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The Scottish The Scottish Enlightenment of Enlightenment of the eighteenth the eighteenth

centurycentury

高永光教授高永光教授

From the vantage point of the early From the vantage point of the early eighteenth century, Scotland would eighteenth century, Scotland would appear to be one of the most unlikely appear to be one of the most unlikely places in Europe to become a centre places in Europe to become a centre of intellectual innovation. The hold of of intellectual innovation. The hold of the Catholic Church had been broken the Catholic Church had been broken in the sixteenth century but only to in the sixteenth century but only to be replaced by one of the most be replaced by one of the most narrow and bigoted forms of narrow and bigoted forms of Protestantism.Protestantism.

in the mid-eighteenth century, the in the mid-eighteenth century, the mists of ignorance cleared and mists of ignorance cleared and Scotland vaulted from being one of Scotland vaulted from being one of the most backward countries of the most backward countries of Europe to one of its most civilized – Europe to one of its most civilized – indeed, the leader, for a period, in indeed, the leader, for a period, in the developments that have led the developments that have led historians to call the eighteenth historians to call the eighteenth century the Age of Enlightenment. century the Age of Enlightenment.

These developments were perhaps due These developments were perhaps due in part to the closer ties with England thin part to the closer ties with England that followed the Act of Union in 1707, maat followed the Act of Union in 1707, made final by the failure of the Jacobite Rede final by the failure of the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745; and undoubtedly, the ebellion of 1745; and undoubtedly, the economic changes that invigorated Scotticonomic changes that invigorated Scottish industry in the latter half of the eightsh industry in the latter half of the eighteenth century had some influence.eenth century had some influence.

By ‘literature’ Hume meant By ‘literature’ Hume meant intellectual productions of all kinds; intellectual productions of all kinds; Scotland was distinguished in the Scotland was distinguished in the sciences as well as in philosophy and sciences as well as in philosophy and the arts. The University of the arts. The University of Edinburgh's medical school was so Edinburgh's medical school was so renowned that students flocked to it renowned that students flocked to it from all over, including America.from all over, including America.

The Scottish thinkers in whom we are The Scottish thinkers in whom we are especially interested are those who especially interested are those who contributed to the social sciences. contributed to the social sciences.

The leading figures were Francis HutcheThe leading figures were Francis Hutcheson, Adam Ferguson, Thomas Reid, Dugson, Adam Ferguson, Thomas Reid, Dugald Stewart, Lord Kames (Henry Home), ald Stewart, Lord Kames (Henry Home), Lord Monboddo (James Burnet), David Lord Monboddo (James Burnet), David Hume, and Adam Smith. The last two arHume, and Adam Smith. The last two are the ones of outstanding permanent sige the ones of outstanding permanent significance .nificance .

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A. SCOTTISH MORAL A. SCOTTISH MORAL PHILOSOPHYPHILOSOPHY

To the modern reader the term To the modern reader the term ‘moral philosophy’ denotes the ‘moral philosophy’ denotes the branch of philosophy that deals with branch of philosophy that deals with ethics: a relatively small part of only ethics: a relatively small part of only one of the many departmental units one of the many departmental units in the modern university's in the modern university's curriculum.curriculum.

Historians have often drawn Historians have often drawn attention to the fact that the social attention to the fact that the social sciences developed from subjects sciences developed from subjects that were previously included in that were previously included in moral philosophy, and it is moral philosophy, and it is sometimes inferred from this that the sometimes inferred from this that the fountainhead of modern social fountainhead of modern social science was ethics.science was ethics.

In fact the main source of inspiration for In fact the main source of inspiration for the eighteenth-century thinkers was the the eighteenth-century thinkers was the accomplishments of the natural scienceaccomplishments of the natural sciences.s.

When an eighteenth-century writer descWhen an eighteenth-century writer describes a proposition as “unphilosophicalribes a proposition as “unphilosophical” he means that it lacks what we today ” he means that it lacks what we today would call ‘scientific’ foundations. Thwould call ‘scientific’ foundations. The modem usage of the term ‘science’ e modem usage of the term ‘science’ stems from the early nineteenth century.stems from the early nineteenth century.

