity for their purpose, 155

test-retest correlations, 155

Is There a Science of Education, 76

ISD (Instructional Systems Development) movement,81

Ishiharaencoding used by, 547

Japanese memory expert, 541

number and word proficiency, 545

technique dependency, 545

ISI (interstimulus interval), 663 , 664

Isidore of Seville, 74

IT (inferotemporal) neuronsdeveloping view-point invariance to objects,

669

training enhancing the selectivity of, 669

jazz, 458–462

jazz dance, 498

JDM. See Judgment & Decision MakingJenner, Bruce, 710

Jensen, A. R., 556

job analysisqualification requirement identification and,

187

task analysis and, 187

job design, 187

job knowledgecharacterization, 617

tacit knowledge and, 616, 621

tacit knowledge inventory and, 621

job requirements, 189

jobsas positions, 187

vocational interests and characteristics of,158

John of Salisbury, 73

joint centers, converting into point light sources,477

Jolly Jumper, 514 , 516

Jones, Bobby, 711

journalists, 397

journals, 139

journeymen, 5 , 22

JR (female subject)all-round superiority of, 545

memory ability of, 543

J-shaped function, 735

judges, 474

judgment(s)accuracy and expertise, 432

attention in making, 425

as cardinal decision issue, 432–433

classes of, 433


in decision research, 432

of jurors in decision making, 433

mathematical modeling of social, 627

tacit knowledge inventory of situational, 618

value issue as special case of, 433–434

Judgment & Decision Making, paradigm of,404






subject index 857

jugglingcompared to expert mathematicians and calculators,

555

examining change over time in the acquisition ofthree-ball, 477

within-system couplings between postural sway andarm movements, 480

juriesdecision making by, 574

expert witnesses and, 755

jurorsacceptability of automaker design decisions by,

435


methodological issues of, 133

KA. See knowledge acquisitionKanfer-Ackerman Air Traffic Controller task, 15 1

Kasparov, Garry, 525 , 529

KB. See knowledge baseKE. See knowledge elicitationKemble, Fanny, 494

alpha-keratin protein model, 775

keyboard sequences, perceptual-motor expertise and,509, 510

keystrokespreparing future, 697

training exercises, 698

kinematic data, 471

kinesthetic imagery, 500

kings. See monarchsKlee, Paul, 772

Klein, Gary, 206

Klein, Wim, 557, 560, 561

Knight’s Tour in chess, 21

knowledge. See also acquired knowledge; analyticalknowledge; declarative knowledge;domain-specific knowledge; expert knowledge;Gc (acculturation knowledge); job knowledge;tacit knowledge

achievement and, 136

acquisition factors, 324

acquisition of numerical, 564

age-related declines compensation, 726

causal, 342–343

chess expertise and, 526

of chess moves, 524

clinical problem solving and, 346

cognitive mechanism in musical, 464

comparative patterns of, 616

content and organization of by experts, 11

continuum of, 781

contributing to the acquisition of medical expertise,342

coordination of medical, 346–347

course work by experts, 6

creative and general, 763

creativity and organization of, 346

depth of, 180

of diseases, 344

of domains, 100

eliciting and representing from experts, 203–218

encapsulation in procedure, 463–464

as ever-widening, 764

expansion and productivity, 747

expansion of occupations based on, 107

experiential, 342 , 344–346

experiential episodic memory, 342

expert, 598

expert status shifting and domains, 746

expert system factual, 91

in expert teams, 440

expert team shared mental models and, 446

expert team strategic, 440

expert vs. novice, 408

as expertise, 747

expertise and, 4 , 47–49

expertise as a large body of, 167

of experts, 4 , 215 , 405

in experts and novices, 167–181

experts as controllable sources, 751

in experts vs. less-accomplished persons, 235

explaining better chess moves, 523

extent as a dimension of difference, 178–179

facilitating requisition for expert systems, 99

as factual, 479

general ability to use, 32

general expertise and, 765

general expertise and general, 765

historians and, 573 , 581

historians use of prior, 573

importance of specialized, 33

individual differences and, 327

instantiation of capture, 217

institutional recovery of, 218

institutions and, 753

instruction and education and, 690

inversion, 55

longitudinal studies needed on development, 581

losing access to, 58

low correlation of with actual troubleshootingperformance, 195

mathematical, 542

measuring only surface, 597

medical expertise and, 340, 341

memory and, 532 , 545

mental models and, 638

metacognitive, 57, 379

novice evaluation and, 637

as organized or structured, 23

perceptual processing and musical, 463

phase of skill acquisition, 267

pragmatic, 734

as private, 96

production practices, 106

productivity of abstract, 754

profession competition, 754

public vs. private, 95

publishing class of expert systems, 95

as qualitatively different representation andorganization, 11–12

quick access representation format, 463

reading as a predictor of general, 397

as reading dependent, 397

reasoning dependent on, 48


relevant, 58

as researcher role, 752

retrieving information from stored, 596

scientific, 115

separation from reasoning, 48

skill-by-structure interactions and, 463

skilled chess players use of, 525

social function as time-efficient use of, 748






858 subject index

knowledge (cont.)in the software design and programming domain,

379–380

specific, 32

specificity in transfer of, 764–766

strategic, 96

studying in everyday settings, 13 1

system of an expert, 598

talent and interest leading to specialized, 34

team flexibility and, 440

telling by children, 398

transfer of, 765

transfer specificity, 764–766

transference to new situations, 763

transmission of scientific, 115

truth expectations and scientific, 750

types of, 342

usability problems, 54

use, 96

working memory retrieval of, 58

knowledge acquisition (KA), 96–97, 130

bottleneck, 100, 204 , 205

cognitive process and, 616

cognitive processes in, 625

component, 619

components use instruction, 625


shells, 204

Knowledge Audit, 216

knowledge base (KB), 91

capacity to modify, 88

configurations for chess experts, 172

continued maintenance of, 97

expertise in, 90

of medicine both extensive and dynamic, 340

programming of experts as language-dependent,377

of PUFF, 89

refinement of, 97

widening the scope and size of, 98

knowledge elicitation (KE), 203

as the bottleneck in expert system development,191

as a collaborative process, 206, 216

combining methods, 214

combining with knowledge representation, 212

comparing methods, 216

evaluating methods, 206

folding into CTA, 208

folding the methodology of into cognitive taskanalysis (CTA), 206

leverage point identification, 215

methods comparison, 206

methods efficiency, 214

methods palette, 216–218

methods strengths and weaknesses, 216

new goals for, 206

as not a one-off procedure, 217

practicing, 218

procedural sufficiency, 216

techniques in critical decision making, 407

knowledge engineering, 89, 206. See also cognitiveengineering

knowledge engineers, 91, 204

knowledge managementsystems enabling corporate-wide information,

100

Taylor’s approach now called, 187

knowledge modelscreation of, 217

set of Concept Maps hyperlinked together as, 212

structured as Concept Maps, 213

knowledge organization, 179–180

exemplar-based form of, 345

by experts, 9

by experts and novices, 365–366

medical expertise and, 342–347

knowledge representation, 91, 92 , 281

for expert systems, 95–96

of experts and novices, 365–368

hierarchical structure of, 175

software design and programming, 379–380

knowledge sharingArmy supported communities of practice and,

624


knowledge structuresaccessing, 54

information about the individual’s, 161

information selective encoding as, 616

reorganized by experts, 58

as revealed by contrived tasks, 170

underlying decision-making of novice performers,479

underlying expertise, 191

underpinning expert performance, 475

knowledge-based occupations, 105 , 106

knowledge-based paradigm, 91

knowledge-based processes in older chess players,730

knowledge-based reasoningof an expert, 598

of expertise, 599

knowledge-based systems, 88

knowledge-based tasks, 726

knowledge-free methods of cognition, 90

knowledge-lean (puzzle-like) problems, 168

knowledge-rich problems, 168

knowledge-rich programs in AI research, 90

knowledge-telling, 398. See also story-tellingknowledge-transforming, 398

labor markets, expertise valuation by, 748

laboratorycomparing the performance of experts to novices,

265

scientists’ repertoire of possible actions within, 116

studying learning and retention in, 265

laboratory research, high level of skilled performance,282

laboratory scientists, refining introspective methods,225

laboratory studies of the development of expertise, 281

laboratory taskscapturing the consistently superior performance,

688

too simplistic to reach any conclusions of interest,243

laboratory training studies, 725

lag time, 473

L’Amour, Louis, 397

landingseffects of simulation training, 253

performance of experts’ versus apprentices’, 250

landscaping experts, sorting trees, 180

Langley, Samuel P., 776, 777






subject index 859

language. See also programming languagesabstract, 392

acquisition of weak problem solving methods, 577

concrete, 392

processing and memory use, 558

laparoscopic cholecystectomies, 251

laparoscopic simulator, 250

laparoscopic surgery, 254 , 347

laparoscopy, 254

Larson, 109–110

latency measures of expertise, 314

Latin, 72

lattices, 180

law, powerful professions of, 113

lawyersexperts witness examination, 755

income on a fee for service basis, 35


trained on the apprenticeship model, 6

lay citizens, expertise not easily comprehensible for,119

lay experts, support role of, 752

laypersonsas counter-distinction to expert, 746

expert knowledge use by, 744

placing their trust in professional workers, 108

leadersof expert teams, 448

extensive biographical data, 321

hierarchical roles and sharing, 444

social problem responses, 443

leadershipage-performance studies, 329

in expert teams, 443–444

military officer tacit knowledge and, 622

shared in expert teams, 443

tacit knowledge-practical intelligence research, 628

learned category, 345

learned information, 97

learned reactions, 43

learned representation, 275

learning. See also academic learningabilities indicating consolidation in, 590

to acquire tacit knowledge, 625

actor learning skills and, 496

actor script segmentation, 493

adaptive inferences in, 713

at all levels of information processing, 283

approaches in chess, 532

areas with differing requirements, 83

assessing the amount of change during, 150

automated phase of, 685

behavior self rating by musicians, 464

causal attribution of errors and, 713

cognitive vs. social, 628

of commonplace skills, 506

contextual aspects of, 405

controlled and automatic processing during,658–661

creating and maintaining long-term investments,297

declarative vs. procedural, 507

of deterministic sequences, 273

by doing for writers, 397

in domains with particular social values, 300

early in the processing stream, 666

encoding and consolidation in, 596

engagement ability and tacit knowledge, 623

environments, 13 , 82

executive cognitive processes in, 616

expert team optimization and, 446

expertise and, 613

explicit-implicit problems in, 274

first phase of for a skilled activity, 684

goal orientation of, 709

from history, 580

illuminating our understanding of, 23

independent, 83

initial levels of, 80

interindividual variability during, 15 1

involvement in, 592

as localized and very specialized in the brain, 658

mechanisms, 266

memory and practice in, 560

motor, 671–672

neurophysiological principles of, 506

opportunities, 444

outcomes, 80

pattern recognition in, 413

perceptual-motor expertise and, 506, 508–511

performance evaluation and, 716

poorest performing having the most to gain, 15 1

power law of, 510

practice effects of, 658

probabilistic sequence, 273

process and outcome strategies in, 708

producing areas of activation, 658

producing detectable morphological changes, 658

programmed, 45

rate, 79

ratio resulting in degree of, 79

relationships between initial and subsequent, 80

rhythms of, 289

in the same cortical area as processing, 658

scientifically and empirically investigated, 76

second phase of, 684

self-efficacy in, 709

self-enhancing cycles of, 707

self-monitoring in, 717

self-regulatory competence and, 706

self-regulatory training and, 715–716

specificity of, 666

strategic processes in, 709

studying in the laboratory, 265

task strategies in, 710

technique-oriented strategies in, 709

during tests, 149

of theatrical scripts, 492

theories of, 76

through trial and error, 514

learning curves, individual showing discontinuities,282

learning hierarchies, 78

construct of, 80

problem solving behaviors decomposed as, 204

use in the ISD movement, 81

learning processescognitive representation of musical structure, 463

every aspect scrutinized, quantitied, and aggregated,76

improving the selection of related chess moves,697

learning strategiesof actors for roles, 491

of actors use by non-actors, 496

of experts, 412

of jazz dancers, 499






860 subject index

learning-impaired individuals, cases of superiormemory in, 547

learning-related brain changes, themes evident in theliterature of, 658

learning-to-learn, 736

Lecoq, Jacques, 491

left hemisphere, grouping of chess pieces, 533

left intraparietal sulcus, specialized for numericalprocessing, 675

left parieto-superior frontal network, computercomputation and, 563

left/right brain specialization in learning andperformance, 657

legal documents, jargon-filled, 394

legal profession. See also lawconstructing professionalism from within, 113

legal services, restricting to qualified professionals, 6

Leinhardt, G., 570

leisure time and activities, examination of, 304

leisurely activities, age-related changes in, 732

Lennon, John, 770

Lens Model of Brunswick, 157

lessons, onset of, 329

letters, highly unitized, 269

levelsof abstraction, 42 , 210

of analysis, 304

of decomposition, 210

of expertise, 265

leverage pointsin naturalistic decision making, 406

using KE methods to identify, 215

lexical decisions, tasks requiring, 726

Li Yundi, 466

liberal education, 84

Library Client Tracking system, 210

life expectancies, 325

lifelong expertise, 729

life-management, 736

lifespancontemporary view of, 684

as a control variable, 328

distribution of memories across, 296

lifetimeoutput correlated with precocious impact, 329

productivity gauging attainment in terms of,323

light bulb, invention of, 779–780

Likert scale, 618

Lilienthal, Otto, 776, 777, 778

limitof attention of novices, 57

of long term memory access, 58

of working memory, 57

limitations, apparent in experts, 24

limited-information tasks, 197, 199

line orientation, orientation, 666

line, tracing slowly, 594

linear dependence, 326

linear process, software design and programming as,374

linguisticsfindings and theorizing affecting psychology, 43

processes in writing, 390

Link, Ed, 252

Link Trainer, 252

LISP (LISt Processing), 93

list structure. See structured objects

listening, cortical response to music, 465

list-processing computer language, 42

lists, segmenting into 3 -digit groups, 236

literal accounts, compared to documentation, 136

literal features, represented by novices, 178

literary experts, self-recording by, 712

lived work, practices as, 135

lobes of the cerebrum, 655

local community for a young child, 299

“local” patterns, 172

location data in a time diary, 312

location-words, compatibility with vocal responses,271

logarithms, memorising the table of, 560

logicdomain use of formal, 569

domains permitting the use of, 569

Logic Theorist (LT), 42

Logic Theory Program, 90

logical inference rules, 48

logical-mathematical intelligence, 554 , 564

long jump, 480

long looks by drivers, 362

long-distance runner, encoding digit strings, 542

longitudinal designsaggregated, 325

in historiometrics, 324–325

longitudinal research, 593

of a Canadian chess player, 528

of elite performers, 693

indicating decline during adult development, 593

long-term development of expertise, 299

long-term experiencephases of, 297

required before exceptional accomplishment, 297

long-term knowledge, 638

long-term memoryaccess limit, 58

in blindfold chess, 531

long-term memory (Glm), 590

long-term memory (LTM)automatic retrieval from, 54

chess patterns stored in structures, 526

chunks held in, 526

expert knowledge retrieval from, 463

experts storing domain-specific information in, 244

large capacity of, 54

rapid access to, 394

rapidly accessing, 83

representation(s), 391

restructuring ideas stored in, 398

role in decision making, 431

situation projection working memory and, 636

long-term recall of actors, 494

long-term retentionas cognitive adaptation in musicians, 463


long-term working memory (LTWM), 249

acting expertise and, 496

chess positions encoded by experts in, 50

developed by experts, 558

as domain specific, 560

of experts, 547

mental calculation and, 558–559

protecting from expected age-related changes, 726

rapid retrieval from, 394

results and analyses of, 600

skills acquired by experts, 54

storage in, 600






subject index 861

theory, 249

use in arithmetical calculations, 564

Louganis, Greg, 710

low altitude military flying, 360

low-altitude air combat, 359, 361, 363

low-fidelity models, 347

lowly speeded tests, score indicating level of reasoningability, 594

LT (Logic Theorist), 42

LTWM. See long-term working memorylung disease, PUFF expert system for diagnosing, 89

Luria, Alexander, 541

M1 (primary motor cortex), 671

activity distribution for individual digits, 674

implicated in sequence learning, 671

M1 representations, developed by experiencedmusicians, 674

machine learningmaturity of, 97

processes CYC KB will enable, 99

machinesdesigning to fit humans, 188

as equal to humans, 192

manually controlled during the age of steel, 186

macro analysis of time use, 308–312

macro level for time spent in an activity, 303

macrocognition, 199, 414

macro-game situations, 257

MACRs (Moderately Abstracted ConceptualRepresentations), 52

Mailer, Norman, 397

maintenanceaspects of successful, 732

of a knowledge base, 97

as musical practice stage, 461

practice, 734

through deliberate practice, 727, 729

males. See also mendancer sensorimotor proprioception dominance,

500

management skillsage-comparative studies, 728

strong direct relation with experience, 349

managerial expertise, risk structuring by executives as,434

managerial literature, concept of professionalism in,111

managerial success, nAch predicting, 157

managerialist/organizational cultures, 112

managersexcellence and organizational fit, 754

tacit knowledge transfer and leadershipdevelopment, 628

teams and, 444

Mangiamele, Vita, 562

manipulables, use by calculators in learning, 559

mannequin-based simulators, 254 , 257

manual control, 188, 189

manual dexterity. See also fingersfailing to correlate with surgical ability, 348

not correlating with hand motion, 348


manual operations, repetitive, 187

manufactured objects, configuration fromsubassemblies, 94

manufacturing, scheduling and process planning, 94

MAPP computer program, simulations with, 527

mappings, practice with, 271

Marine Corps Planning Process (MCPP), 409, 410, 411

marine creatures, sorting of, 175–176

market closure, professionalism as, 109

market shelters, professional service as, 109

marketing slogan, professionalism used as, 111

Mars Exploration Rover. See MERMarxist egalitarian concepts, 117

masks in actor training, 490

mass education, 70

mass instruction, Sophists and, 71

mass spectrograms, interpretation of, 204

mass spectrometryanalyzing data from, 90

rules discovered by Meta-DENDRAL, 91

master(s), 22

advanced students becoming, 5

changes in relations with apprentices, 9

craftsmen accepted as, 5

organizing existing knowledge, 5

master craftsman, 74

Master level of chess, 524

master teachersexperience of studying with, 298

investigations into experiences with, 298

learning thinking styles from, 297

move to study with, 297

mastermind, age-comparative studies, 728

masterwork, 768, 771

masterycriteria for, 712

learning, 79

performance evaluation and goals, 716

Math Reasoning Abilities personality trait, 159

mathematical abilities, 554 , 563

mathematical activities, brain areas used in, 554

mathematical calculationbrain activation during, 675


mathematical expertisebrain systems for, 563–564

sex-linked characteristics of, 563

mathematical knowledge, superior memory and, 542

mathematical modeling, tacit knowledge and, 628

mathematical models of social judgment, 627

mathematical precocity, 554

mathematical problem solvingboy-girl test performances, 563

as intrinsically rewarding, 565

mathematical prodigies, 554

mathematical reasoning, 618

mathematicianshigh degrees of specialization, 35

representing academic/intellectual talent, 295

tending to live less long than scientists in otherdisciplines, 325

mathematicsas a basic citizenship requirement, 553

boy-girl test performances, 563

as a cognitive domain, 554

dearth of American students in, 36

distinguishing experts in, 553

domains permitting the use of, 569

expertise likely to show a Matthew effect, 15 1

as a field in the Development of Talent Project, 288

as a mark of intelligence, 556

quantitative knowledge and problem solvingabilities of, 590






862 subject index

Matthew effect, 15 1

maturity, 723. See also adults; aging; older adults;physical maturity

maximal performance. See also performancebecoming a rigidly determinate quantity, 684

