+ chapter 2 research methods and critical thinking
TRANSCRIPT
+
Chapter 2 Research Methods and
Critical Thinking
+Key Questions
Why is the scientific method important to psychologists?
How do psychologists collect information?
How is an experiment performed?
What other research methods do psychologists use?
How dependable is psychological information found in the popular press?
What ethical questions does psychological research raise?
+ Key Terms
+The Scientific Method
Observation: Carefully recording facts and events
Six Basic Elements1. Observation
2. Defining a problem
3. Proposing a hypothesis (an educated guess that can be tested)
4. Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
5. Publishing results
6. Building a theory
+Hypothesis
Hypothesis: Tentative explanation of an event or relationship
Testable hunch or education guess about behavior
+Puzzled?
Operational definition activity
+Operational Definitions
Handout
+Operational Definition
Operation Definition: States the exact procedures used to represent a concept
Allow abstract ideas to be tested in real-world terms
See page 29 FIGURE 2-1
+Cleve Hans
The Wonder Horse! Clever Hans seemed to solve difficult math problems, which he answered by tapping his foot. If you asked Hans, “What is 12 times 2, minus 18”, Hans would tap his foot six times. Hans was so astonishing that an inquiring scientist decided to discover if Hans actually did arithmetic.
How does Hans really do the trick
+Can A Horse Add?
+Well…can it?
Your investigation of Hans’ math skills would probably begin with careful observation of both horse and owner while Hans was performing. Assume that these observations fail to reveal any obvious cheating.
Then the problem becomes more clearly defined: What signals Hans to start and stop tapping his foot? Your first hypothesis might be that the owner is giving Hans a signal. Your proposed test would be to make the owner leave the room. Then someone else could ask questions.
You test would either confirm or deny the owner’s role. This evidence would support or eliminate the cheating hypothesis. By changing the conditions under which you observe Hans, you have controlled the situation to gain more information from your observations.
+Yes…and No
Hans could still answer when his owner was out of the room. But a brilliant series of controlled observations revealed Hans’ secret.
If Hans couldn’t see the questioner, he could answer. It seems that questioners always lowered their heads (to look at Hans’ cue to start tapping. When Hans had tapped the correct number, a questioner would always look up to see if Hans was going to stop
This was Hans’ cue to stop tapping!
+Scientific Theory
Theory: Interrelates concepts and facts in a way that summarizes a large number of observations
A system of ideas that interrelates facts and concepts, summarizes existing data, and predicts future observations A good theory must be falsifiable; i.e., operationally defined
so that it can be disconfirmed
+Theory Building
+Research Methods
Experimental Method: Controlled experimentations using the correlation method
To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways
except the condition you are varying Record whether varying the condition has any effect on
behavior
Questionnaires, surveys, and polls
+Research Methods
Naturalistic Observation: Observing a person or an animal in their natural setting in which they/it live(s)
Problems Observer Effect: Changes in behavior caused by
an awareness of a person or animal being observed
Observer Bias: Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details
Anthropomorphic Fallacy: Attributing human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way of explaining their behavior
+Research Method worksheet
Worksheet do as a class
+Naturalistic Observation
Jane Goodall’s naturalistic observation
+Research Methods
Correlations and Relationships
Correlational Methods: Find existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables
Correlation Coefficient: Statistic ranging from –1.00 to +1.00; the sign indicates the direction of the relationship
+Research Methods
Correlations in psychology are rarely perfect
Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the stronger the relationship
Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship between the variables
EX: Identical twins tends to have almost identical IQs. In contrast, the IQs of parents and their children are only generally similar.
The correlation between the IQs and parents and children is .35; between identical twins its .86.
+Research Methods
Correlations and Relationships (cont.)
Positive Correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by increases in the other variable
Negative Correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by decreases in the other variable
Correlation does not demonstrate causation: Just because two variables are related does NOT mean that one variable causes the other to occur
Causation: A cause-and-effect connection)
Fig. 1.7 The correlation coefficient tells how strongly two measures are related. These graphs show a range of relationships between two measures, A and B. If a correlation is negative, increases in one measure are associated with decreases in the other. (As B gets larger, A gets smaller.) In a positive correlation, increases in one measure are associated with increases in the other. (As B gets larger, A gets larger.) The center-left graph (“medium negative relationship”) might result from comparing anxiety level (B) with test scores (A): Higher anxiety is associated with lower scores. The center graph (“no relationship”) would result from plotting a person’s shoe size (B) and his or her IQ (A). The center-right graph (“medium positive relationship”) could be a plot of grades in high school (B) and grades in college (A) for a group of students: Higher grades in high school are associated with higher grades in college.
+
Fig. 1.9 The relationship between years of college completed and personal income (hypothetical data).
+
Correlation Worksheet
+How to Conduct an Experiment
Experiment: A formal trial undertaken to confirm or disconfirm a hypothesis. To perform an experiment you would do the following:
1. Directly vary a condition you think might affect behavior
1. Create two or more groups of subjects. These groups should be alike in all ways except the condition you are varying
1. Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior
+Variables
Definition: Any condition that can change, and might affect, experiment's outcome
Independent Variable: Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or value; these are suspected causes for behavioral differences
Dependent Variable: Demonstrates effects that independent variables have on behavior
Extraneous Variables: Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the experiment)
+Identifying variables
Worksheet
Worksheet Simpsons
+Groups
Experimental Group: The group of subjects that gets the independent variable
Control Group: The group of subjects that gets all conditions EXCEPT the independent variable
Random Assignment: Subject has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group
+
+
+Evaluating Experiments’ Results
Statistically Significant: Results gained would occur very rarely by chance alone
Meta-analysis: Study of results of other studies
+Placebo Effects
Placebo: A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline)
Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from belief that one has ingested a drug Placebos alter our expectations about our own
emotional and physical reactions These expectancies then influence bodily activities Relieve pain by getting pituitary to release
endorphins Also gain some effect through learning
+Controlling Placebo Effects
Single Blind Experiment: Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or placebo
Double Blind Experiment: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects get real treatment or placebo Best type of experiment if properly set up Herbal remedies may be based on placebo effect
+Experimenter Effects
Definition: Changes in behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true
+The Clinical Method
Case Study: In-depth focus on all aspects of a single case
Natural Clinical Tests: Natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological data
Survey Method: Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions
+Phineas Gage
Video
Within 2 months Phineas Gage could walk, talk, and move about normally. Injury forced his personality to change
Instead of the honest and dependable worker he had been before, Gage became a surly, foul-mouthed liar.
FRONTAL LOBOTOMY (One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest)
+Table 1.5 – Comparison of Psychological Research Methods
+Sampling
Representative Sample: Small group that accurately reflects a larger population Population: Entire group of animals or people
belonging to a particular category (e.g., all married women)
Internet Surveys: Web based research; low cost and can reach many people
Courtesy Bias: Problem in research; a tendency to give “polite” or socially desirable answers
Samples are not representative
+Separating Fact from Fiction (Are
the Stories in the National Enquirer True?)
Be skeptical
Consider the source of information
Ask yourself, “Was there a control group?”
Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and causation (are claims based on correlational results yet passed off as causations?)
+Separating Fact from Fiction
Be sure to distinguish between observation and inference Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated by monetary reasons
Single examples are not proof!
+Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Research
Do no harm
Accurately describe risk to potential subjects
Ensure that participation is voluntary
Minimize any discomfort to participants
Maintain confidentiality
+Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Research (cont.)
Do not unnecessarily invade privacy
Use deception only when absolutely necessary
Remove any misconceptions caused by deception (debrief)
Provide results and interpretation to participants
Treat participants with dignity and respect