in real settings, 735

versus usual, 734

McCartney, Paul, 770

MDS (multidimensional scaling), 365

Mead, Margaret, 130

meaning of system elements and mental models,638

meaningful clusters, formed by radiologists, 173

meaningful information, decline of memory for, 593

Meaningful Learning, 211

meaningfulness of configurations enabling betterrecall, 171

means in modern historical method, 571

Means, James, 777

means-ends analysis weak method, 43

means-ends relations, 210

measurable assessment, 70

measurementof change, 150–153

of practical intelligence and tacit knowledge,618–620

in the prediction of expert performance,150–154

problems associated with the study of expertise,150–154

scale for evaluating chess skill, 524

measuresof creativity and decision making expertise, 431

reliability of, 148

mechanical arts, making knowledge available, 6

mechanismscompensating for age-related deterioration, 727

enabling older experts to circumvent processlimitations, 727

executing expert performance, 61–62

modifiable to allow gradual changes, 696

monitoring and guiding future improvements, 695

supporting successful aging, 736

mediating mechanismschanged by deliberate practice, 14

examining, 13

for the execution of performance, 694

expertise development and, 755–757

for superior performance, 16

medical consultation, time spent by older expertpianists, 735

medical diagnosis, 94. See also diagnosesbroad approaches to the understanding of, 340

as a general skill, 340–341

research on minimizing perceptual factors, 235

medical domains, students recalling more about a case,25

medical education, early expert-novice studies, 46

medical evaluation scenario, motion picturessimulating, 254

medical expertise. See also expertiseaging and, 348–349

as amount of knowledge, 341

involving coordination among multiple kinds ofknowledge, 340

knowledge types contributing to, 342

literature on, 340

organization of knowledge and, 342–347

medical experts. See also expertsacquiring information more efficiently, 341

classifying prototypical diseases more rapidly, 344

explaining diagnoses, 56

many examples required to become, 345

synthesizing details, 341

medical intensive care unit, field study, 445

medical literature, decision cues in, 407

medical practitioners, misconceptions arising in, 343

medical professionanalyses of, 109

bias as a serious handicap of experts, 26

diversity, restratification and growing hierarchywithin, 109

medical reasoningmultiple processes operating in, 346

under real-time representative constraints, 55

medical services, restricting to qualified professionals,6

medical simulation training, progress of, 254

medical specialists, tendencies of, 349

medical students, recalling more propositions about acase, 25

medicineexpertise in, 339–350

expert-novice difference studies in, 47

historically powerful professions of, 113

knowledge base both extensive and dynamic, 339

measures of relative expertise, 339

studies of expert and novice diagnoses within asubspecialty, 52


years of apprenticeship, 340

medieval context of skill building and expertise, 72–75

medieval educational structures, 72

medieval institutions, codifying and delineatingknowledge, 72

medieval instructional techniques, 74

medieval university, 73

memorization. See also natural memorisersactor understanding and line, 492

brain areas of activity, 548

of chess players, 525

as expert cognitive adaptation, 463

improving methods of, 539

in learning chess, 532

musical practice and, 461

memory(ies). See also semantic memoryaccuracy of, 557

active experience principle and, 493–494

actor script segmentation and, 493

actor skills use by non-actors, 496

age and forward span in, 593

auditory, 559

Bali musicians and, 466

of ballet dancers, 498

in blindfold chess, 531

capacity of exceptional experts, 22

championships, international, 540

as cognitive adaptation in musicians, 463

compensating for limitations in, 529

comprising a number of separate systems, 544

dance pattern mental devices for, 499

dancer subject performed task and, 500

demonstrating superiority in, 540

development and knowledge, 532

differentiated skill levels of, 523

as a distinct construct from IQ, 548






subject index 863

distinguished from calculation, 557

distribution across a lifespan, 296

in the domain of chess, 523

domain-specificity in, 560

driver hazard detection and, 648

effects on the test-retest method, 148

efficiency, 544

efficiency in managing, 560

eidetic, 225

enactment and physical movement, 497

encoding of, 544

examining people with exceptional, 236

exceptional, 539–550

expert knowledge demonstrations of, 539

expert skill-by-structure interactions and, 463

expertise and, 225

expertise as accumulation of patterns in, 463

expertise conceptual complexity and, 767

experts storing of past actions, 685

improvement methods, 539

improvement methods from Greek and Romantimes, 539

intelligence and, 547–548

limitations of aids, 547

load in calculation, 557

loaded on a single factor, 544

management of, 560


musical performance and, 463

in musical practice and performance, 461

of organizations as transactive, 753

principles of skilled, 547

rapidity of, 554

recoding and embedding items, 541

retrieving specific facts from, 280

role in early learning, 156

of Shereshevskii (S), 541

short-term working, 558

strengthening of, 560

memory abilityevidence in support of some overall, 544

as independent of IQ, 547

over a wider range of material than numbers alone,545

self-rating of, 544

memory chunks. See chunksmemory expertise. See also expertise

future directions in, 550

key examples of, 540–543

practical applications of, 549–550

memory experts. See also expertscomparing to control participants’ brain activation,

675

identification of, 540

IQ of, 547

reaching the highest level in the world after twoyears, 689

Memory for Names, 595

memory patterns, expertise as accumulation of, 463

memory performance. See also performancedecision making and, 431

of decision making experts, 431

differences explained in terms of acquired skill,675

mechanisms mediating, 11

reanalyzing in terms of experts and non-expertchunks, 172

of savants, 463

memory processesage-related decline, 726

in chess, 526–528

memory remediation, effectiveness of mnemonictechniques, 549

memory research, future directions in, 550

memory retrievalversus perceptually available retrieval conditions,

531

representative structure different for, 531

memory search task, identifying probe items, 269

memory skillsacquired by experts, 54

validating numerous aspects of, 236

memory span, natural, 546

memory speed, long-term and expertise, 394

memory structures, underlying skilled performance,477

memory studies, history of modern, 540

memory superiorityas natural or acquired, 545

theoretical issues, 543–549

memory tasks, studying performance on, 11

memory techniques, distinguishing from a naturalsuperiority, 545

memory tradeoffs, chess research characterizing, 534

memory training, 549

memory type, used by prodigies, 554

memory-visual search tasks, sizes of display sets inhybrid, 269

men. See also malesbecoming scientific fathers, 555


mental arithmetic, sub-vocal rehearsal required for,mental calculators, validation of, 237

mental capacitiesdetermined by innate mechanisms, 684

found not to be valid predictors of attainment ofexpert performance, 10

individual differences in, 10

tests of individual differences in, 10

mental devices for dance pattern memory, 499

mental imagery. See imagerymental models. See also model(s)

assisting experts in anticipating what will happennext, 366

assisting in discriminating relevant information, 366

aviation student pilot situation awareness errorsand, 642

continual updating of the current situation, 52

cultural norms of excellence transmission and,756


definition, 638

driver physical automaticity and, 648

of dynamic environments, 366

expert teams shared, 440

of experts, 405

future state projections and, 638

in learning process, 413


notion of, 217

perceived information interpretation and, 638

shared by team members, 474


as situation awareness mechanism, 638


superior generating superior situation models, 367






864 subject index

mental operations, including as part of the descriptionof learning, 78

mental realm, researchers progressively encroaching,44

mental rehearsaldancer movement encoding, 499

dancer pattern use of, 499

mental representations. See also representation(s)functions of, 56

of historians, 572–573

instrument implementation plan and, 464

musical performance and, 463

for performance and continued learning, 696–698

of prototypical movements, 499

of readers, 391

triangular model for musicians, 464

mental resources. See also resourcesautomaticity and situation awareness, 639

decision chores and, 431

mental set fixedness, 27

mental simulationas even sequence envisioning, 406

in juror decision making, 433


mental walk along a well-known route, 540

mental wargaming in military decision making, 410

Mentice Procedicus, 254

mentoring, 628

mentors, influence of domain-specific, 324

MER (Mars Exploration Rover)application of the rock abrasion tool, 134

improving mission work processes, 132

mission study limited by the number of observers,142

rover operations, 139

science and operations support teams, 132–133

merit, 118

merit principle, 119

Merton, Robert K., 115

meta-analysis of sports expertise findings, 482–483

metacognition, 55

as automatic, 57

important to test understanding and partialsolutions, 56

within the information processing model, 55


self-observation processes and, 711

metacognitive activity, 57

metacognitive knowledge, 57, 379

metacognitive self-monitoring, 711

metacognitive skillsin decision skills training, 412

of music learners, 464

musician self-regulation and, 461

metacognitive strategies, 57

Meta-DENDRAL learning program, 91

meta-level knowledge in an expert system, 96

metaphorical imagery, dancers and, 500

metaphors, reasoning with, 594

method acting, 490

method of locibrain activity during training in, 548

effect of training in on delayed serial recall in theelderly, 549

as a memory retrieval structure, 547

use by memory experts, 548

used by Shereshevskii, 541

method of tough cases, 205

methodical orderliness of human activity, 134

methodological artifacts, 325

methodological issues of jurors, 133

methodologiesbenefiting from opportunism, 217

formal experts and, 752

importance of convergence of findings across, 296

relationship to research questions proposed, 296

studied in a workplace, 133

metrics, used by social scientists, 141

Mickelson, Phil, 634

micro level for time spent in an activity, 303

microanalysis, 714

microcognition in naturalistic decision making, 414

microcomputer chess programs, drawing matches withthe best human players, 525

micro-game simulations of team sports, 257

microscopic pathology, experts encoding essentialinformation more accurately, 234

Microsoft Flight Simulator, 249

middle ages, expertise in, 75

middle-school students, 626

militarycommanders experience with recognition-primed

decision models, 411

company commanders CompanyComand.mil asArmy forum for, 624

enlisted men and women performance predictions,33

intelligence and information techniques, 645

jobs, 77

officers information skills and experience, 640


tacit knowledge for leadership, 620, 622

training, 78

military decision making. See also army command andcontrol; decision making; platoon leaders

cognition in, 410, 411

naturalistic, 409–412

rationale of, 410


Military Decision Making Process (MDMP), 409, 410,411, 412

Military Leadership Case-Study Scenario, 620

Military Operations in Urban Terrain. See MOUTfacilities

military pilots, situation projection by, 641

Miller, George, 191

Miller, Robert B., 188, 189

mindcomputer metaphor of, 509, 510

multiple representations in, 389

mine detection clearance operations, 252

minimal access training, 254

minimal invasive simulation trainers, 254

Minimal Invasive Surgery Trainer in Virtual Reality(MIST-VR), 254

Minimal Invasive Surgical Trainer (MIST), 254

mirror neurons, studies of macaque, 672

mirror systemcoding for complete action patterns, 672

expertise specificity of, 672

misconceptionsabout simulation and training, 258

about the brain and expertise, 657

factors contributing to for medical practitioners,343






subject index 865

mission surface operations, 133

missions, rehearsing in advance, 78

MIST (Minimal Invasive Surgical Trainer), 254

mistakes. See also errorsmusical performance and cognitive representation,

463

Mitchell, Frank D., 554 , 559

mixed designs in historiometrics, 325

mixed event-related design, scanning dual-task andsingle-tasks in, 676

mixed single-task performance, increase in leftDLPFC, 665

mnemonic encodings, 236

mnemonic method of loci, 540

mnemonic methods, 542

mnemonic strategies, 547

mnemonic techniques, 545 , 549

mnemonics, 550

mode as cardinal decision issue, 429–430

model(s). See also mental modelsfor development, 290

DNA double helix structure, 776

expert performance differentiated from expertise,83

kinds of, 214

mathematical, 627, 628

reasoning from, 96

of situation awareness, 635–637

skill acquisition, 462

of teamwork input-process-output, 441

triangular model of mental representation formusicians, 464

writing practice and, 397

Model of School Learning, 78

modeling, decision making research in descriptive,404

modeling-by-programming method, 90

Moderately Abstracted Conceptual Representations.See MACRs

moderator analyses, 728

modern dancehistorical background, 497

movement sequence memory of, 498

training, 498

modus ponens, 91

molar equivalence, 730

molar-equivalence-molecular-decompositionapproach, 730

molecular decomposition, 730

momentary time sampling, 315–316

monarchscross-sectional time series analysis applied to,

325

influence on their nation’s welfare, 321

Mondeux, 560

Mondrian, Piet, 773 , 774

monitoringby aviation student pilot situation awareness errors,

642

behaviors of experts, 56

skills of experts, 24

monkeys. See also rhesus monkeysinvasive physiology studies, 676

numerical capacity of, 555

monopolies, professional services as, 109

mood, enhancing a writer’s positive, 395

moral community, professionalism as a form of, 107

Morse codeencoding into phrases, 225

sending and receiving of messages via, 474

motion information, 247

motion pictures. See also filmscritical evaluations bestowed on, 323

motion study, 187

motivationactor domain specific information on, 496

as both an individual quality and as sociallypromoted, 297

changes over time, 297


child musical practice and, 461

creating and maintaining to develop exceptionalabilities, 297

drive to develop expertise, 158

efficacy and, 444

flow as intrinsic, 395

goal-setting strategies and, 709

of leaders and team performance, 448

linked to performance and future improvements ofperformance, 693


practical intelligence and, 616

of professional and amateur musicians, 464

required for expertise, 35

self-efficacy components, 158

self-satisfaction as, 713

of software professionals, 382–383

sustaining, 45

motivational beliefscyclical phase view of, 707–713

effects of self-regulatory training on, 715–716



of successful learners, 713

motor actions, complex, 672

motor activity of actors in active experiencing, 493

motor areasin the brain, 656

rapidly changing, 671

motor componentsmaintaining certain basic, 733

tasks with substantial, 15 1

motor controlin the brain, 657

research on, 273

motor expertise, regions sensitive to, 672

motor learning, 671–672

motor map, 656

motor patterns, executive control of varying, 729

motor plans, elements of, 508–511

motor programming, processes associated with, 475

motor recall, ballet experts and, 498

motor, sequence learning as not purely, 275

motor skillslearning, 283

of music instrumentalists, 465

productions highly dependent on execution, 479

Motor Skills learning outcome, 80

motor systeminappropriate levels taking control of a movement,

480

involving response locations but not specificeffectors or muscle groups, 276

self-organising principles operating within, 479






866 subject index

motor task practice, leading to functional increases ofactivation, 663

motor tracking task, brain activation as a function ofpractice in learning, 654

motorization of transport, civil economy, and war, 186

Mouillar, L. P., 778

MOUT facilities, 243

move sequences, memory for in blindfold chess, 531

movementactor recall and, 496

central role in sports, 473

cerebellar control of, 508

combining with cognitive skill, 472

encoding by dancers, 499

execution, 671

memory enhancement and physical, 497

mental representation of prototypical, 499

production, age-related declines, 726

sequences, 498, 509

skill inherent in world class sport performances, 472

time, 473

between two or move athletes, 473

moves. See chess movesmovie directors

hierarchical linear modeling assessing, 325

recent historiometric study of top, 330

movies. See filmsMozart, Wolfgang Amadeus

case study of, 769–770

expertise and creativity in, 781

expertise investigation, 457

expertise research on, 457

music expertise domain redefinition and, 784

in a musical household, 562

Picasso similarity, 772

surpassing the technical virtuosity of, 690

ten year rule and, 462 , 768

Mozartians, 393

MRI, 548. See also fMRImulti level perceptual learning, 667

multidimensional scaling algorithms. See MDSMultinational Time Use Study, 304

multiple cognitive ability tests, 627

multiple intelligencesGardner’s popular theory of, 554

in school performance enhancement program,626

multiple perspectives, principle of, 136–137

multiple players, naturalistic decision making and,403

Munsterberg, Hugo, 186

Murray, Donald, 710

musclescompared to the brain, 657

fibers, 695

training, 675

muscular-skeletal problems, musicians and, 465

musicthe Beatles early, 771


aptitude tests, 457

attainment and accumulated practice, 459

autistic savant knowledge and, 463

characteristics of experts in, 305

cognitive adaptations of experts, 463–464

cognitive representation and, 463

compared to chess, 697

composition of classical, 328

compositional training for classical composers, 328

cues in dance, 500


deliberate practice and proficiency, 459

deliberate practice improving, 237

deliberate practice related to high performance,383

development of technique, 466

expert performance in, 15

expertise, 457–470

genres, 458

as grammar-based non-semantic temporalphenomenon, 467

as highly effortful, 460

home environment and excellence in, 458

increased cortical representation associated with,674

Indian and Mid Eastern improvisation and problemsolving, 466

individual achievement differences in, 457–458

innate abilities vs. environmental factors, 458

knowledge, 463


metacognitive and self regulation skills of learners,464

Mozart’s training in, 770

non-European genres, 466

perceptual processing and knowledge of, 463

performers mastering music considered unplayablein the 19th century, 690

phenomenological learning account, 462

practice and performance in, 458–459, 462

practice and styles, 460

practice skills of experts, 461

practices hours and instrumental, 460

proficiency of experts, 467

psychological research and, 467

skill acquisition model, 462

societal factors in performance of, 466

style recycling in, 783

music compositioncase studies of, 769–772

equal-odds rule and, 771

practice vs. talent in Mozart, 769

quality in, 771–772

ten-year rule and, 689

music instrumentalist, perceptual-motor adaptation,465

music learning, practice and performance level ofinstrumental, 459

music practice. See also deliberate practiceability difference compensation by, 459

instrumental music learning and, 459

as investment of effort, 458–460, 462

medical problems of musicians and, 465

methods improvement, 466

musical performance and, 458–462

musical performance role of, 458

musical styles and, 460

as necessary for high-level achievement, 458

perceptual-motor skill adaptation, 465

as predictive of success, 460, 511

quality enhancement of, 460

skill maintenance through continuous, 462

stages of, 461–462

as systematic activity, 461

as time investment, 458–460






subject index 867

music training, 673–674. See also trainingaptitude tests and, 457

brain processing and, 464

brain structure and functional changes, 465

in families, 756

influencing digit representation, 674

learning and expertise research on, 467

Mozart, 770

perceptual-motor skill adaptation, 465

musical expertisedevelopment of, 462–465

stages and phase of, 462–463

as task constraint adaptation, 463


musical talentheritability of, 458


professional musicians showing poor performanceson, 724

seashore measures of, 457

skill acquisition and, 457

musiciansbeginner supervision, 461

brain plasticity of, 548

brain processing in, 463–464

coding behaviorally relevant movements uniquely,674

cortical organization in expert, 465

deliberate practice, 699

families and development of, 756

help seeking by, 711

history of demands on, 466

impression management by, 459

medical problems of, 465

mental representation triangular model for, 464

most accomplished spending more time indeliberate practice, 691

older amateur performing as well as youngcounterparts, 733

physiological adaptations of, 464–465

physiological adaptions of instrumental, 464

playing familiar or unfamiliar pieces and repeatingoriginal performance, 687

practice effort and enjoyment, 460

practice patterns of, 705

primary and secondary motor areas less active inprofessional, 674

recall of music, 463

sense discrimination of, 465

sight-reading performance in, 733

skill acquisition in, 508

talent performance of professional, 724

taxonomy used to code diary data, 311

time for solitary practice, 692

time management by, 711

training changing the cortical mapping of, 695

years of training required for elite, 689

Muybridge, Eadweard, 130

MYCINdiagnosing bacterial infections, 204

diagnostic strategy predominantly backwardchaining, 96

measuring the level of expertise of, 98

nurses as non-persons, 135

performance ranked against the performance ofseveral persons, 98

myelination in professional pianists, 674

myths. See misconceptions

nAch, 157

as a conative trait, 158

degrees of validation for, 157

naive person, 22

name-to-face associations, 549

Napoleon, 325

naps, recuperative, 699

narrative quality, 574

narratives. See also paradeigmaconstructing alternative, 575–577

construction and analysis of by historians, 573–577

construction of, 573–574

cultural milieu of, 576

cultural norms of excellence transmission and,756

emplotment in, 574

fictional presented to college students, 574

narrative and expository components, 575

relation of historical to fictional, 574

serving as cognitive instruments, 574

what constitutes a good, 574

narrow ability correlations, 156

Nash, John Forbes, Jr., 157

National Adult Reading Test, 547

National Ballet School, 499

National Defence College (Sweden), 411

national time studies, 311

national time use surveys, 311

nation-states, creation of modern, 110

natural ability. See also abilitiesearly belief in the presence of, 71

establishing a biological basis for, 321


natural decision making, 33

natural environment, 243

natural (innate) capacity, precursors of, 724

natural memorisers. See also memorizationmean z scores on tasks, 546

percentage recalled/recognised by, 546

natural memory span, 546

natural observation in expertise studies, 130–13 1

natural settings, 127

handbooks for observing, 137–138

methods for observation in, 137–141

observation of work practices in, 127–142

observing expertise in, 138

recording methods in, 140

reflectively developing expertise within, 134

scientific observation in, 129

understanding human behavior in, 134

viewing broadly, 128

naturalistic decision making, 403–415

applications of, 412–414

as the basis for expertise, 412

capturing performance in the ‘natural’ environment,243


by experts, 403 , 404

focus of, 405

future research in, 414–415

in military doctrine, 412

model and theories in, 406

in organizational change, 413

paradigm of, 404

in process design, 413

qualitative research in, 414

in systems design, 413–414

training applications based on, 414






868 subject index

naturalistic intelligence, academic intelligence and, 616

naturalistic paradigm of decision making, 404

The Nature of Expertise, 13 1

nature-nurture issue, 321

naval aviators. See also pilotscompared to concert violinists, 81

Naval Weapon Engineering School, 196

navigational skills, brain plasticity demonstrated in,548

Navy combat information center, 448

n-back training, 662

NDM. See naturalistic decision makingnear transfer, results reflecting, 728

need as a cardinal decision issue, 429

need for Achievement. See nAchnegative age-effects. See also aging

mere experience cannot compensate for, 734

tending to be more pronounced for complexprocessing, 726

negative age relationship for backward-span memory,593

negative answer and defense, 74

negative transfer, 266

negligence, departing from authorized procedures as,215

negotiations, acceptability in, 434

neo-behaviorists, 44

neonatal intensive care nurses, 407

neophilia, 592 , 605

neophobia, 592 , 605

nephrology, 341

nested structures in perceptual-motor expertise, 509

network models, 271

neural activity, 661, 662 , 665

neural basis of simple retrieval, 563

neural capacities, 604

neural interconnectedness, 726

neural net simulation work, 726

neural perspective, 660

neural plasticity, 506, 508

neurological basis of superior memory, 548–549

neurological damage, 559

neurological patients, compositionality of arithmeticaltasks, 560

neurological problems, musicians and, 465

neurological system, features declining with advancingage, 593

neuroscience, evaluating chess players, 533

new math, 81

Newell, Allen, 42 , 44 , 235

Newton, Sir Isaac, 157

Nicklaus, Jack, 710

Nijinsky, Vaslav, 157

Nine Events of Instruction, 80

Nobel Prize, 12 , 293 , 323

nomothetic hypotheses, 320

noncognitive hypotheses, 368

non-conscious and intuitive mediation, 12

non-expert narratives, 575

non-experts, general strategy use by, 714

nonlinear systems, 432

nonsense syllablesmemorization of lists of, 226

pioneering work on memory for, 49

non-strategic memorisers, 545

non-strategic tasks, 545

non-verbal thoughts, giving verbal expression, 227

normal curve, 320

normal performance curve, 79

normative order, socially-grounded, 107

normative value of professionalism, 107, 110

notational methods, 393

noun-pair lookup task, 153

novelfear of, 592

information, 156

learning, 161

objects, 669

systems, 192 , 199

tasks, 162

novelists, writing habits of, 396

novelty, creativity as goal-direct production of, 761

novice(s), 22

in acting and character intentions, 492

actor script segmentation and expert chunks, 493

adaptive efforts by, 713

Army platoon leaders as, 645

aviation pilot situation awareness and, 643

causal attribution for errors by, 712

cognition, 45 , 362

cognitive differences from experts, 44

continuum of task difficulty and, 713

crashing, 56


dealing with chess in a piece-by-piece matter, 50

definition of, 706

differences from experts, 342

differentiating experts from, 168

differing from experts, 373

drivers hazard predictions, 648

inability to access knowledge in relevant situations,54

information seeking and situation awarenessbuilding and, 648

instructing to utilize multiple forms of knowledge,346

jazz skills acquisition, 458–462

knowledge domain and expert status shifting, 746

as the less knowledgeable group, 22

metacognitive self-monitoring by, 711

missing intermediate levels of knowledge, 179

music proficiency vs. experts, 467

musical practice skills of, 461

musician cortical organization in, 465

performance, 26, 659

performance assessment by, 408

as physics problem solvers, 55

programmers, 175

self-recording by, 712

shallow representations, 175

situation awareness and, 634 , 637

situation awareness and environmental complexityassessment by, 634

situational assessment by, 409

novice counselors, 175

novice search task, 659

Novum Organum, 6

nuclear power plants, 413

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 413

null moves in chess, 530

number(s)calculated by visualizing, 559

calculator intimacy with, 561

testing memory for, 544






subject index 869

number factsstored by Alexander Aitken, 560

stored by Gamm, 560

number matrixcoding row by row, 541

memorising as a photo-like image, 541

Rajan encoding row by row, 543

number piexpansion to thousands of places, 540

Rajan’s memory for, 543

number-fact retrieval, 281

numeracy, greater emphasis on, 553

numerate cultures, competency skills, 553

numerical processing, brain systems for, 565

numerical starter kit for calculating abilities, 555

numerosity, infants responding on the basis of, 555

nurses. See also neonatal intensive care nursesas non-persons in the Mycin program, 135

nursing, time use literature on, 305

Oates, Joyce Carol, 397

object processing, 668–670

expert-level, 668

performed by temporal lobe areas, 668

object representation, based on component features,669

object scramblingactivity exhibited to, 668

object sensitive regions responding to, 669

object sensitive regions, 668

objective assessment, 70

objective expertise model, 405

objective feedback, 601

objective measurement of variables, 319

objective ranking systems, 319

objective scoring systems, 323

objective tests, 226

objectives, preparing for instruction, 79–80

objectivitylinked to sacrifice of the self for the collective, 117

notion of, 115

objectsbrain areas responding to both parts and whole, 668

classified at the basic level, 676

eliciting responses in face processing regions,669

learned at the basic level, 669

notable enhancement for whole, 669

recognizing backwards-masked, 669

supporting development of face-like individual levelexpertise, 669

object-word visual search dual-task, 665

observable environment, 43

observable (non-private) categorizations, 134

observationactual methods of, 129

assessment of practice sessions, 307

of bird flight in glider research, 778

by Edison of platinum burner failure, 779

methods in natural settings, 137–141

in natural settings, 129, 141

techniques in expertise studies, 315

by Wright bothers on bird flight, 778

observational studiesconducting, 195

documenting, 142

duration of, 139

modulated by the observer, 129

program of work for, 139

observational time-motion analysis, 308

observed behaviorsconverting into quantitative data, 314

explanations inconsistent with, 227

temporal account of, 315

observed incidents, 188

observed performance improvement, 256

observerinvolvement of, 138–139

perspective adopted by, 139

obstacle avoidancemodeling of, 515

in reaching, 515

in walking, 515

occipital lobe, 655

occipitotemporal pathway, 655

occlusion studies, 476–477

occupational closure, 110

occupational context, 157

occupational control, 110–112

occupational groupsdiscourse used differently between, 113

within the profession of law, 113

professions acting as self-regulating, 106

professions as autonomous, 754

professions as powerful, 109

in a relatively privileged position, 113

seeking a monopoly in the market, 109

occupational knowledge, 617

occupational level, 158

occupational performances, 588

occupational psychology, 728

occupational therapy, 305

occupational workers, 107

occupationsanalyzing professions as a generic group of, 108

compared to professions, 107, 108

of the future, 14

knowledge-based category of, 105 , 108

official historieschanging, 576

conflict between two, 576

versus unofficial, 576

offshore installation managers, 409

oil, age of (1941 to present), 186, 188–191

older adults. See also adults; agingbenefitting less from training, 734

cognitive aging and active experiencing principle,496

forced rediscovery for, 736

maintaining high levels of skill through deliberateefforts, 737

stimulating work environments particularlybeneficial for, 736

older experts. See also expertsactively maintaining mechanisms vital to their

domain, 727

advantages attributed to inter-individual differences,727

circumventing process limitations constrainingperformance, 727

compensating for age-related declines, 730

continuously investing deliberate effort, 727

evidence for superior performances in, 727

normal age-graded declines in general measures,728






870 subject index

older experts (cont.)reduced age-related declines in skill-related tasks,

728

role of deliberate practice, 693

selective maintenance of acquired, expertise-specificmechanisms, 729

as survivors of an age-graded winnowing process,728

older physicians, consistently performing less well onknowledge tests, 349

older players, needing more current deliberate practicethan younger players, 730

Olivier, Laurence, 495

Olympic competition, dream teams and, 439

Olympic medals, gauging individual attainment interms of, 323

on-going think-aloud protocol, 176

ontologies, 99

open sports, timing of action in, 473

OpenCYC, 99

open-ended questions in interviews, 177

Openmind project, 99

Openness personality trait, 159

operaassessing the magnitude of the success of, 324

frequency of appearance of, 323

operational domain as situation awareness modelfactor, 635

operations, representation specific, 659

operators, experienced not always outperforming lessexperienced, 359

opponent’s intentions, skill in anticipating, 245

opportunismexhibited by experts, 24

methodology benefitting from, 217

opportunity in Carroll’s system, 79

opportunity to learn, 289

optimal decisions in military decision making, 409

optimal environment, 562

optionsas cardinal decision issue, 431

issue expertise creativity research and, 431

tradeoffs problems and, 434

oral assessment in the ancient context, 70

oral lectures in medieval universities, 73

Orbus Pictus, 74

organic chemical structures, hypothesizing, 90

organization distribution of expertise, 753

organization of knowledge, 179–180, 346

organizational change, 412 , 413

organizational conditions, 403

organizational context of work, 136

organizational development, 138

organizational fit, 754

organizational learning, 130

organizational or team knowledge, 217

organizational values, 112

organizationscommunities of practice sponsorship of, 624

expert team role, 439

as forms of division of labor, 753

professional work autonomy and, 754

relative experts in, 752

sponsorship of communities of practice, 624

Orosco, Ose, 774

orthography trainingeffect on overt naming ability, 670

experiment, 670

outcome behaviors, 589

outcome bias, 425

outcome expectations as motivational beliefs, 709

outcome goals, 708

shifting between process goals and, 716

technique strategies and, 714

outcome variables in transportation tasks, 358

outcomescognitive acts as evolutionary, 497

decision making expertise and processdecomposition, 427

decision making research bias and, 424

expert team management of, 448

expert team performance effective processes and,447


musician mental representation of, 464

of prospective actions in decision making, 432

value tradeoff and uncertainty, 434

outdoors, recording, 140

outlines, preparing, 393

output motor areas in the brain, 656

output variables for classical composers, 328

outsourcing of professional work tasks, 752

outstanding expertise, learning requirements for, 83

outstanding performance, expertise as, 375

over confidence of experts, 25

overt naming ability, effect of training on, 670

overt verbalizations of thoughts, 227

overtraining, 327

overtraining injuries, 699

p × c criterion, 190

painting. See also artgeneral domains in, 765

modern methods of, 774

Picasso’ Gruenica as creativity case study, 772–773

paradeigma, 574

para-hippocampus, 656

parental support as a variable linked to performance,693

parentsbeginning musician supervision by, 461

help with self-control strategies, 711

influence on child’s development of expertise, 706

Mozart’s music training, 770

Picasso creative thinking case study, 772

as socialization agents, 756

support of elite performers, 691

Pareto, 118

parietal lobes, 565 , 655

Parker, 359

Parsons, 107

participants, 311

in activity studies, 313

better referred to as subjects in historiometricstudies, 322

describing general methods after solving a longseries of different tasks, 230

as expert, 746

giving information beyond their recalled thoughtsequences, 230

most probable useful focus of expertise research on,313

observationa not always necessary or possible, 138

selection of, 313

participatory design, 129

finding a champion for the inquiry, 139






subject index 871

handling various forms of invisible work, 136

primer of examples, theory, and methods for, 138

using ethnography to study work practice, 13 1

part-task trainers, 78

part-whole training, 278

benefit of, 279

mean game score as a function of, 279

Space Fortress game and, 278

part-whole transfer, 278–280

past as unpredictable, 581

Pathfinderoffering interesting structural facets of expertise,

365

scaling algorithms, 365

patientsend-of-life care prediction, 434

as teaching cases in invasive procedures, 254

pattern(s)acquired accounting for skilled differences, 524

allowing experts to retrieve suitable actions frommemory, 11

chunking into a hierarchical representation, 172

of experience as prototypical, 638

required to reach chess master level, 528

tacit knowledge instruction on information, 625

pattern detection, explicit training on, 369

pattern matchingof current situation and schema, 639

expert novel situations and, 640

pattern recall of skilled electronic technicians, 172

pattern recognitionchess players accessing relevant information by, 527

computer program using to select moves, 530

dissociation from search, 529

experienced physicians using, 349

by experts, 405

importance of in chess, 526

learning processes and, 413

qualitative difference with real-world matchperformance, 256

role in chess move selection, 525

support for theories emphasizing, 529

underlaying superior memory recall, 305

underpinning chess skill, 529

used by SEARCH, 530

pattern scanning, driver hazard, 648

pattern-letter visual search dual-task, decreases inactivity as a result of training, 665

Patton, George S., 410

Pauling, Linus, 775 , 782

PBL (problem-based learning), 46

PCATD, 249

assessing performance using, 249

flying approaches and landings, 250

simulation training, 253

PCCAVEmash (immersive table tennis game), 248

peak of career output, 330

peak performance, 688

peer groups, expertise development and, 756

peer-critique mechanism, 83

peer-nomination method, 380

peersconsensus among regarding proficiency, 23

experts recognized by, 4

Pepperdine University Educational Technology,624

perceptionas a contrived task, 172–174

of experts, 173

experts excelling in, 174

of experts versus nonexperts, 362–363

Gibson’s views on, 516

involved in expertise, 174

mental model information classification, 638

musician discrimination of sense, 465

situating in scale bands, 57

as situation awareness level, 634


tight coupling with action, 480

tradeoffs, 534

perception tasksdepth of knowledge revealed by, 180

experts versus non-experts, 172

revealing phenomena of perceptual learning, 181

perception-action links, maintaining during training,477

perceptual and psychomotor abilities, predictingexpert performance, 162

perceptual basis to sequence learning, 275

perceptual chunking, explaining expert-novicedifferences, 474

perceptual cuesrecognition of, 407, 558

yielded by CDM, 209

perceptual diagnosis, domains involving, 234

perceptual discrimination, 667

perceptual encoding processes, 233

perceptual information, 477

perceptual learningof adults, 283

controlled by top-down mechanisms, 269

at different levels of the processing hierarchy,666

examining the underlying mechanisms, 268

lack of broad transfer, 269

mechanisms involved in, 268

multi level, 667

research on, 268

perceptual limits, 57

perceptual motor learning, 666–675

perceptual motor skills, 255

perceptual organization principles, 523

perceptual pivot, 476

perceptual processinghierarchical nature of, 655

musical knowledge and, 463


perceptual skillof adult high performance athletes, 482

differences, 525

importance compared to physical skill, 478


research on, 268–270

training of, 477

transfer across sports, 478

perceptual speed, 156, 725

Perceptual Speed abilities personality trait, 159

perceptual structure, 476–477

perceptual superiority of experts, 173

perceptual training, 477

perceptual-cognitive demands, 245

perceptual-cognitive processes, 251

perceptual-cognitive skillsneeded for high-level sport performance, 473

training method, 257

training using simulation, 255






872 subject index

perceptual/memory advantage for skilled chessplayers, 523

perceptual-memory skills, dissociation with thinking,523

perceptual-motor adaptation, 465

perceptual-motor components, 15 1

perceptual-motor expertise, 505–516

acquisition of, 506, 508–511

attention in, 512–513

definition of, 506

dynamical systems approach to, 505 , 513–516

ecological psychology and, 505 , 513–516

neural plasticity and, 506, 508

requiring automation, 36

as subset of expertise, 505

tasks involved in, 506

vs. intellectual skills, 506–508

perceptual-motor learning, expertise and, 666–675

perceptual-motor proceduresperformance benefits when practice procedures are

reinstated, 276

training procedures for mastering, 61

perceptual-motor sequences, 276

perceptual-motor skillsacquiring in sequential tasks, 273–276

experts’ superior during laparoscopic-typeprocedures, 250

medical simulation identifying superior, 257

needed for high-level sport performance, 473

task specificity a characteristic of expertiseinvolving, 47

perfect pitch, 696

performance. See also academic performance; expertperformance; maximal performance; memoryperformance; performance; task performance

academic, 155

acquisition of characteristics of, 305

acting and, 490

actor truthful intentions in, 492

actor-character feelings in, 495

adaptive, 440

adjusting to conditions, 56

advanced programmers performance quality, 378

age-graded stability of, 729

assessment by experts, 408

attending to the constituent steps of, 361

basis for superior, 482

under battle conditions, 77

behavioral, 654 , 706

cognitive and conscious-awareness nature of, 475

cognitive and perceptual-motor skills and, 479

cognitive automaticity and, 640

correlating initial, 15 1

creative, 329

dance expressive aspects of, 500

decreasing with the number of years sincegraduation, 60

depending on the actions or behaviors of others, 154

describing with computational methods, 41

dissecting into constituent parts, 243

dual-task, 663

dynamic simulations to examine, 248

efficacy and, 444

evaluating an individual’s, 154

exceptional experts identification, 22

expert team characteristics, 446

expert team management of, 448

of expert teams, 439–446, 453

expertise as consistently superior, 761

expertise defined by, 706

experts and individual, 743

experts not always able to exhibit reliably superior,13

fluid intelligence as a predictor, 549

goal shifting and, 718

habit hierarchy and, 266

historical time and, 690–691

ideal measurement of an individual’s, 154

initial level of acquisition, 62

interdependence of, 154

IQ age-graded declines, 726

at its very best, 288

limited time and, 13

mature adults training, 684

maximal levels attained by deliberate efforts toimprove, 305

mechanism mediating representative, 11

mental capacities mediating the attainment ofexceptional, 10

microanalysis of, 714

of music and mental representations, 463

musical level of, 466

musical practice and, 458–462

as musical practice stage, 461

musician attitude toward, 464

musician representation of current ongoing, 464

neuropsychological tests and, 662

novice, 26, 659

observing to elicit expert knowledge, 213

practical thinking skills and academic, 627

practice and, 266

practice dependent on distance requirements, 481

predictors for US military enlisted personnel, 33

predictors of early in training or learning, 155

procedural or automatic stage of, 479

as psychological mediator of expertise,psychological processes during, 714

relationship with experience in transportation,359

reproducing reliably superior, 13

scrutinizing a single expert’s, 325

simulation for, 257–258

simultaneous untrained, 663



situation requirements of, 639

static tasks to examine, 248

studying at familiar tasks, 170

superior reproducible, 3

support tool interface for, 213

tacit knowledge and, 621, 628

training methods and, 768

untrained dual-tasks, 665

using more brain for, 657

vigilance in decision need, 429

Performance Assessment tool, 408

performance changesage-related declines circumvented by practice, 481

as a function of age, 323

training-induced changes in, 458

performance controlexperts maintaining ability to control, 59

maintaining stable, 691

motivational beliefs and, 707






subject index 873

performance criteriadefinitional power and professions, 754

expert status perceptions and, 746

as professional context, 753


performance evaluation, process criteria for, 716

performance failure, identifying sources of, 189

performance improvementconcentration and deliberate practice, 692

effortful exertion and, 396

ever-increasing levels of, 17

experience and, 685

gradual increases in, 13

long-term retention and perceptual training, 477

as a monotonic function of practice, 258

observed, 256

over time with training, 253

self-regulatory training on, 715–716

verbalizing reasons, 226

performance level, 9

asymptotic level of, 33

attaining acceptable for everyday skills, 684

attaining a functional level of, 60

comparing different individuals’ naturally occurring,232

deliberate practice related to attained, 14

expert, 614

expertise as consistently superior, 762

expert-level methods as more than knowledge, 90

finding methods to push beyond normal levels, 698

instrumental practice and, 459

of professionals, 683

reaching a merely acceptable, 691

performance limits of experts, 17

performance measuresdeterminants of, 156

in historiometric studies, 323

paradigms and assessment, 244

performance monitoringconscious in deliberate practice, 601

metacognitive self-monitoring and, 711

retained ability to, 12

self-observation and, 710

self-regulation and, 705 , 706, 710–713

performance objectiveslearning goals and, 709

use in the ISD movement, 81

performance phase of experts, 710–713

performance skill, self-regulation and, 719

performance standards, creative advances and, 783

performers. See also expert performersgaining independence from the feedback of their

teachers, 694

providing with clear anchors for in subjectiveratings, 314

periodicities, identifying in observational studies, 140

perseverance in Carroll’s system, 79

person(s). See also individualsattribution theory causality and, 750

dispositional attribution of expertise, 751

as expert-in-context, 743

expertise as embodied in, 748

personal adaptations, performance outcome and, 713

personal computer-based aviation training device. SeePCATD

personal goals, 705

personal networks, individual competence and, 757

personal protection, defensive inferences as, 713

personal theories, over confident decision making and,433

personalitycharacteristics, 155


correlates approach for measures of, 524

decision need vigilance and, 429


profiles, 34

tacit knowledge independence, 621

theory of, 587

personality traits. See also affective traitsnot associated with expertise across divergent

domains, 158

overlap with conative traits, 158

realm of normal, 157

personnel selection as an approach to promotingexpert performance, 383

pessimists, vigilance and, 429

PET scanning, during training in acquisition and use ofthe method of loci, 548

PF neuronsimportance in learning new object categories, 669

training enhancing specificity in, 669

phantom plateau, 225

phenomenon, educational exploration of expertise as,83–84

philosophers, 224

phonological information, 661

phonological training, 670

photographic memory, 225

photographsfor close observation, 130

in a computer catalog, 140

observer review of, 139

of the pilot’s view from the helm, 197

as primary data, 130

taking systematic, 140

phrases, sentences generated in, 392

physical action method, 493

physical capacity, perceptual-motor expertise and,514 , 515

physical devices, 95

physical education, 305 , 756

physical environment, perceptual-motor expertiseand, 511, 514

physical factors, 481

physical fitness, 695

physical limitations at high levels of expertise, 15 1

physical locations, compatibility with manualresponses, 271

physical maturity. See also maturityextended development of expertise past, 689

physical mechanics, 169

physical skillscompared to perceptual skill and cognitive

development, 478

expertise development, 644

physical space, 130

physical tasks, 644 , 648

physical traits, 147

physiciansconflicting details retained by aging, 349

culture of families of, 756

diagnoses accuracy and, 25

diagnosis performance decreasing, 686






874 subject index

physicians (cont.)flexibility of experienced, 349

income, 35

multiple forms of knowledge of, 349

pathophysiology description by expert, 56

patient contact, 340

patient end-of-life care prediction by, 434

physiological measurements of traces viewing by,174

physiological measurements recognition byexperienced, 178

poor performance in older, 349

physicistsexpert representation as principle-based, 169

studied by Roe, 290

physicscharacteristics of experts in, 305

experts and novices sorting physics problems, 51

experts superior to novices in understanding, 569

graduate students sorting physics problems, 174

ill-structured problems in, 578

professors not always consistently superior tostudents, 686

protocols from an expert and a novice solving, 177

solution standards of, 582

solving problems in, 24

sorting into categories, 174

undergraduate students sorting physics problems,174

physiological adaptationsin musicians, 464–465

stimulating, 695

physiological development, young start in domainscalling for, 298

physiological function research, 588

physiological statesactivating extraordinary, 695

actor active experiencing of character, 493

actors emotions and, 495

performance depending, 330

physiology, actor expertise use in research on, 495

piexpansion to thousands of places, 540

Rajan’s memory for, 543

pianistsage-effects reduced for expert, 734

concert working for an average of years,musical performance model, 464

myelination increased in the brains of professional,674

older expert maintaining levels of performance, 731

older professional showing normal age-relateddeclines, 729


physiological adaptations of, 464

representing the arts, 295

sample of classical obtaining cognitive speedmeasures, 602

testing virtuoso skills, 729

pianoexpertise in skilled performance, 729



Picasso, PabloCubism as domain redefinition, 784

domain refinement and, 784

expertise and creativity in, 781

father a painter, 562

Gruenica as creativity case study, 772–773


picture evaluation protocols, coding into categories,177

pilots. See airline pilots; aviation pilots; fighter pilots;military pilots; pilots (shore-based)

pilots (shore-based), 197

case study on, 196–199

information requirements, 197

information used for navigation, 198

observation and recording of activities, 197

selection by the Pilots Corporation, 197

pistol shooters, 516

placebo group, use of, 256

planobservational study, 139

typical HTA, 191

plan execution by expert teams, 442

plan formulation by expert teams, 442

planners, 411

planningby chess players, 234

depth of increasing with greater chess skill, 233


perceptual-motor skill acquisition and, 509, 511

products of a writer’s, 390

skills and multi-tasking, 644

superior ability to generate potential moves by, 233

of text production, 390

planning strategiescodification of, 410

experience moderating the need to create, 368

Plans and situated actions, 13 1

plasticity. See also activity-dependent plasticity; brainplasticity; cognitive plasticity; cortical plasticity;neural plasticity

of the brain’s reading circuit, 670

as limited in adulthood, 657

of many neocortical regions, 283

plateausexpertise acquisition, 601

in skill acquisition, 267

telegraphy students progress, 225

Platoaccusing the Sophists on education, 71

concerning education of younger learners, 71

as student of Socrates, 71

whole man approach to expertise, 70

platoon leaderscommunication and information issues, 646

contingency and projection skills of new, 646

critical decision making by, 408

experience influence on, 645

situation awareness and new, 646

situation awareness experience effect on, 645–646

play, viewing an expert’s performance as, 128

player positions, awareness in soccer simulations,246

playing methods, system of in chess, 530

Plogar sisters, 562

plots, generating by historians, 574

pocket notebook, 140

poets, 396, 398

Polanyi, Michael, 615

political belief system, historians and, 580

political culture, expertise socialization role, 757






subject index 875

political fragmentation, exceptional creators likely todevelop, 328

political interviews of historians, 581

political scienceas an expertise domain with ill-structured problems,

570

as an ill-structured domain, 569

problem representation in, 578

solving of ill-structured problems in, 578


politicians as relative experts, 745

politics, public policy experts and, 755

Pollock, Jackson, 774–775 , 784

polygonsdetermining whether identical or not, 279

illustrations of, 280

polymath, 72 , 76

Ponomariov, Ruslan, 524

positions, jobs consisting of, 187

positivism, Covering Law and, 571

possibilitiesas cardinal decision issue, 432

stress and neglect in decision making, 432

posterior parietal cortex (PPC), 656

posterior right hippocampal grey matter volume,correlated with taxi driving, 673

post-industrial educational model, 75

powerof expert systems as knowledge, 100

of knowledge, 90

scientific expertise intertwined with, 117

Power Law of Learning, 510

power law of practice, 267

PPIK theory, 159, 161

practical abilities, expertise as, 72

practical approaches in work settings, 383–384

practical intelligencecase-study scenarios assessments, 619–620


as critical in everyday life, 615

crystallized intelligence and, 617

distinctiveness, 621

domain general tacit knowledge inventories and, 621


expertise enhancement and, 623–627


future research on tacit knowledge and, 627

general intelligence and, 616

improvement, 626–627

measurement and, 618–620

middle school student degeneration in, 626

personality and motivation and, 617

psychological constructs and, 616–617, 621

reflection techniques in tacit knowledge acquisitionand,

research findings, 620–623

research on, 32

tacit knowledge as enabler in, 615

tacit knowledge currency and, 625

tacit knowledge enhancement by,tests of, 618

triarchic theory and, 616

practical problems, tacit knowledge importance and,622

practical thinkingacademic achievement, 626, 627

skills development program, 626

practice. See also deliberate practicethe Beatles and, 770

in academic learning, 711

activation increases and decreases, 661

actual active less than reported, 308

adaptive inferences during, 713

age and efficiency, 459

age leading to optimal and efficient methods,734

age-based interactions with, 481

by Calder, 774

changing mediating mechanisms, 14

in chess mastery, 532

consistent, 660

dance technique as skill derived from, 497

disciplined, 709, 718

domain-specificity of in professional contexts,733

effects on dual-task performance on experts, 53


exponential law of, 267

exposure to particular exemplars and, 345

extreme amounts on a circumscribed set of tasks,53

hours required, 207

importance of, 31, 480–482 , 706

massed over space, 506

in mathematical expertise, 561–562


as means to automaticity, 53

memory elements strengthened by, 560

memory superiority and, 545

need for repeated experiences, 45

overestimation of, 307, 308

perceptual-motor expertise and spaced, 506

in Picasso creative thinking case study, 772

power law of, 267

practice vs. talent in Mozart, 769

process distinction, 135

profound effects of extended focus, 59

quality and quantity of, 716

research on, 53

schedules for motor control, 273

self-directed, 714


as self-regulation, 705

self-regulatory methods during, 714

shift from attention-demanding controlledprocessing to more automatic mode, 282

solitary, 705

structuring of, 705

tasks and mappings, 271

technique focus of, 709

understanding as a skill acquisition variable, 305

variable as ineffective, 660

working memory and, 661–663

by writers, 397

practice activitiesage-related constraint on, 735

assessment of, 314

changing states into complex states, 694

isolating to meet all the criteria for deliberatepractice, 693

mediating improved physiological function,695–696

necessary to improve performance, 60

rating for wrestlers and figure skaters, 307






876 subject index

practice effectson brain activation, 661–666

dual-task, 665–666

of learning, 658

practiced CM search task, 659

practices, 134

of coders, 135

concerning chronological, located behaviors,135

contrasting with process specification, 135

information regarding optimal structure of, 314

as lived work, 135

practitionersclinical reasoning of, 47

models of knowledge, 214

models of reasoning, 214

MYCIN’s performance ranked against, 98

reasoning, 198

preceding events, classes of, 580

precocious impact, productivity rates and, 329

precursors of exceptional achievements, 724

predictionaccuracy in end-of-life decisions, 434

of driving hazards and experience, 646

by expert decision makers, 406

by expert teams, 440, 443

by historians, 581

judgment vs. decisions and, 432

as the key to criterion-related validity, 149

perceptual-motor skill learning and, 511–512

predictive information, expert tennis players pickingup, 697

predictive validity, 150

concurrent-validity study, 150

musical practice hours and, 459

predictorsof chess skill, 533–534

common variance between, 159

reliability and, 147

preflight information, insufficient or in thedetermination of AGL, 360

preflight planning by expert aviation pilots, 641

prefrontal activationas a contested issue, 664

inconsistent dual-task specific, 665

prefrontal cortex in task coordination andinterference, 665

premature automation, 685

premature closure by older physicians, 349

premonitions of experts, 119

PreOp Endoscopy Simulator, 254

preparationactor script, 492

for classical composers, 329

classical composers output and, 329

for creative achievement, 768

expert performance and, 613

Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction, 79

prescriptive processesin decision making, 404

in military decision making, 409–412

presentism, 576

preserved differentiation, 727

pre-SMA neurons, 672

pre-SMA (pre-supplementary motor area), 672

Pressey, Sidney L., 77

pre-supplementary motor area. See pre-SMA

prewriting phasepre-texts in, 390

of professional writing, 391

primary ability factors, 589

primary education, 75

primary motor cortex (M1), 671

principle of meritbased on expertise, 118

shift towards, 118

print exposure, composite measure of, 397

printing, process of, 6

prioritizationof goals of air traffic controllers, 367

of pilots, 368

situation awareness comprehension and, 646

skills and multi-tasking, 644

priority learning in skill acquisition, 658

private questions (responsio), 73

privileged groups, 75

privileges, 118

probability of failure (p), 190

probability statements, Bayes’ Theorem inferring theprobabilities, 93

probesauditory, 392

basic knowledge available with specific, 343

specific questions, 209

target set item identification, 269

problem representationas expert reasoning, 344

expert-novice differentiation, 169

experts developing, 23

phases of, 168

in political science, 578

problem solvingin blindfold chess, 531

in chess, 523

chess research tradeoffs, 534

as cognitive adaptation in musicians, 463

community of practice sessions and, 624

computational models of, 530

by computer, 95

constraints in, 579

decision making research and, 422

decomposition as learning hierarchies, 204

deliberate, 705

determining characteristics of expert, 88

development of, 533

domain-specific expertise and, 764

experience dimension use, 33–34 , 36


expertise development and deliberate, 705

at high levels of ability, 88

by historians, 577–580

India musicians and, 466

information processing models, 11

mathematical, 563 , 565

mental model role in, 638

model of, 92

modeling of world-class, 88

situation analysis and, 763

skills improvement, 623

strong vs. weak methods of, 763

studies of, 44


thought processes indication, 229

thought role in, 626






subject index 877

troubleshooting and, 188

weak methods of, 577

weak versus strong methods, 578

problem spaces, 168

content of rhetorical, 391

searching, 89

problem specialists, experts as, 748

problem statements, asking participants to sort intocategories, 174

problem-based learning. See PBLproblems

decision expertise scholarship and, 429

definition by Wright Brothers, 777

expert evaluation of, 44

expert interpretation of, 747

experts conceptualizing, 599

finding real world, 170

judging the difficulty of, 24

requirement analysis, 375

solving by recognizing similarity to already-solvedproblems, 344

solving multi-step very quickly and accurately,structure of perception, 23

procedural knowledgecharacterization, 617

vs. declarative, 88

developing along with factual knowledge, 479

procedural learningneural plasticity and, 508

vs. intellectual learning, 507

procedural phase of skill acquisition, 267

procedural reinstatement, 276

procedurescreatively interpreting, 129

decision making formalistic and subjective,433

invention by expert teams, 440

musical practice by beginners and written, 461

process change, naturalistic decision making as basisfor, 412

process controldynamic environment of, 358

in the steel and petrochemical industries, 189

process criteria, 715–716

process decomposition, 426–427

process design, 413

process goals, 708, 716

process learning, 347

process models, 135 , 530

process monitoring, 95 , 656

process orientationin decision making research, 404

medical diagnostic expertise and, 340

process specification, 135

process tracing methods, 244

process units, 474

process-dissociation procedure, 274

processing. See also automatic processingage-related changes in, 725–726

automatized, 458–459, 462

bottlenecks, 676

controlled and automatic learning in, 658–661

cortical area for, 658

efficiency, 662

efficiency change, 655

units of, 667

processing speed. See Gs

processing strategies, skilled performance and, 477

procrastination for writers, 395

prodigiesBamberger’s work with, 297

as born or made, 532–533

characteristics of arithmetical, 554

mathematical, 554

memory type and, 554

studies of, 292

prodigious abilities, 554

product delivery consultants, 624

production, creativity and intentional, 762

production rules, 11, 92

production systemsbuilding psychological simulations of problem

solving, 91

of experts for problem solving, 179


productive knowledge, 748

productivitycreative, 320

expert human capital investment and, 747

final career years and, 330

productscreative, 763 , 776

gauging acquisition according to the number of,324

professional achievementage-related declines in, 683

factors influencing the level of, 683

professional activities, larger amount of in olderexperts, 733

professional associationsbenefit recognized in some, 110

certifying acceptable performance, 9

as communities of practice, 624

intellectual history of the sociology of, 107–114

sociology of, 106–114

theories and results of the sociology of, 112–114

professional competitions, 748

professional cultures, 757

professional developmenttacit knowledge and, 621, 628

traditional view of, 684–686

professional discourse, 111

professional domains, 685

professional expertisedifferent types of, 15

techniques measuring various types of, 687

professional forumsArmy communities of practice as structured,

624

effectiveness of structured, 625

professional judgment, 403–415

process of, 404

qualitative analysis of, 404

utility theory and, 404

vs. prescriptive processes, 404

professional performance, 111

professional project, 109–110

professional schools, 9

professional skills, 732

professional software developers, 382

professional standardsas an indicator of proficiency,power of defining, 754

professional status, 462






878 subject index

professional work,abstract knowledge and, 754

autonomy of, 754


speeded up by expert systems, 94

task sequences of, 751

professional writersethnographic studies of, 397

as generalists, 393

habits of, 395

language of, 391–392

problem solving by, 391

specific kinds of, 399

professional writing. See also writingdeliberate practice and, 693


professionalismattraction to skilled workers, 109

being imposed “from above”, 113

categorization of, 113

constructing and demanding from within, 113

disciplinary control at the micro level, 112

as a force for stability and freedom, 107

as a form of moral community, 107

as market closure, 109

as a normative and functional value, 107–108

occupational change and control, 111

occupational change and rationalization, 111

as occupational control, 110–112

powerful motivating force, 111

reality of, 112

reappraisal of, 110–111

redefinition, 111

wide-ranging appeal and attraction of, 111

in writing, 393

professionalizationdifferentiating Anglo-American and German forms

of, 113

formal expert and, 753

as a legal restriction of access, 118

for scientists, 115

professionalsacquiring confidential knowledge, 108

aging as skill and bodily constraint compromise, 735

formal expert and, 752

high performance levels in many older, 723


institutionalization of experts as, 751

psychometric ability tests measures for, 725

researcher as, 752

social form of, 749

specialized expertise receiving larger incomes, 35

superior performance by older, 727

workers as self-controlled and self-motivated, 113

professions. See also medical professionas arrangements for dealing with work, 108

authority of, 107

bureaucratic organization hierarchy alternative, 107

expert performance criteria setting by, 746

expert performance quality and,as institutionalization of expertise, 105

as institutionalization of experts, 751

as institutions, 108–109

jurisdiction and competition, 754

as occupational groups, 754

as occupations, 108

performance criteria and, 754

political and economic environment changes inEurope, 107

as powerful occupational groups, 109

as (privileged) service-sector occupations, 106

separateness of, 108

study of, 105

proficiencydomain transfers of, 47

level assessment, 22

scale of, 22

scaling, 207–208

study of, 404

testing for ship captains, 198

program comprehension, 378–379

program of work for an observational study, 139

programmatic study, observation as, 138

programmed instruction, 77

programmed learning, 45

programmers. See also computer programmerscomparison of inexperienced and experienced, 376

design experiences of, 376

experienced focusing on the most salient parts ofthe plan, 377

sorting by solution algorithms, 175

programming, 374. See also response programmingabstract skills and knowledge, 377

as conceptualization of expertise, 375 , 381

domain of, 374–375

empirical studies on, 375–379, 381

historical research on expertise in, 373–374

perceptual-motor expertise theory and, 509, 510

plans stored by experts, 377

problem sorting by expert and novice programmers,175

strategies range for, 374

summary results of comparison between expertsand non-experts, 376

programming languagesacquisition of new, 377

complex plans developed on, 377

invented for AI, 93

progress by children and practice, 460

progressive deepening of search trees in chess, 529

project teams, professional software development, 380

projectionaviation student pilot situation awareness errors

and, 642

driver attention and skills in, 648

of future states, 638

by new platoon leaders, 646

PROLOG (PROgramming in LOGic), 93

properties, using to specify relations, 92

propositional analysis methods, analyzing think-aloudprotocols, 342

propositions in Concept Maps, 211

proprioceptionin dance, 500

dominance in dancers, 500

use by dancers, 499–500

prosopagnosia patients, studies of, 668

PROSPECTOR, determining site potential forgeological exploration, 204

protocol analysisanalyzing verbal data, 195

central assumption of, 227

diagnosing thinking and, 237

eliciting data on thinking, 227–231






subject index 879

expert knowledge and reasoning with, 205

expert-performance approach and, 231

goal of, 177

information on expert performers attention on, 237

methods of, 224

study of thinking using, 41

verbalization conditions and, 230

Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data, 191

protocols, coding by radiologists, 173

prototype theoriesof concept formation, 344

of expertise, 614

prototypesclear advantage for starting from, 345

in decision making, 406


proxemics, 130

proximal development, 758

PRP (psychological refractory period), 663

PRP (psychological refractory period) design, 666

PRP (psychological refractory period) effectas immutable with practice, 663

reduction with practice, 278

response-selection bottleneck attribution, 277

as a structural limitation, 277

PRP (psychological refractory period) interference,666

PRP (psychological refractory period) paradigm,664

finding spatially distinct prefrontal activity,665

studying dual-task performance, 276

PRP (psychological refractory period) taskscompared to ISI, 663

typically given response priorities, 663

pseudoarithmetic rules, 281

psychobiography, 320

psychohistory, 320

psychological constraints, 61

psychological constructsintelligence as, 616

practical intelligence and tacit knowledge and, 621

psychological costs, decision options and, 431

psychological elements, underlying perceptual-motorcontrol, 510

psychological fidelity, 244

psychological measurements, predicting individualdifferences, 155

psychological mechanismsacquired knowledge and situational constraint

interaction, 615

of expert-interaction, 749

superiority development and, 757

psychological perspectives, 62

Psychological Principles in System Development, 77

psychological processesnature of learning as, 78

during performance, 714

research into chess, 523

psychological refractory period. See PRPpsychological safety


learning and, 444

psychological tests, administered by Roe, 290

psychological traits. See traitspsychologists, cross-sectional time series analysis

applied to, 325

psychologyactor expertise use in research on, 495

cognitive, 506

compared to history, 582

ecological, 505 , 513–516

of expertise, 204 , 748

expertise definition in, 614

expertise in, 582

expertise studies in, 204–205

expertise study and, 761

practical intelligence and tacit knowledge theory,614



The psychology of human-computer interaction, 191

psychology professors, 621

psychometric ability factors, 723

psychometric analyses, 12

psychometric approach to chess skill, 524

psychometric considerations, 147

psychometric data, 540

psychometric factors, 49

psychometric intelligenceat early stages of learning a new skill, 725

interindividual differences in, 727

researchers in, 724

psychometric reliability, 148

psychometric testsfor admitting students, 10

of experts, 10

psychometrics, 147

compared to historiometrics, 320, 322

psychomotor abilities, predictive validity of for taskperformance, 156

psychomotor activitiesin Bloom’s spectrum of talents, 295

expertise dependent on, 33

learning phase of, 32

practice and aging process and, 462

psychomotor skillsaviation pilot situation awareness and, 643


psychomotor-mental modeling dimension, 33–34 ,36

psychopathologyexperts with serious, 157

incidence rate above the population average,327

psychotechnicians, 186

psychotherapy, 623

public audience for writing, 394

public broadcasts, 9

public dispute (determinatio), 73

public interest, alternative interpretations of, 113

public policy, experts and, 755

Publication Manual of the American PsychologicalAssociation, 393

PUFF expert system, 89

pulmonary medicine, 89

pure alexia, 670

QA3 computer system, 48

quadratic function, 331

Quadrivium, 70, 73

Quaestio Method, 75 , 84

qualitative analyses, 23

qualitative changes, 266






880 subject index

qualityin decision making, 423–427

expert certification of, 754

measures of, 314

in music composition, 771–772

musical practice, 460

of service value, 111

quantitative analyses, 319

quantitative changes, 266

quantitative knowledge. See Gqquantitative measurement, 147

quantitative measures, 313–314

quantitative methods, 187

quantitative scale, 324

Quenault, 359

questionsabstract, 25

asking to elicit expert knowledge, 213

concrete, 25

direct, 177

interview, 176

in interviews, 177

open-ended, 177

private, 73

probe, 209

research, 292

why, 230

Quetelet, Adolphe, 320–321

quick diary log. See stylized activity listquiet eye periods, 476

racecar drivers, 359

racial differences, 457

radiologists, 172 , 174

railway motormen, 186

Rajan Mahadevan, 542–543 , 545 , 546

Ramanujan, Srinivasa, 561

random chess moves, recall in blindfold chess and,531

random chess positions, recall of, 527

random processescreative thinking evolution and, 771

music composition quality and, 771–772

range, restriction of, 153–154

rank order neurons, 672

rapid chess games, grandmasters rapid play quality,529

Rasmussen, Jens, 188, 208

rating systemof chess, 524

for chess, 524

rational behavior, normative model of, 404

rational-analytic theories in military decision making,409

rationalist paradigmas cognitive, 404

of decision making, 404

rationality as applying knowledge, 136

reaction time (RT)interval, 475

older adults slower, 594

reaction times, 174 , 473

reactive consequences of extensive verbal descriptions,228

reactive effects of instructing students to explainperformance, 230

reactivityavoiding the problem of, 224

of verbal reporting, 227

readersawareness of, 394

poor versus skilled, 671

text comprehension of, 391

readingbrain areas supporting, 670

inferior frontal and ventral fusiform regions as afunction of, 671

as a knowledge predictor, 397–398

relationship to comprehension skills, 53

Realistic interest personality trait, 159

realization problem, 42

real-life decisionsas cardinal decision issue, 427

relying on analogical reasoning and schematictechniques, 33

real-world demandscapturing, 246

reproducing in a standardized setting, 250

real-world domainscreative thinking in, 764

studying expertise in, 170

real-world perceptual characteristics, 245

real-world performanceimproving via simulation, 257

usefulness of training under simulated conditions inimproving, 258

real-world tasks, future studies using more complex,382

reappraisal of professionalism, 110–111

reasoning. See also medical reasoningby analogy in chess, 532

blackboard model of, 92

causal, 579–580

chains used by radiologists, 181

by a computer, 87

dependent on knowledge, 48

development of new methods for different kinds, 96

domain-general or global strategy, 167

in early learning, 156

engine, 91

expertise residing in the power of methods, 90

experts graceful in, 55

by historians, 577–580

IF-THEN rules and, 92

mathematical, 618

methods of knowledge engineering, 91

models creation, 209

novice performance limits and, 57

separation from knowledge, 48

skill as predictor, 732

strategies of experts, 215

tests of, 606

types of events occuring for effective, 58

with uncertainty, 93

under uncertainty, 96

weak methods of, 577

reasoning abilities, 23 , 590

adult intelligence and, 605

high levels of, 599

recallactual performance insight and, 245

concrete versus abstract language and, 392

as a contrived task, 171–172


delayed, 543

expert-novice differences paradigm, 181

of experts, 600






subject index 881

of experts compared to novices, 25

high correlations with decision accuracy, 478

information, 711

investigating knowledge and knowledgerepresentation, 379

knowledge characteristic of medical experts, 341

of movement sequences by modern dancers, 498

perceptually-demanding sports paradigm, 245

of program lines, 379

of random chess positions, 527

reconstructed by CHREST, 527

SF falling back on rote, 542

shift from generation to, 507

as a standard task, 170

structured by goal-related sequences in baseball, 51

superior for experts, 341

Recent Case Walkthrough method, 216

reciprocal interactionsin brain processing regions, 667

specialized processing regions and, 656

recognition by experts, 23

recognition experiments on chess proficiency, 528

recognition tests of previously viewed structured gameplays, 478

Recognitional Planning Model (RPM), developmentof, 410

recognition-based problem solving, 56

Recognition/Metacognition model, 406

recognition-primed decision (RPD), 363

efficiency of, 442

mode efficiency and experience, 430

schema informational content and, 639

Recognition-Primed Decision (RPD) Model,406–409

army command and control and, 409

chess players and, 408

design engineers and, 408

electronic warfare technicians and, 408–409

fireground commanders and, 407


neonatal intensive care nurses and, 407

offshore installation managers and, 409

origin of, 407

platoon commanders and, 408

vs. military decision making models, 411, 412

recollective memory, 296

recommendations, experts making inconsistent, 4

reconstruction, abilities of, 590

record-breaking levels of performance, 690

recorders, 570

recording methods, 140

recordingslabeling of, 140

outdoors, 140

recreation, 305

recuperative naps, 699

reduced level of expertise, 344

reductio ad absurdum, 91

refereesdifferentially more skilled on tasks directly tapping

their role, 478

requisite skills for, 474

reference condition, 511

reflectionexpertise involving, 55–57

restructuring and, 398

tacit knowledge acquisition and, 626

reflective explanations, 176

regression analytic techniquesfor classical composers’ study, 328

multiple in historiometric research, 325

statistical power to detect age-by-expertiseinteraction, 728

regression-to-the-mean effects, 150–15 1

regulatory mechanisms in adaptive expert teams, 442

re-investigations in chess, 529

relative expertise, study of, 23

relative expertscharacterization, 745–746

diagnostic function of, 752

as expertise in context, 746

particular contexts and, 744

team role assignment and, 752

reliabilityof any measurement, 148–149

index of, 148

Renaissance, 489

Renaissance Man, 76

reorganizationof regions supporting performance, 661

of tasks involving different brain regions, 658

repeating sequence, RT as a function of practice forgroups,

repetitionin deliberate practice by writers, 396


repetitive routines of experts, 4

repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. SeerTMS

report outlines, observer circulating for comment, 139

reporting, accomplishment of, 136

representation(s), 168. See also abstractrepresentations; aural representation; cognitiverepresentations; cortical representation;hierarchical representation; knowledgerepresentation; learned representation; mentalrepresentations; problem representation

aural, 461

chess players refining, 697

differences in, 178–181

dual role of, 696

event, 572

expertise involving functional, abstracted, 50–53

in expertise study, 168–170

of experts’ knowledge, 167

functional hierarchic, 195

functional nature of experts’, 52

graphemic, 390

hierarchical by experts, 179

higher levels acquired to support clinical memory,235

incremental performance improvement and, 696

integratedness or coherence of, 180

learned, 275

long-term memory, 391

as more like lattices than hierarchies, 180

schematic, 366

shallow versus deep, 175

text, 572

unitized, 269

visuo-spatial, 549

representation areasin the brain, 656

hierarchical stages of each, 657–658

specific nature of, 675

representation process of historical experts, 578






882 subject index

representation situations, 232

representation specific operations, 659

representational differencesempirical methods to uncover, 170–178

between masters and less proficient chess players,172

representative structure for memory retrieval, 531

representative taskscapturing the essence of expert performance, 13

measuring adult expert performance, 13

recreating in the laboratory, 244

reproducibly superior performance, 553. See alsosuperior performance

capturing and examining with laboratory methods,686

domain-specific experience necessary for attaining,688–690

experience and, 687–691

no evidence for abrupt improvements of, 688

reprographics store, ethnographic study of, 132

The Republic, 71

reputation as expertise, 569

requirements analysis, 374 , 375–378

research. See also expertise researchacting process empirical investigations, 491–495

actor expertise use physiological and psychological,495

actor physiological and psychological investigations,495

actor processes application, 496–497

classifying as structural and developmental onexpertise, 598

on cognitive basis for expertise, 614

on cognitive mechanism development, 613

on communities of practice, 624

conducting in uncontrolled or non-laboratorycontexts, 205

dance expert/novice, 499

dancing process empirical investigation, 498–499

on decision making, 422 , 426

decision option issues and, 431

on the development of expertise, 4

on expert team leadership, 443

on expert teams, 440–444

on expertise, 613

on expertise and expert performance, 244

for historiometric sample subjects, 322

individual differences in music, 457–458

on instructional design, 204

model building method, 775

music and expertise, 466–467

in music expertise, 465–467

paradigms applied to sport expertise research, 482

peer consensus on expertise in, 426

on practical intelligence and tacit knowledge,620–623 , 627

on practical intelligence development, 623

practicing clinicians use in, 426

on software design and programming expertise, 374

research designs in historiometrics, 324–325

research institutions, 76

research methods. See also simulationexpert team, 444–446

in reflection technique, 626

research neurologistsdevelopment of exceptional, 298

representing academic/intellectual talent, 295

research neurology in the Development of TalentProject, 288

research participantsof historiometric inquiries, 331

in psychological research, 322–323

research skills of historians, 581

researcher as knowledge expert, 752

Resolution Theorem Proving Method, 90

resource managementdeficit in non-experts, 362

developing with expertise, 360

strategies and, 368

strategies developed by experts, 361

training and resulting expertise on, 360

resources. See also mental resourcesdecision making requirements, 441

expert team optimization of, 446

experts ability to manage better than nonexperts,368

hazard detection and free, 363

of historians, 571

investment in decision making, 430

management of, 368

offered by communities of practice, 290

team allocation of cognitive and behavioral, 442

response execution, 473

response latency, 229, 314

response programming, 475

response schemata in critical decision making, 409

response selection, 270, 473 , 475

better characterized as limited-capacity, 277

differentiating from execution, 479

performing only for one task at a time, 277

response set, visuospatial versus verbal, 271

response time (RT)CM versus VM practice, 269

power law reduction of, 267

practice and, 267

practice session and display type in, 271

reported thoughts and, 229

tennis simulation reduction, 256

response-selectionbottleneck model, 277

research on, 270

rules, 273

response-stimulus interval. See RSI groupsrest time, inverse relationship with skill level, 308

restriction of range, 153–154

resultsdecision making expertise assessment based on, 425

high-quality decision making and satisfaction, 424

key decision feature satisfying, 423

satisfaction and quality in decision making, 423–424

retention, 591

by actors of roles, 491–494

creative thinking and selection, 771

evidence of superior natural memory in, 546

of a large proportion of original material, 540

loading on a separate factor or factors, 544


studying in the laboratory, 265

tests, 266

retinotopic map, 656

retired individuals, 217

retrievable memory, 230

retrievalactor long-term memory and clues, 496






subject index 883

arithmetical problems and, 560

from memory of a substantial amount of material,540

process, 267

of words and roles by actors, 491

retrieval structureaiding retrieval and encoding, 547

flexibility in blindfold chess, 531

memory skills and, 547

in superior memory, 547

retrievers, 153

retrospection, 209

retrospective data, validating diary data, 306

retrospective estimates, reflecting amount of practiceparticipants aspire to, 307

retrospective explanations, 176

retrospective interviewsadvancing the development of talent, 300

allowing an examination of experience, 292

of expertise and expert performance, 290–292

as inherently, biographical studies, 288

not the method of choice, 299

pointing to qualitatively different phases, 297

sensitive to challenges from social moments, 296

in the study of expertise and expert performance,287–300

studying long-term development of expertise,292–296

retrospective method of identifying exceptionalexperts, 21

retrospective reportscriticisms of the validity and accuracy of, 227

on expert performance in sport, 306

retrospective study of unquestionable geniuses, 321

Reverse Hierarchy Theory, 666

reviewing ideas and text phase of text production, 390

revision phase of reworking the first draft, 391

revisionist writings, earlier and subsequent, 576

rhesus monkeys. See also monkeysrhesus monkeys, attached to a primary caregiver, 592

rhetoricacquiring domain-specific, 398

mastering in a given domain, 393

narratives as, 573

single base skill central to Sophism, 72

transferring into all types of subject domains, 72

writers specializing in specific, 393

rhetorical problem space, 391

RIASEC method, 158

rich getting richer phenomenon, 15 1

right caudate, 673

right hemisphere, 533

right inferior frontal gyrus (RIFG)activation of, 664

activity not specific to dual-task interference, 665

eliciting under conditions of high interference, 666

rigidity, acquired by experts with increased skill, 249

risk, 108

risk taking, 434

Rivera, Diego, 774

road hazards, predication and experience, 646

robotic surgical system, 251

Roe, Anne, 290–291, 292 , 294 , 295

rolesactor learning skill use, 496

ambiguity of, 382

differing across sports, 474

domain-specific, 324

empirical tests of, 474

resources acquisition and theory, 751

in sport, 473

Rome, dramatic art in ancient, 489

root cause analysis, cardinal decision issues and, 428

roots, world record in extracting, 560

Rorschach test, 290

Rotterdam Municipal Port Management, 196

rough draft, 393

Round about a Pound a Week, 304

routine expertise, 377, 383

routine operations, expert strategies limited torelatively, 258

routinescognitive automaticity and performance of, 640

formation of, 509


possibility of becoming tacit, 216

tree-traversal, 510

Royal Academy of Music, 9

royalty, 321

Royce, Josiah, 76

RPD Model. See Recognition-Primed Decision (RPD)Model

RPM. See Recognitional Planning Model (RPM)RSI groups, 274

RT. See reaction time; response time; serial RT tasksrTMS (repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation),

671

Rubinstein, Arthur, 711, 731

rule. See production rulerule-based decision making, 430

rule-based systems, 92

rulescentral to human learning and problem solving, 226

compiling into efficient productions, 479

of experts versus novices, 179

as simple knowledge, 638

runners, specific respiration/step ratios in expert, 480

running times, encoding digit strings as, 542

rural areas, tacit knowledge inventory of Kenyanchildren in, 621

SA. See situation awarenessSafe Speed Knowledge Test, 623

safety engineering of nuclear power and aviation, 208

sailors, transforming visual information, 248

salary of experts, 748

samples, defining, 293–294

sampling procedures of historiometrics, 322

SAR (short-term apprehension and retrieval), 590

abilities enabling apprehension and retention for ashort time, 605


declining in adulthood, 593

SAT. See Scholastic Assessment Testsatisficing, 406

savantsatonal music imitation by, 463

autistic, 463

external rewards for, 565

Scandinavian perspectivesdefining change-oriented observational studies of

workplaces, 138

to information system design, 129

scanners on the noun-pair lookup task, 153






884 subject index

scanningfor data or information as critical to success, 361

by novices or apprentices, 362

situation strategies, 362

scenariosdecision skills training in, 413

identifying formalized, 135

recognition of familiar, 475

for studying expertise, 135

schedules of reinforcement, behaviorist researchabout, 45

schema, 366. See also structured objectselectronic warfare situations as, 364

expert novel situations and, 640

information content of, 639

information processing without, 646

medical knowledge in more formal structures, 343

pattern matching to, 639

process representation by, 366

as prototypical states of mental models, 638


for situation recognition, 364

schematic nature of MACRs, 52

schizophrenic episodes, 762

scholars’ guild, 5

scholastic achievement, practical intelligence thinkingskills development, 626

Scholastic Aptitude Test – Mathematics, 563

Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), 32

Scholastic Method, 74

scholastica disputatio, 74

Scholasticism, 74

The School of American Ballet, 497

school performance, middle school practicalintelligence development program, 626

schoolhouse platform instruction, 78

school-readiness tests, abilities measured in, 590

schoolsCarroll’s model of, 78–79

expertise socialization and, 756

insufficiency of, 61

learning environments in, 82

learning requirements for, 83

literacy a fundamental goal of, 396

skilled athletes development by, 9

sports training in German Democratic Republic,756

Schumann, Robert, 157

scienceas creative expertise, 765

creative thinking domain-specific expertise and,776

creative thinking in, 775–780

as a cultural activity delimiter, 114

double helix model as creative thinking, 775

experimental evidence in, 579

expert status discernment, 747

faster start for outstanding, 329

interest in, 34

model building research, 775

social study of, 114–117

sociologist view of, 116

sociology of, 106

stratification system in, 291

of studying expertise, 87

unobserved activities directly affecting operations,142

women’s careers in, 117

writers habits, 396

science-based approach to education, 76

Science/Math trait complex, 159, 160

scientific community, membership and expertisestandards and, 746

scientific expertisecharacterization of, 116

exclusionary role of, 116

exclusive role of, 116

gender and, 117

historical perspective, 114–116

rethinking and developing contemporary societies,116

securing the authority of, 114

social and cultural authority of, 115

scientific institutions, creation of, 115

scientific knowledge, physicians reasoning and, 346

scientistsage of first work and best work, 689

background of leading, 290

choosing contemporary, 21

compared separately by Roe, 294

interviews of peer nominated eminent, 12

role from the perspective of social studies of science,114

studies of talented, 290–291

women underrepresented, 117

scripts, actor preparation and, 492

Scripture, E. W., 554

sculpture. See also artCalder and domain redefinition and, 784

Calder motorized mobiles, 773

as a field in the Development of Talent Project,288

representing the arts, 295

search algorithmsin chess computer programs, 525

in chess move selection, 523

in chess-playing programs, 528

SEARCH modelcomputer simulations with, 529

integrating pattern recognition and search, 530

search patterns as forward-backward, 177

search phase of a problem representation, 169

search processfor the best chess move, 524

depth of following a power law of skill, 530

dissociation from pattern recognition, 529

macrostructure of chess, 528–529

search strategies or heuristicsaccounting for differences in expertise, 169

in controlled vs. automatic processing, 269

variety of different, 169

search tasksof drivers, 648

mapping and, 270

practice and, 269

search treesprogressive deepening of in chess, 529

pruning and evaluating branches of, 89

visiting the same branches repeatedly in chess, 529

second language learning, researchers relying onprotocol analysis, 237

secondary events, experts better at detecting, 174

second-order factors, 589

securitychild’s primary caregiver attachment and, 592

influence on Gf abilities, 592

selection procedures, multiple-hurdle approach to,156






subject index 885

selective combinationas cognitive processes, 616

knowledge acquisition and, 625

in knowledge acquisition experiment, 625 , 626

selective comparisonas cognitive process, 616

knowledge acquisition and, 625

in knowledge acquisition experiment, 626

Seles, Monica, 710

self-assessments, gauging individual attainment interms of, 323

self-belief, nature of, 707

self-concept, 158, 749

effects of self-regulatory training on, 716

expertise as, 426

peer group expertise development role, 756

self-confidence, experts project extreme, 4

self-directed practiceeffectiveness of, 606

quality of self-regulation during, 714

self-efficacy, 158

goal shifting and, 717, 718

as motivational belief, 709, 713

motivational component to, 158

as psychological mediator of expertise, 757

self-evaluations, 712

of drivers, 355

effects of self-regulatory training on, 715–716

in expert team research, 446


in memory expert study, 540

as outcome of performance, 712

standards for, 712

self-explanationsimproving comprehension, memory and learning,

228

instructing students to generate, 230

self-improvement, 712

self-instructionas more effective, 253

performance and, 710

self-interest, public interest and, 110

self-monitoringaccuracy and constancy in, 707


in learning, 717

metacognitive, 711

self-motivational beliefs, 706, 709

self-observation. See also introspectionaccuracy of, 712

mere act of engaging in, 223

during performance phase, 711

performance processes and, 710

self-organization, perceptual-motor control and, 514

self-recording, 712


by novices, 712


value of, 712

self-reflectionadaptive inferences and, 713

effects of self-regulatory training on, 716



self-regulation and, 706, 712

self-regulated learningresearch on documenting effective study methods,

699


self-regulationbehavioral, 706

benefits of, 718

causal role in expertise development, 715–716

child musical practice and, 461

choice of strategy and, 714

covert, 706

cyclical phase view of, 707–713 , 719

cyclical processes, 713–715

definition of, 705

dependence of expertise on, 718

environmental, 706

in expertise development, 705–719


help from others with, 711


of music learners, 464

performance and, 710

personal elements of, 706

phases of, 707

practice as, 705

processes of, 706

processes of experts, 711

quality of, 714

role of, 718

social cognitive view of, 706–707

of software professionals, 382–383

by successful learners, 713

training, 715–718, 719

self-satisfaction, 713


perceptions of, 712

self-selection, process of, 298

self-talkperformance and, 710


semantic axes, 344

semantic markup languages, 99

semantic memory, 544. See also memory(ies)as association, 557

episodic information and, 539

as an organised database, 539

organised information in, 540

semantic orientingenhancing name recall, 549

leading to decreased forgetting in delayed recall,549

semantic qualifiers. See SQssemantic relations in memory chunks, 526

semantic training, effect on naming ability, 670

semantic web, 99

semi-professional work, 94

sensitivityto cues, features and dimensions, 174

of experts driven “top down”, 174

sentencesfluency in generating, 392

forging links among, 392

translating ideas into, 390

sequence learningattention during, 512

increased brain activity during, 662

M1 implicated in, 671

not dependent on explicit awareness, 274

paradigms, 663 , 671

pre-SMA involved in, 672

SMA and pre-SMA involvement in, 672

sequential events, 273–276

sequential order, 139






886 subject index

sequential processing, 656

serial processing, producing interference, 676

serial RT tasks, studying sequence learning in,273

series, measures of comprehending, 594

service orientation, professionalism, 107

service work organizations, 111

setting, 128. See also natural settingin activity studies, 313

development in, 134

nature of, 138

selection of, 313

understanding, 128

Seven Liberal Arts, 73

sex-linked characteristics. See also females; gender;girls; men; women


SF (average undergraduate subject)depending primarily on techniques, 545

digit span improvement by practice, 542

encoding used by, 547

Shakespeare, William, 325 , 489

Sharapova, Maria, 34

Shaw, Cliff, 42

shells. See also toolsfor building expert systems, 93

building expert systems using, 93

for knowledge acquisition, 204

Shereshevskii (S), 541

shore-based pilotage. See pilots (shore-based)short-term apprehension and retrieval. See SARshort-term memory (STM), 590

capacity constraints of, 59

capacity limits, 172

circumventing limits of, 83

declining with adulthood, 593

experts circumventing, 244

natural superiority in, 546


procedural learning and, 507, 509

of Rajan, 546

research questioning, 244

short-term working memory (STWM)constraints on, 249

language processing and, 558

limit of the capacity of, 599

recall of elements, 600

siblings, Bloom studies failing to make comparisons of,295

sight-reading performance, 733

Simmel, Georg, 749

Simon effect, 272 , 273

Simon, Herbertearly computer models developed by, 42

pioneer of the information processing model, 42

theories in psychology taking the form of computerprograms, 44

Simon-Chase theory, 524 , 526–527, 685

of expertise, 11, 58

on information and short-term memory, 61

refining, 527

Simonides, 539

simplex-like effect, 155

simulated task environments, 243 , 245–252

simulationage deficits in flight, 733

assessing aviation pilots expertise, 248–250

assessing experts performance, 244–252

assessing surgery expertise, 250–252

cost savings and, 253

cost-effectiveness and efficiency of, 258

criterion improvement, 258

driving using, 142

environment type possible, 243

expense of state-of-the-art, 253

in expert team research, 445

eye movement in flight, 250

instruction delivery method, 252

learning adequacy of, 258

of medical training, 254

overview of, 244

for performance, 257–258

reducing ‘air’ training hours, 253

soccer scenario, 246

sports task performance and, 245–248

technological advances in, 258

simulation training, 252–257, 258–259

with aircraft, 253

determining transfer of, 255

effectivenss, 254

flight crews and, 445

of groups, 253

implementation of, 258

for novice surgeons, 254

‘real-world’ transfer, 256

simulation-based training paradigm, 256

simulators. See also technological aidsfindings transference to the field, 256

introduction of increasingly effective, 78


simultaneous performance, untrained, 663

Singer, Mark, 397

singersindicators of concentration and effort, 692

physiological adaptions of, 464

single domain general control architecture in thebrain, 657

Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 774

situation(s)attribution theory causality and, 750

case-study scenario assessments, 619

development of prototypical, 638

diagnoses and decision making performance, 443

perceiving the deep structure of, 23

recognition of classes of, 639

representation and creative thinking, 767

tacit knowledge inventory of judgments in, 618

situation assessment by experts, 409, 410, 649

situation awareness. See SASituation Awareness Global Assessment Techniques

(SAGAT), 645

Situation Awareness model, 406

situation awareness (SA), 52 , 364

as active process, 640

Army infantry officer expertise and, 644–646

aviation pilot error and, 641–642

aviation pilot psychomotor skills and, 644

of aviation pilots, 640–644

characterization of, 442 , 634–637

comprehension and course of actions issues, 646

comprehension as level of, 634

domain specificity and novel cases, 640

of drivers, 364–365

driving expertise and, 646–648






subject index 887

driving hazard awareness and, 648

evidence for, 16

as expertise, 633–651

expertise and, 636, 637–640

expertise role in, 637–640


general aviation pilots experience and, 643

goal and data driven processing in, 636

hazard prediction by experienced drivers, 648

improvement with expertise, 634

information requirement, 636

maintaining under challenging conditions, 248

measurement of, 408, 409

measuring, 365

measuring for electronic warfare technicianoperators, 364


model of, 635–637

novice building of, 648

novice development of, 637

novices and, 637

pattern matching and, 639

perception as level of, 634

performance requirements, 639

physical skill and expert, 644

processing mechanisms in, 636

projection as level of, 634

rating of platoon leaders by experience, 645

research as integrative, 649

role in expertise, 637–640

working memory requirements in, 636

Situation Behavioral Rating Scale (SABARS), 645

situation models, mental models giving rise to, 366

situation projectionby experts, 635

by military pilots, 641

situation prototype, recognition of, 406

situational assessmentin military decision making, 410, 411


situational characteristics, enabling or hindering expertperformance, 382

situational constraintsacquired knowledge interaction and, 615

experts showing high adaptation to, 380

situational cuesin actor long term recall, 494

in decision making, 441

expert team interpretation of, 443

situational factors, expertise attribution error and, 751

situations, expert performance as representative, 687

Skat players, 736

skaters. See also figure skaters; hockeyimagery use in teaching, 500

jump practice and, 308

overestimating difficulty level of the jumps for apractice session, 308

relationship between scheduled and actual hours ofpractice, 308

spending a considerable portion of practice time onmastered jump-combinations, 698

study of on-ice activities of three groups of,307–308

skill(s). See also applied skills; clinical skills; cognitiveskills

acquired, 282

age-related declines in, 728, 731

assessment, 70

building as extended effort, 691

categorizing in outcome taxonomy, 78

deliberate practice and new, 762

development, 70, 768

differences in chess, 528

elderly learning, 657

experience and information acquisition, 640

expertise as, 71

expertise as continuum of, 781

expertise prototype view and diversity of, 614

of experts, 23–27

knowledge (held in memory) mediated by, 526

maintaining through experience, 734

maintenance constraints, 731

memory, 54 , 236

metacognitive, 412 , 461, 464

motor, 465 , 479

Mozart development of, 769

of musical autistic savants, 463

obsolescence of a risk for older adults, 737


practice as learned, 461

as practice-derived in dance, 497


residing in chunks in LTM memory, 526

selective maintenance of, 731

selectively training existing, 731

Socrates and Plato aversion to practical training, 71

Sophist educators focus on applied, 71


of teams, 441

training of actors, 490

transfer from chess to other domains, 532

skill acquisitionbehavioral studies of, 53

in chess, 533

declarative phase of, 267

discontinuities in, 267

domain-relevant factors in, 324

dual processing account of, 658

durable, 266

ecological/dynamical systems approach to, 514

evaluating models of, 267

experience extent and, 11

final phase of, 267

Galton on, 684

goal-directed, 282

as gradual changes, 694

interindividual variability during, 15 1

laboratory studies of, 265

mastery time diffence among individual, 327

minimizing the period of effortful, 691

model for musical, 462

musical talent and, 457

phases of, 266–268

physical characteristics of perceptual-motor controland, 516

reflecting a change in processes, 267

research in laboratories, 265


stages, 59

tradition of, 12

traditional view of, 684–686

skill levelsdancer expert/novice research and, 499

objective and verifiable assessment of, 84

recognition-primed decision making and, 408






888 subject index

skill-based differences, resulting from chunking, 474

skill-by-structure interactions of experts, 463

skilled activities, performing at a functional level, 684

skilled crafts, listed by Sir Francis Bacon, 6

skilled mechanisms, specificity of, 729

skilled performanceability determinant theory and, 459

on basic arithmetic tasks, 280

cognitive requirements and, 462

role of attention in, 359–360

situation projection in, 635

years of task-specific practice to acquire, 480

skilled performershaving all the time in the world, 475

showing fewer fixations, 476

skilled processes, for young and older architects, 733

Skinner, 77, 82

slave processing systems of working memory, 661

slips of the tongue, 509

slow learningliterature on motor, 662

phase of M1, 671

slow tracing measure, 594 , 595

SMA (supplementary motor area), 672

Smithsonian Institution, 776

smooth sequential processing in the brain, 656

snooker players, 233

SOA (stimulus onset asynchrony), 277. See also ISIsoccer

anticipation as a predictor of skill, 478

awareness in game situation, 234

control processes in, 479

fixations of expert players, 477

goalkeepers prediction of shot location, 475

imagery use in teaching, 500

simulation of, 246

soccer playersball watching by, 246

foveal vision and peripheral information extraction,246

goal keeper observation, 476

penalty kick anticipation, 245

response speed, 246

verbalization of ball destination by, 475

visual search characteristics, 246

SOC-framework, applying to expertise, 731

social activity, 34

conversation as, 141

inherent intelligibility and accountability of,133

social actors, workers as, 128

social and sociological factors, 128

complexity of, 120

in the development of expertise, 743–758

elites and, 757

of expert development, 33–34 , 36

expert role assignment in, 750


in expertise development, 743–758

of experts, 743

individual mechanisms of, 118

musical excellence and, 458

rationality and, 119

selection of experts by, 13 1

as self-evaluation criteria, 712

social capital, 118, 754

social change, appeal to professionalism, 111

social classacquisition of expertise and, 327

Gc correlating with, 592

social closureprocess of, 106

shift from collective mechanisms of, 118

social cognitionof exertise, 706


social constructions, decision making expertise beliefsas, 426

social contextdevelopment of talent requiring enormously

supportive, 290

expert as function in, 743

of expert status, 746

of expert work in, 744

expertise and, 327

lay person vs. expert distinction, 746

in which individuals live, 105

social formcharacterization, 749

differentiation from situation, 749

of expert, 744

experts as, 749–751

truth assumptions and expert as, 749

social function of experts, 744 , 748

social historydevelopment of, 571

music heritability and, 458

Social Interaction Analysis, 207

social interactionscollecting time diary data regarding, 312

as exchange, 749


of experts, 746

observation in natural settings and, 129

retrospective interviews and, 296

security in, 592

social judgmentsresearchers arguing against relying on, 293


social mechanisms of expert-interaction, 749–751

social phenomena, statistics and probability theoryapplication to, 320

Social Potency personality trait, 159

social problem solving, leadership as, 443

social sciences, 570

Social Sciences Citation Index, 621

social scientistscompared separately by Roe, 294

difficulty in articulating methods, 142

metrics used by, 141

studied by Roe, 290

social service professionalism, rising costs of, 112

social skills of programmers, 381

social technologies, materials available to developtalent, 289

Social trait complex, 159, 160

social value, learning in domains with particular,social world, epistemic production of science and, 116

socializationadults expertise development and, 757

in expertise development, 744

expertise development and, 755–756, 757

family role in expertise development, 756

peer group expertise development role, 756






subject index 889


school expertise development role, 756

social-learning theory, 624

societal press, 299

societydevelopment of expertise taking place in, 299

expert value and, 748

legitimacy of order in, 120

music performance and, 466

rewards for expertise, 35

shaping the particularities of cognition, 137

social movements and experts, 119

trust of experts by, 754–755

Society for the Analysis of Behavior, 82

sociogram, 207

sociologists, studying science, 116

sociology, 105

expertise as viewed by, 746

of professional groups, 106–114

of professional organizations, 106

of science, 106


study of science, 291


socio-technical systemsAbstraction-Decomposition matrix representing,

210

analysis and design of complex, 209

SOC-model, depicting compensation, 731

Socrates, 4–5 , 70, 71

Socratic Method, 71

softwarefinding and correcting errors in, 379

knowledge and development of, 379

problem solving community of practice sessionsand, 624

program comprehension and maintenance, 378

reuse and comprehension, 378

sport features and, 478

task complexity of, 382

software brittleness, 204

software design, 374

characteristics of expertise in, 378

comparison between experts and non-experts, 376

conceptualization of expertise, 375 , 381

domain of, 374–375

empirical studies on, 375–381

experience not associated with consistently superiorproficiency, 686


high performers verbalizing less task-irrelevantcognitions during, 383

historical context of research on expertise on,373–374


software designers, 376

software developers, 381

software domain, development of expertise in, 383

software engineers, 192

software professionalsdifferences between highly performing and

moderately performing, 375

highly performing better at approachingcooperation situations, 380

work strategies recommended by exceptional,381

software testing, 379. See also testing

soldiering, 186

solitary practicechess skill and, 693

in sports, 693

by violinists, 306, 691, 692

solutionsas acceptable, 582

creative, 27

experts generating best, 23

historians and, 578, 582

problem representation and, 578

programmers performance times, 378

satisfactory workability of, 406

weak methods of by experts, 578

somatosensory areasmusic practice and, 466

perceptual-motor skill acquisition and, 508

somatosensory processing, 655

somatotopic map, 656

songs, 771

Sophists, 71, 72

sounds, abilities comprehending patterns among,590

sourcesdifferential use and interpretation of, 575–576

in historical source analysis, 572

as a historical source heuristic, 572

in history, 571

in modern historical method, 571

The Sources of a Science of Education, 76

Space Fortress game, 278

space, region of, 57

spacial cognition, neurological damage and, 559

spatial ability as an age-sensitive measure, 732

spatial navigation, automotive, 673

spatial occlusion of certain elements, 476

spatially distinct prefrontal activity, 665

spatial-visual reasoning, 32

Spearman’s theory of g, 591, 604 , 606

specialists, 46

diagnoses by, 235

experts as, 748

hypothesis generation by, 27

professional work outsourcing and, 752

skills as expertise, 46

specializationby field, 76

by historians, 573

specialized labor, 747

specialized processing regions in the brain, 656

specification problem, 42

specificityof learning, 666

sport research and, 482

spectra, region of, 57

spectrum of talents, created by Bloom, 295

speechneural activity of, 226

perceptual-motor control and, 510

versus written fluency, 398

speech errorsanalysis of, 509

slips of tongue, 509

tip of the tongue phenomena, 58

speed of operations, changing with practice, 53

speed of processing as IQ related, 548

speeded category verification task, 175






890 subject index

speeded performanceexperts under, 56

versus non-speeded performance, 734

ubiquity of negative age-effects in, 726

spelling, mechanics of, 398

spirometer, 89

spoonerisms, perceptual-motor performance and, 509

sportsage for top performance in, 330

age-performance studies, 329

characteristics of experts in, 305

cognitive nature of the expert advantage in,475–482

as continuous and time-dependent, 472

deliberate practice and, 237, 383 , 693

differences among, 472

evolution of simulation, 255–257

expert performance in, 16, 471–483

historical roots of the expertise approach in,474–475

increases in performance over time, 690

interactive, 473

knowledge and textual descriptions, 51

meta-analysis of findings, 482–483

performance and practice in, 693

as a performance area, 472–474

performance-based contracts, 735

physical versus developmental causes underlyingperformance differences, 481


practices as a predictor of skill-based differences, 481

retrospective reports and diaries of time use, 306

roles in, 473

school training in German Democratic Republic,756

simulation to training perceptual-cognitive skills,255–257


software features differentiating skill across, 478

virtual reality in, 247, 248

SQs (semantic qualifiers), 344

squash, 475

S-R theory. See stimulus-response modelsSRC (stimulus-response compatibility) effects, 270,

271

stable states, expert performance acquisition of, 694

stamp collector, 235

Standard Operating Procedures documents, analysisof, 216

standardschallenging, 712

created by communities of practice, 290

Stanislavski, Constantine, 490

Stanislavski system, 490

“Star Wars”, 179

Stasser, Garold, 750

state (government)captured by professions, 109

compulsory education of, 75

forced to cede a great portion of institutional changeto experts, 120

involvement in the training of expert performers, 9

professional power of regulatory responsibility, 113

trying to redefine professionalism, 111

states, 147

created by the application of operators to elements,168

effects influencing the reliability of a test, 148

physiological differences as physiological orcognitive, 694

static slide presentations, recreating aspects of a task,257

statistical controls, spurious associations and, 325

statistical models, expert judgments vs., 41

statistical techniquesfor correlational data, 332

enabling the application of, 477

Statistics Canada, 304

steady hand, calling into question the importance of,348

steel, age of (1895–1940), 186–188

Sternbeg, Robert J., 615

Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT), 618

stimulidetermining which response to make to, 270

experts’ superiority for representative, 11

followed by a behavior and by a consequence, 82

mapping left and right to left and right responses,271

novel, conjunctively defined, 270

stimulus identification, 475

stimulus locations in a lopsided diamond arrangement,275

stimulus materials for which prior experiences wasminimized, 49

stimulus onset asynchrony. See SOAstimulus set, visuospatial versus verbal, 271

stimulus-response associations, results consistent withan explanation in terms of, 276

stimulus-response compatibility effects. See SRCeffects

stimulus-response configurations, 275

stimulus-response models, difficulty in trying toaccount for complex human processes, 43

stimulus-response patterns, expertise as thedevelopment of many, 78

stimulus-response sequences, dissociating, 275

stimulus-to-response associations versuscategory-to-response, 272

STM. See short-term memorystop rule, 189

stories as a memory retrieval structure, 547

STORM, Concept Maps stitched together in, 212

story mnemonic as memory technique, 542

The Story of Civilization, 73

story-telling. See also knowledge-tellingsocial-psychological function of, 137

trans-generational transmission of the wisdom ofelders via, 203

strain, physical, 695

Strasberg, Lee, 490, 494

strategic differences, domain-specific knowledgestructures and, 478

strategic goals, 713

strategic memorisers, 545

mean z scores on tasks, 546

percentage recalled/recognised by, 546

performance of, 545

strategic planning, 530, 709

strategic tasks, 545

strategies. See also cognitive strategiesalternate causing reorganization of tasks, 658

bottleneck as, 277

central to human learning and problem solving, 226






subject index 891

changing during an experimental session, 231

developed to satisfy task goals, 282

differences in experts and novices, 367

discrepancies between observations and reported,223

employed by experts across divergent scenarios,257

experts selecting fewer, 368

flexibly used by experts, 675

managing the cognitive load on working memory,399

metacognitive, 57

more appropriate chosen by experts, 24

shifts and skill acquisition discontinuity, 268

validity of general descriptions of, 231

street experts, inflexibility in the use of strategies, 26

stressattention in decision making and, 432

impact on experts vs. non-experts, 382

musical performance from memory and, 463


situation diagnoses and decision makingperformance, 443

strong methods, 43

in AI research, 90

providing certainty, 577

Stroop-like interference task, 526

structural changesin brain tissue size, 653

music training inducing in the brain, 674

structural equation modeling, 728

structural game sequences, 478

structural researchof abilities indicative of intelligence, 588

on expertise, 598

Gf-Gc theory and, 589–592

structured interviewsmethods of, 205


yield of, 206

structured objects, 92. See also schemaStrumilin, S.G., 304

studentsachievement variation in, 79

aptitude, 78

expertise in, 79

intelligent tutoring systems use by, 46

knowledge, 211

medical, 25

peer feedback incorporation by, 26

practical intelligence development program, 626

practice implementation by, 706

preparation, 298

self-views of, 289

study environment for, 711

teaching to work like experts, 297

study environment, 711

study methods, consistent with deliberate practicepredicting achievement, 699

STWM. See short-term working memorystyles

of acting, 489

expressing prewriting strategies as, 393

recycling in art, 783

stylized activity list, 309

subassemblies, 94

subcomponents, 282

subject matter expertise, decision making expertiseand, 426

subject matter expertsinstructor as, 70

judgment accuracy of, 432

substantive decision making procedures and, 433

value issue proficiency and, 434

subject matter knowledge of historians, 581

subjective ratings, using during practices to evaluatequality, 314

subjectivityof activity, 312

decision making expertise research and, 423

subject-performed tasks (SPT)actor recall and, 496

dance movements and, 499

sub-optimal moves, diagnosing the source of, 697

subordinate category, 176

subordinate levelexperts categorizing at, 176

objects, 179

subsequent learning, 80

subsidiary study by Roe, 294

substantive variables, historiometrics study ofcomposers and, 328

subtasks of a dual-task, 663

subtext, 572

generation by historians, 581

by historian specialists, 573

successethnic group and social, 757

as a poor predictor, 341

summary statistics, 141

superior memoryevidence of, 546

main methods used in the study of, 540

most striking examples as strategy-dependent,546

neurological basis of, 548–549

organization and, 244

scientific study of, 540

superior performance. See also reproducibly superiorperformance

as domain specific, 10

mechanisms identification, 49

objective reproducibility of, 687

psychometric factors, 49

social and experience-based indicators and, 686

superiority as psychological mechanism, 757

superiority of expertise, limited to a specific domain,25

superiority of experts, found to be specific to specificaspects, 10

superordinate categories, 175

supervision of beginning musicians, 461

supervisor ratings, tacit knowledge and, 622

supervisory control, 188

characterized by monitoring displays, 186

resource management and, 362

unobservable cognitive activities of, 189

supervisory role, knowledge and cognition importancein, 188

supplementary motor area. See SMAsupply side theory of professionalism, 109

support, required for expertise, 35

surface features, undergraduate problems sorting,175






892 subject index

surgeonsexamining the co-ordination patterns of, 251

expert visually fixating upon the target, 251

study of actions within a surgery, 52

training novice through simulation, 254

surgerycompared to chess, 697

minimally invasive or minimal access, 254

procedure performance and success, 349

surgical expertiseas acquired and highly local, 347

visuospatial abilities and, 348

surgical intensive care unit, 445

surgical performanceassessment of, 347

correlates of, 348

surgical procedures, points of transition in, 251

surgical simulationassessing expert skill via, 250–252

developments in, 347

precision and speed of experts and, 251

surgical skills, learning and transfer of, 347–348

surgical tasks, learning transfer, 347

surgical teams, 446

surgical trainees, 348

surgical training, 254

surrogate experiences, 412

surrogate experts, 93

Survey Research Center, 304

surveysbefore, during, and after observation, 140

protocol analysis and, 237

sustained maintenance practice, benefits of for olderexperts, 731

Susukita, T., 541

swimmersrepresenting psychomotor activities, 295

years required to earn a place on the Olympic team,289

swimmingas a field in the Development of Talent Project, 288

technique focus in, 709

syllogisms, 594

symbol manipulationdefining efficient, 89

intelligent behavior as, 93

symbol system, 57

symbolic algebra, 90

symbolic inference by a computer, 87

symbolic knowledge, 92

symbols and symbol structures, computers processing,42

symphonies, 324

synaesthesia, 541

synergy, 440

syntactic structures, writing effectiveness and, 392

synthetic environments, 243

system complexity, situation awareness and, 637

system components, novice knowledge and seekingand, 637

system couplings, 480

system design, 138

system experts, support role of, 752

system interface as situation awareness model factor,635

system states, 638

systematic observationin expertise research, 312 , 313–316

micro analysis of activity and, 304

in micro-analysis of time use, 312–316

in structured settings of activities, 312

systemsideal states as goals in, 636



systems approachto instructional design, 81

to task analysis, 188

teaching for troubleshooting, 195

systems designgulf with task analysis, 199

naturalistic decision making as basis for, 412

naturalistic decision making in, 413–414

systems engineering, 77

The Systems Engineering of Training, 77

Systems Theory, 81

systems thinking in military-related human resourcesissues, 77

Szalai, Alexander, 304

table tennis, 248, 480

tacit articulation work, 135

tacit knowledge, 725

acquisition, 623

acquisition and reflection techniques,acquisition enhancement, 626

acquisition of, 616, 625–626

case-study scenarios assessments, 619–620


communities of practice and, 623–625

conceptualization and measurement, 627

as critical in everyday life, 615

decision skills training and, 412

definition, 615

distinctiveness, 621

driver safety performance and, 623

experiential nature of, 615

expert use of, 628

expertise and, 613–623 , 632

expertise development and sharing of, 623

expertise enhancement and, 623–627


as explicable, 92

future research on practical research and,627

intelligence domain inventories of, 621

job knowledge and, 616, 617

mathematical modeling and, 628

measurement and, 618–620

measuring, 725

methods for uncovering, 12

modification and updating of, 628

personality and motivation and, 617

practical intelligence acquisition and, 616

practically intelligent behavior and, 615

procedural knowledge, 617

psychological constructs and, 616–617, 621

research findings, 620–623

scientific reach of, 216

Tacit Knowledge for Military Leadership Inventory,622

tacit knowledge inventoriesdescription, 618–619

domain specific knowledge in, 621

job knowledge and, 621

scores, 621






subject index 893

Tacit-Knowledge Inventory for Managers (TKIM),618, 619, 622

tactical combinations, solutions in blindfold chess, 531

takeoffs, effects of simulation training, 253

talent. See also innate factorschanneled by interests, 34

in chess mastery, 532

development as a process of learning, 289

exceptional musical, 457

expertise and inherited, 613

long-term process of developing, 289

Mozart and, 769

musical aptitude tests and, 457

not randomly distributed across space and time, 327

practice in music and, 459

role of versus experience, 31

superior achievement and, 767

tap as sound-based art, 498

target behaviors, operationalization of, 313

target information, selecting for systematicobservation, 313

task analysis. See also behavioral task analysisalternative procedures specification and, 229

alternative sequences prediction, 229

artificial intelligence developments and, 191

behavioral, 205

behaviorial functional validity and, 313

case studies on, 193–199

cognitive form of, 188

decision making decomposition, 187

definitions of, 185

differences in, 185

hierarchy construction and, 78

historical overview of, 186–193

improvement goal of, 186

Miller’s method for, 188

systems design and, 199

technological developments and methods of, 192

think aloud protocols, 229

task analysts, agenda issue awareness and, 198

task environment as situation awareness model factor,635

task force group, 129

task interestgoal shifting and, 718

as motivational belief, 707, 709

task knowledge, self-regulation and, 719

task managementaviation pilots and, 644

aviation pilot situation awareness and, 642

coordination and, 666

overlapping processing to resources, 663

pilot situation awareness and cockpit, 643

task orientation of leaders and team performance,448

task performance. See also performanceattention in perceptual-motor expertise and, 513

contextual aspects of, 405

determinants of, 155

by experts, 405

by individuals in expert teams, 440

outcome aligned with expert, 81

performance gain and initial, 150

physical and cognitive skill relationship, 644

physical capacity and, 514 , 515

repetition of, 506

thinking aloud and, 228

trait predictors of initial, 155

task requirements, 188

task structurediagnostic strategy applied as, 194

procedures and human engineering, 188

requirements and, 188

task-relevant materials, temporary storage of, 558

tasks. See also complex tasks; constrained processingtasks

acquired linked to performance, 693

as activity driven, 135

actor expertise in subject-performed, 496–497

adaptation to constraints on, 382 , 463

automatic performance of, 361

automaticity and expertise, 639

aviation student pilot situation awareness, 642

categorical decomposition, 188

complex reasoning and simple memory, 589

decomposing into subtasks, 187

design differences and activation dynamics, 665

discrimination difficulty and learning specificity, 666

domains of, 88

eliminating limitations on multiple, 276–281

encoding instructions, 267

essence of a given type of expertise type, 231

everyday performance study, 170

as expertise, 569

expertise specific to, 96

generalized integration of, 59

goals and strategie of complex, 282

historian’s, 571–580

idealized functional representations of, 135

as intrinsic to domains, 170

knowledge a dominant source of variance in, 47

learning strategies for, 710

music-related, 674

non-strategic, 545

novice search, 659

performance means and practice,physical activities descriptions, 189

positions consisting of, 187

practice with, 271

seeking out demanding, 694

selectivity as a means of adaptation, 55

simplification and real-world demands, 243

simulating salient characteristics of, 258

skilled performance, 663

sorting, 175–176

sub-domain and sport demands, 474

subtasks as simple, 663

switching in the brain, 656

taxes working memory after learning, 32

visuospatial span study as sequential, 663

task-specific processing regionscontinuing to activate,supporting task performance, 660

taskwork, identification by expert teams, 449

taste as a decision makers target, 433

tax accountants, 26

tax advisors, 95

taxi driversbrain plasticity in adulthood, 548

as spatial navigation experts, 673

structural brain differences based on acquiredexperience, 673

visuo-spatial knowledge, 547

taxonomists, 180

Taylor, Frederick Winslow, 186–187

teacher/coach-directed practice, 606






894 subject index

teachers. See also coachesbehaviors of expert, 313

elite performers support by, 691

exceptional, 13

as expert, 75

of expertise, 61

as expertise, 70

experts seeking out, 61

at the focal point of all education, 70

independence from feedback of, 694

practice activities and, 698

self-control strategies, 711

videotaped classroom lesson viewing by, 173

teachingchild thinking skills instruction, 626

goal-setting strategies in, 708

imagery use in dance, skating, and soccer, 500


removing from the exclusive control of domainexperts, 76

teaching faculty, expertise and specialization among,73

teaching machines, 45

learner question presentation control, 77

in programmed learning, 45

teaching methods in decision skills training, 412 , 413

team membersdynamic factors of, 441

individual technical expertise, 440

individuals as, 440

integration of new, 449

sense of team trust and efficacy, 448

stress performance of, 443

taskwork and teamwork skills, 441

team performanceadaptive, 442

leadership and, 443

phases of, 442

recursive processes in adaptive, 442

team processesexpert team shared mental models and, 446

shared cognition as effectiveness precursor, 443

team regulation, models of, 442

teamsadaptation framework illustration, 442–448

adaptation input-throughput-output model, 442

assessment and learning by, 442

cognition resource pooling, 442

Concept Maps construction, 212

decision making and adaptation by, 441–443

decision making in, 441


distinguishing features of, 439

effectiveness and teamwork by, 441

effectiveness components, 441

expert performance, 439–453

expertise as adaptive creation, 441

functional and shared roles of leaders, 443

meetings, 380

as more than a group of individuals, 474

relative expert assignment, 752

skills of, 441

software design and programming in, 374

teamworkidentification by expert teams, 449

input-process-output models of, 441

as skill, 441

team effectiveness and, 441

technical experts in expert teams, 441

technical systems, Abstraction-Decomposition matrixrepresenting, 210

technique-oriented strategiesselection of, 714

used by experts, 709

techniquesin actor training, 490

in dance as indispensable, 497

deliberate practice and new, 762

development, 768

expertise and the acquisition of, 347–348

extension and creative advance, 782–783

focus of experts, 714

memory superiority and, 545

outcome goals and, 709

painting methods in modern art, 774

technological aids. See also simulatorsin expertise learning, 413

technologycreative thinking in, 775

leverage points and ideas for new aiding, 215

teenagers in chess competitions, 524

telegraphic skill, 474

telegraphyacquisition and automatization in phases, 685

interview of students, 225

performance improvement, 266

telephone numbers, 545

tele-robotic scientific process, 133

template theorychess education and training derived from, 532

chunking theory leading to, 527

direct implementation of, 530

prediction of chess player strengths, 527

templates, perceptual chunks and, 527

temporal dimensions, expert learning environmentdescription, 315

temporal lobe, 533 , 655 , 668

temporal location, 314

temporal occlusion, 245 , 476

temporality, 137

ten year rule, 327, 398, 480, 685 , 689. See also time;years of experience

Beethoven and, 784

Calder and, 774

creative achievement and, 785

creative thinking and, 768–769

dance skills acquisition, 498

exceptions to, 689

expertise and, 613

extended effort required for expertise, 16

for GO, 603

international chess and, 686

as minimum, 601

Mozart and, 462 , 769

musical skills development and, 462

Picasso and, 772

writers and, 399

writing expertise and, 398–399

tenniscontextual cues removal, 477

decisions and response time as expert advantage in,475

eye movements of skilled performers, 476


observing expert advantage, 476

physically responding to a virtual serve, 256






subject index 895

response time of, 477

simulation demonstrating response times, 246

video-based anticipation simulation system, 247

tennis playersexpert anticipating shots, 697

eye-movements of expert, 697

negative outbursts of, 710

novice using a film-based anticipation simulation,256


representing psychomotor activities, 295

skilled fixating on central areas of the opponent’sbody, 246

tension view of expertise and creativity, 766

Terrain Analysis Database, 218

terroir, 358

testable modelsexpert systems as, 87

tools for building, 88

testing. See also software testingof computer programs, 374

test-retest proceduresfor an omnibus IQ test, 155

reliability estimation, 148

testsalternate forms of, 149–150

of human intelligence, 606

learning during, 149

of practical intelligence, 618–619

reliability of, 148

of situational-judgments and tacit knowledge,618

text productioncognitive demands of, 393

development phase, 390

as a non-linear sequence, 391

processes of, 390

textscomprehansion protocol analysis, 237

drafting a, 390

idea translation in production, 390

produced by children, 398


reviewing, 390

writing extended for publication, 389

thalamus, 656

theatre, 489

forms, 491

games, 490

productions, 491

Thematic Apperception Test, 290

themes, important to essayists, 391

THEN part of a production rule, 92

theorem proving in AI, 90

theoretical frameworksfocused on attaining expert performance, 10–14

of studies, 295

theoretical instruction, gap with actual practice,195

theoretical issues, cutting across different domains ofexpertise, 16

theory of eminence, 556

theory-driven work, 295

Thespis, 489

think-aloud method of verbal reports, 224

think-aloud problem solvingtask reintroduction, 191

yield of, 206

think-aloud protocols, 176

analysis of chess experts’, 696

chess move choice, 528

concurrent, 176

debugging time needs, 379

given by historians and history students, 177

of a good club chess player, 234

historians processing written sources, 572

on historical sources, 572

older experts engaged in less extensive search,730

of Patel and Green, 342

on planning the selection of moves for a chessposition, 233

sub-vocal verbalization expressions, 226

thought verbalization model, 237

verbalization and validity in, 229

verbalized information validity in, 228–230

think-aloud study of Watson, 226

thinking. See also creative thinkingAristotle on, 224

child development and, 398

child thinking skills, 626

concrete events and, 398

empirical experimental studies and theoreticalmodels of human thought processes, 42

of exceptional experts, 22

expertise devilment and, 623

in hypothetical, abstract terms, 398

methodology for eliciting valid data on,227–231

neural activity and speech apparatus, 226

non-reactive verbal reports of, 227–228

protocol analysis of, 41

tacit knowledge acquisition reflection,thinking skills

academic achievement and instruction in practical,626

dissociation with perceptual-memory, 523

thinking styles, teaching early, 297

thinking time, decreasing only marginally affectingchess blunders, 529

Third International Maths and Science Survey(TIMSS), 563

third-order abilities, 589

Thomas, Lewis, 394

thought processeshistorical development of verbal reports on,

224–227

indicators of, 229

providing valid verbalizations of, 224

reflection on, 55

self-observation changing the content of, 223

thought sequencesrecall of past specific, 230

verbal descriptions of, 224

thoughtscreative, 758

imageless, 225

overt verbalizations and, 227

reoccuring with considerable frequency, 224

in thinking skills and problem solving, 626

verbalized sequences compared to intermediateresults, 229

verbalizing spontaneously emerging, 228

Thucydides, 570

TIE (Typical Intellectual Engagement) personalitytrait, 159






896 subject index

time, 296. See also ten year rulebehavioral trait, 588

developing exceptional abilities, 289


expertise studies relating to, 297

as a game constraint, 473

inescapable dimension of human activity, 303

lags, 663

as an orthogonal dimension, 139

providing different amounts to learn, 80

region of, 57

thought-verbal report interval, 229

time budget methodsactivity categories analysis, 311

in expertise research, 305–308

time diaries, 308

analysing, 311

in a diary survey, 310

templates,time paradox, 475

time pressure, 382

chess and, 529

recognition-primed decision making and, 408,411

time sampling, 315–316

time sharingpilots with non-pilots, 360

between two areas while dual-tasking, 663

time stress, naturalistic decision making and, 403

time study by Taylor, 187

time use, 303

direct observation of practice in figure skating,307

eminence attainment and, 305

estimates of on-ice sessions, 308

historical perspective research, 304–305

literature on, 305

macro analysis of, 308–312

management, 710, 711

method data, 305

method reliability, 307

methodology advances, 304

methods of, 305

micro-analysis of, 312–316

multi dimensional data related to, 312

during practice by skaters, 308

research on, 304

timeframe for expertise across domains, 305

timelinesdata collected in, 141

scenarios yielded by CDM, 209

timing capacity, professional musicians and, 727

tip of the tongue phenomena, 58. See also speecherrors

TLC computer system, 48

Tomoyori, Hideaki, 542

tonality, 463

tonatopic map, 656

toolsfor encoding and conceptualizing expertise, 97

expert systems construction, 93

top-down and breadth-first manner of designdecomposition, 377

top-down processing component of expert knowledgestructures, 366

total system in HCI research, 13 1

touchdown (of an aircraft), precision in, 258

tough casesanalysis of, 217

expert reasoning and, 205

Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 772

tournament play, 533–534

Tower of Hanoi, 168, 226

toys, 773

traces, accessing extant and non-extant, 54

tracings, short correlated with fast matching, 594

TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach Control) task,153

trade associations, 624

tradeoffsas cardinal decision issue, 434

in decision making process, 428

risk taking and, 434

Traditionalism personality trait, 159

traffic signs, 360

traffic violations, 358

train engineers, training and certification requirements,358

trained objects, IT increasing in responsiveness to, 669

training. See also music trainingactivity changes, 695

for actors, 490, 491

adaptive, 662

attributes acquired during, 10

in chess, 532–533

as the coach’s responsibility in sport, 255

content delivery, 257

course component orientation, 195

in dance technique, 497

in decision skills, 412–413

difficult stimuli use, 279

distinctive features emphasis, 268

domain-specific and meta-cognitive knowledgefocus, 384

expert performance management approach, 384

expert performance promotion by, 383

experts seeking, 61

Galton’s acknowledgement of, 10

genius and exceptional talent associated withdistinctive, 327

individual subcomponents versus entire task, 278

injuries from, 699

international competition prerequisite, 235

international competitions level requirement, 235

memory and, 549

microstructure of, 237

for modern dance, 498

multi-phase self-regulatory, 715–718

naturalistic decision making and, 412 , 414

older adults requirements, 734

performance measure linkage, 686

physical changes in, 498

Picasso creative thinking case study, 772

resources access, 691

simulation for, 252–257, 258–259

social identity development and, 756

sophisticated requirements, 78

for supervisory tasks, 189

years required for international acclaim, 689

years since formal, 324

training environmentsapprentice pilots and, 252

best performers production and, 691

scarcity of optimal, 699






subject index 897

training history, differences in activation dynamics,665

training methodsof actors, 490

for ballet, 498

complex cognitive mechanisms acquisition, 61–62

for performance, 690

performance improvement, 768

training tasksfeedback and, 61

sequentially, 692

training techniques of experts, 17

trait complexes, 159–160

difference predictors, 160

as domain development impediment, 162

fluid intellectual abilities and, 159

knowledge development using, 162

opportunity prediction with, 161

trait families, variance among, 159

trait predictors, 154

traits, 147

expertise set of inner, 72

individual, 158

major families of, 155

professional work characterization and, 108

psychological, 147

shared variance among, 159

synergistic, 159

transactive knowledge, 753

transactive memoryexpertise attribution and, 753–757

as organizational, 753

transfer designs technique, 266

transfer effectivenessacross modalities, 273

in the PCATD 5 group, 253

training time, 258

transfer techniques, determining conditions of skillgeneralization, 269

transfer-of-training from existing knowledge to newknowledge, 161

transformations, following a pattern of rhythms oflearning, 289

transition pointsexperts spending less time during, 251

negotiation of, 297

transitional phase of skill acquisition, 267

transparency of expert systems, 89

transportationenvironment consistently changing, 358

experience in, 358–359


expertise effects, 368

price of the complexity of, 358

research in, 358

successful theories of expertise in as fundamentallycognitive, 368

transportation domaindefining expertise in, 355

nature of tasks in, 355–358

traumatic experiences, acquisition of extraordinaryexpertise and, 327

treatmentprofessional work outsourcing, 752

professional work task, 751

tree-traversal process in perceptual-motor control, 510

trials, expert witnesses and, 755

triarchic theoryon expertise, 614

human intelligence and, 616

school performance enhancement program, 626

Trivium, 70, 73

troubleshootingchanging courses in, 195

cognitive task analysis of, 196

practice in, 196

practice systematic approach, 196

structured approach by experts, 193

task structure, 195

teaching a systematic approach to, 195

training case studies, 193–196

trustcreation of social, 751

expert team collective, 448

expert witnesses and, 755

of experts by society, 754–755

interpersonal risk taking in expert teams, 444

as power and social capital, 754

as society context, 753

truthassumption in expert social form, 749

presumption for experts, 750

TSR (fluency of retrieval from long-term memory),590

TSR (tertiary storage/retrieval), 604

abilities increasing with acculturation, 605

abilities indicating fluency in accessing information,605

increasing in adulthood, 595–596

indicating facility in retrieving knowledge, 596

tuition, 462

twinsmathematical abilities and, 563

reliable estimates of heritability, 725

two-choice spatial tasks, 272

two-flap Z-plasty, 347

typicalityeffect of, 346

sense of, 405

typingage-comparative studies on, 728

as a habitual activity, 697

increasing by exerting full concentration, 698


perceptual-motor expertise and, 509, 510

research on instruction in, 697

skill of acquisition and automatization in, 685

standardized measure of, 697

typists, 53 , 687


eye-hand spans in older, 731

molar-equivalence-molecular-decompositionapproach applied to, 730

perceptual processing speed of superior, 697

skills maintenance by older expert, 731

speed prediction, 157

UK Basic Skills Agency, 553

uncertaintyin decision making, 424

expert knowledge use and, 108

of inference, 93

management of, 406






898 subject index

uncertainty (cont.)reasoning under, 96

reasoning with, 93

reduction by experts, 751

rough estimates of, 96

value tradeoff and, 434

unconsciousinference reliance on, 511

influences and tacit knowledge, 615

underadditive interaction, 277

under-constrained decisions, 56

understanding phaseadaptive team expertise and, 440

beyond encoding, 169

as data integration, 638

of a problem representation, 168

of a representation, 168

Unified Modeling Language (UML), 199

unit. See structured objectunitization, 268, 269, 270

units of analysisfor directors and films, 330

examining data within and across, 311

for measuring more knowledge, 178

for modeling work, 137

universitiesknowledge accumulation goal, 5

in medieval Europe, 5 , 72–74

as novel institutions in medieval Europe, 70

segmentation into departments, 84

University of Alberta, jazz dance expert/noviceresearch, 499

University of Missouri, journalism school, 397

university professors, contrasting on a drawing versuswriting task, 395

unofficial history, 576

unstructured interviewsby computer scientists building expert systems, 205

yield of, 206

untrained task performance, compared to trained, 665

Upper Limit Construct, 75

urban planning, time use literature on, 305

usual performance versus maximal, 734

utilitydecision behavior and, 434

judgment process and, 404

maximization of expected in decisions, 425

value tradeoffs and multiattribute, 434

utility analysis, multi-attribute, 411

utility of effort, 158

V1, visual processing locus, 666

validityissues of, 295–296

measurement, 148, 149–150

verbal reports and, 230–231

verbalizations and, 229

value(s)anticipation expertise in, 434

as cardinal decision issue, 433–434

creativity and, 762

decision coherence standard and, 425

decision results and, 423

exchange creation of, 750

expertise in anticipation of, 434

of families as subcultures, 756

of innovation vs. creativity,multiattribute utility theory and, 434

variability in movements as a distinguishingcharacteristic of experts, 480

variablesalterable, 292

effective harnessing of non-functional, 480

in historiometrics, 323–324

variance truncation, subject selection and, 323

varied mapping. See VMvelocity-dependent forces, resisting, 507

ventral occiptico-temporal cortexactivated when viewing pictures of objects, 668

object recognition in, 669

verbal abilities assessment, 618

verbal informationanalyses of, 177


Verbal Information learning outcome, 80

verbal IQ, less important than relevant knowledge, 51

verbal n-back task, activation decreases after practice,662

verbal protocolsof chess players, 232

of children and adults in sports, 479

measures extracted from, 528

on writing, 392

verbal recall, ballet experts and, 498

verbal reports, 176

applications of, 235

cognitive processes changes and, 228

collection in context, 176

as a contrived task, 176–178

elicitation of non-reactive, 227–228

experimental validation of, 237

familiar intrinsic tasks and, 177

historical development of, 224–227

method to elicit, 224

methods in musical practice and performanceresearch, 460

validity and accuracy of retrospective, 227

validity of, 229, 479

validity problems of, 230–231

verbal retrieval by actors, 494

verbal tasks, recall superiority in, 172

verbalizationinterfering with reasoning, 216

participants’ thought processes, 228

reflecting the participants’ spontaneous thoughts,231

revealing sequences of thoughts, 229

validity of while thinking aloud, 228–230

versatility, 323

vertical activity list in a stylized activity log, 309

very large knowledge bases, 98–99

video data, inventorying, 140

video ethnography, 130

video recording, hot spots for systematic, 140

video-based simulationspressure-sensitive, movement response system of,

246

salient task demands, 257

tennis use, 247

vigilanceby aviation student pilot situation awareness errors,

642

decision need and, 429

vignettes in tacit knowledge inventories, 618

violin students, studies undertaken with three groupsof, 306






subject index 899

violinistsaverage performance and, 81

compared to naval aviators, 81

cortical representation of fingers, 674

diaries for studying, 13 1

diary use by, 691

M1 activation for left-hand individual fingermovements, 674

practice hours, 601

solitary practice time, 692

time on deliberate practice, 691

Virtual Football Trainer, 248

virtual reality, 243

actor scenario performance in, 495

salient task demands, 257

simulators, 254

sport use, 247

sports environment simulation, 248

virtual reality systems, systems, 258

virtual tool, 251

virtue, 71

vision, training improving, 666

visual anthropology, 129–130

visual area in the right mid-fusiform gyrus, 667

visual artscreativity in, 772–775

domain specific expertise in, 775

visual coding of manipulables in calculation learning,559

visual cues, experts using, 476

visual images, 225

visual memory, 171, 559

visual object expertise, IT neurons implicated in, 669

visual perception, perceptual-motor control and, 511

Visual Perception personality trait, 159

visual processing (Gv), 590

beginning in occipital cortex, 667

locus of initial, 666

regions, 666

visual searches, 360, 361–362

CM and VM tasks, 270

memory task, 269

perceptual structure, 476–477

visual search patternsdepending on defensive or offensive nature of the

decision, 477

as relatively domain specific, 477

training for, 676

visual spans, larger for expert chess players, 525

visual system of the brain, 655

visual tasks, mapping and, 272

visual type, memory of the, 554

visual variation, VWFA insensitive to, 670

Visual Word Form Area. See VWFAvisual working memory in computation, 559

visual-field experiment with male chess players, 533

visuo-spatial abilitysurgeons and, 348

surgical expertise and, 348

transfer task and, 347

visuo-spatial information, working memory slaveprocessing system, 661

visuo-spatial knowledge, 547

visuo-spatial representations, memory experts use, 549

visuospatial span study, practice and, 662

visuo-spatial tasksdelayed match-to sample practice for, 662

negatively affecting problem solving, 531

visuo-spatial tests, surgical trainee hand motion and,348

visuo-spatial working memory in blindfold chess, 531

VM (varied mapping), 269, 659

vocabulary size, writing effectiveness and, 392

vocational interest themes, matching with jobcharacteristics, 158

volleyballdynamic film sequences in, 245

occluding portions of the serve, 476

player goal setting by, 708

recalling patterns of play in, 245

self-regulation in, 714 , 715

skilled players better able to predict a serve, 476

VPencoding used by, 547

natural ability and, 545

nouns and verbs recall, 542

superior memory demonstration, 541

VWFA (Visual Word Form Area), 670

consistently activated across word tasks and writingsystems, 670

insensitive to lexical properties of words, 670

insensitivity to visual variation, 670

lesions resulting in impairments in wordrecognition, 670

phonological training modulating, 671

Wagner, Richard K., 615

WAIS. See Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scalewaiter superior memory, 237

walking, 515

Wallace, Irving, 710

wargaming, 410

The Waste Land, 399

Watson, James, 775–776, 782 , 784

Watson, John, 226

wayfinding, anterior hippocampus and, 673

WDA (Work Domain Analysis), 209–213

aviation incident reports and, 215

documents study and, 210

fitting in knowledge and skills, 217

initiating, 215

weak methods, 43

acquired as language structures, 577

in AI research, 90

not leading to specific conclusions, 577

of reasoning and problem solving, 577

weakness, correction and function preservation, 698

weather conditions, pilots recognition of, 364

weather cues, viewing, 363

weather forecastingmethod model concept, 217

perception of satellite infra-read image loops, 173

Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, 547

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 32

weekly training activities, 695

Well-Being personality trait, 159

well-structured and deliberate practice. See deliberatepractice

well-structured domains, 569

what-if queries in CDM, 209

“what-if” scenarios in simulated systems, 78

what-this-will-mean-for-me-later-on, 136

whole-game training, 279

whole-task training, 278

why-questions, 230

wildland fire fighters, 26






900 subject index

Wilkins, Maurice, 776, 782

Williams sisters in tennis, 562

wine experts, performance compared to regular winedrinkers, 686

wine tasting, 268

with whom coding in a time diary, 312

WJ-R, full set of achievement tests of, 597

WM. See working memorywomen, MIT report on the difficult position of, 117

Woods, Tiger, 562

wordsactor memory access to, 491

brain regions associated with processing, 670

bursts of generated by writers, 392

experts processing of, 671

meaning inference by actors, 492

reading, 670–671

sequences of images, 390

tests for lists of, 545

transcription into written characters, 390

workactivity organized to appear rational, 134

context, 135

cultures, 208

decomposing into formal diagrams of goals andmethods, 130

environments, 736

experience, 758

of experts in social context, 744

feeling lost in, 395

how to model, 138

how to redesign, 138

invisible versus overt, 135–136

in mathematical proficiency, 565

methods, 133

models, 138

occupations and, 106

organizational context of, 136

organizations, 114

overload, 382

rule-of-thumb like methods for carrying out, 187

socially recognized, 128

Work Analysis, 208

Work Domain Analysis. See WDAwork domains

mapping the functional structure of, 217

models of, 214

representing, 210

work practicesdocumenting, 127

observing in natural settings, 127–142

study of as a study of a setting, 128

studying, 129

understanding, 129

work settingsinherent conflicts of, 129

moving studies of knowledge and expertise to,129

work systems design projects, 132–133

work taskscomprehensive representation of, 380

recording, 139

workersas agents, 128

demand for, 75

development of, 76

viewing as social actors, 128

working intelligence, 758

working memory (WM), 590

accuracy and rapidity of, 557

activation decreased with task practice, 662


anomalous information processing by, 640

automaticity and, 639

in calculation, 557–558

capacity, 249, 431

chunking expanding the functional size of, 58

consonant item-recognition task, 660

demands of composing processes on, 392

demands of writing on, 392

expanded for an expert, 598

expanded in experts, 598, 599

experts maintaining large amounts of informationin, 56

form of expanded, 599

in groups of apprentice and expert pilots, 365

impact of training on, 661

important during the early stages of learning, 33

as an intellectual bottleneck on human thought, 36

limit of, 57

measuring using a rotation span task, 365

during method of loci training, 549

model, 661

multi-digit numbers in visuospatial, 563

negative relationship to age, 593

of novices in situation analysis, 637

phases of tasks, 661

psychological investigation of, 557


situation projection long-term memory and, 636

skills supporting expanded, 235

slowing of retrieval and storage to and from, 726

storage, 564

training improving processing capacity, 662

types of, 559

working, speed of, 186

workloadsallocation in expert teams, 449

inexperienced aviation pilots and, 644

management and aviation student pilot situationawareness, 642

management strategies for, 368


workplaces, 128

acquiring expertise in, 33

methodologies studied in, 133

observing and systematically studying, 13 1

as partners in a cooperative activity with theobserver, 139

performance tests, 33

Workspace and Workpatterns analysis, 216

worldscognitive systems engineering envisioned, 193

exploration of envisioned, 199

Wranglers at Cambridge University, 556

wrestlerspractice activities of, 306

rating practice activities for, 307

time use estimates, 307

Wright brothersairplane invention and creative thinking, 776–779

airplane research, 776

expertise as a continuum, 779

expertise redefinition by, 784






subject index 901

general mechanical expertise, 778

mechanical expertise and observation, 770–771

non-domain expertise and, 782

writers, 758. See also fiction writers; professionalwriters

academic, 394 , 396

anticipating readers reactions, 394

awareness of readership, 394

characteristics of professional-level, 389

cognitive strategies of, 393

concrete language of, 392

creative, 395 , 399

deliberate practice by, 396–397

domain specificity of, 393

first draft phase actions, 391

fluency in sentence generation, 392

habitual ways of approaching work, 395–396

imagery used by, 710

jobs of career, 390

knowledge crafting by, 394

practice techniques of well-known, 397

prewriting strategies of, 393

rapid access to long-term memory, 394

rituals of, 396

schedules of, 396

self-evaluation by, 713

self-motivation in, 395

self-satisfaction in, 713

skill acquisition by, 396–399

task demands and, 396

time management by, 710

use of language, 391–392

verbal ability of, 392

wide range of knowledge important for, 397

work habits of, 397

writer’s blockdefined, 396

skill demands and, 395

writing. See also professional writingauditory probe during, 392

cognitive demands of, 390–391

defining professional, 389–390

effects of self-regulatory training on skill, 717, 718

expertise in professional, 389–399

first draft phase of, 391

genre and domain expertise of, 399

managing the emotional ups and downs of, 396

placing demands on working memory, 392

product of reluctant sessions, 395

professional expertise in, 389–399

scientific literature on professional, 390

skill acquisition for, 396–399

specific skills of, 391–396

text composition and, 390

written fluency in children, 398

written records, types of, 140

written text, concretizing plans into, 390

Wundt, Wilhelm, studies of reasoning, 203

Xitact LS500 laparoscopic cholecystectomy simulator,251

X-ray films, examining, 172

X-ray imagesidentification of abnormal features in, 268

perception of, 268

years of experience. See also ten year rulerequired to attain an international level of chess

skill, 305

required to become an expert, 60

young athletes, lacking knowledge to produce qualitysolutions, 482

young (early) start, in domains calling forphysiological development, 298

young persons, channeling into a particular form ofexpertise, 327

zeal, 724

in mathematical proficiency, 565

for numbers, 561

as a prodigy characteristic, 564

Zuckerman, Harrietaccounted in her discussions uncrowned laureates,

295

approach to the challenge of control or comparisongroups, 294

early start in, 298

match between a master teacher and a student, 298

move to study with a master teacher, 297

sample may have excluded others similarlyexceptional, 293

as a sociologist, 292

studies as theory driven, 295

talented individuals defined by the Nobel Prizeselection committees, 293

work on the sociology of science, 291






assets.cambridge.org...author index abbott, a., 105, 108, 109, 753, 754, 756 abernethy, b., 234,...

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