There was much talk during the eighteeThere was much talk during the eighteenth century of extending the application nth century of extending the application of “philosophical principles” to the fieof “philosophical principles” to the field of human behaviour. This, roughly spld of human behaviour. This, roughly speaking, is what the term ‘moral philosoeaking, is what the term ‘moral philosophy’ came to denote.phy’ came to denote.

By ‘experimental method’ Hume did By ‘experimental method’ Hume did not mean laboratory experiments but, not mean laboratory experiments but, more broadly, the general approach of more broadly, the general approach of the sciences, which contrasted sharply the sciences, which contrasted sharply with the arid a priori methods of with the arid a priori methods of scholastic philosophy. In Hume's view, scholastic philosophy. In Hume's view, the counterpart of the laboratory, the counterpart of the laboratory, experiment in social phenomena is experiment in social phenomena is history, which furnishes empirical data.history, which furnishes empirical data.

How did the Scottish moral How did the Scottish moral philosophers regard ‘human nature’? philosophers regard ‘human nature’? The first point that should be noted is The first point that should be noted is that they did not view man in that they did not view man in religious or theological terms.religious or theological terms.

The most fundamental philosophical quThe most fundamental philosophical question of theology is the estion of theology is the foundationfoundation of o of one's belief - in particular points of doctrine's belief - in particular points of doctrine or, indeed, in the very existence of a sne or, indeed, in the very existence of a supreme being.upreme being.

This approach to theology, which was caThis approach to theology, which was called ‘Natural Religion’ or ‘Deism’.lled ‘Natural Religion’ or ‘Deism’.

So the Christian did not have to become So the Christian did not have to become a sceptic in order to adopt the view that a sceptic in order to adopt the view that the way to advance ‘moral philosophythe way to advance ‘moral philosophy’ was to study the characteristics of ma’ was to study the characteristics of man as natural phenomenon. n as natural phenomenon.

Regarding man as a natural Regarding man as a natural phenomenon is, however, not phenomenon is, however, not sufficient to provide foundations for sufficient to provide foundations for social science. If one hopes to social science. If one hopes to construct general laws as the other construct general laws as the other sciences do, there must be sufficient sciences do, there must be sufficient uniformity of human nature to uniformity of human nature to sustain the validity of general sustain the validity of general propositionspropositions

The Scottish moral philosophers, by The Scottish moral philosophers, by contrast, emphasized the uniformity contrast, emphasized the uniformity of human nature.of human nature.

Adam Smith's adoption of this view Adam Smith's adoption of this view became the foundation o economic became the foundation o economic theory, as we shall see. It is worth theory, as we shall see. It is worth noting here that it also became the noting here that it also became the basis normative economics in that basis normative economics in that when Smith investigated ‘The Nature when Smith investigated ‘The Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’, and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’,

he meant to include all inhabitants inhahe meant to include all inhabitants inhabitants within the term ‘nation’, whicbitants within the term ‘nation’, which led him immediately to the judgement h led him immediately to the judgement (which some of his contemporaries foun(which some of his contemporaries found surprising) that a nation cannot be cond surprising) that a nation cannot be considered rich if its lower classes (who comsidered rich if its lower classes (who compose the greatest number) are poor. pose the greatest number) are poor.

The Scottish moral philosophers were The Scottish moral philosophers were primarily interested in theprimarily interested in the social social behavior of man.behavior of man.

Adam Smith’s great contribution was Adam Smith’s great contribution was to show that the power of an to show that the power of an absolute sovereign is not the only absolute sovereign is not the only means by which social order may be means by which social order may be achieved in a world of self-interested achieved in a world of self-interested individuals, individuals,

but his first book, The Theory of Sentimebut his first book, The Theory of Sentiments (1759), was devoted to a study of nts (1759), was devoted to a study of socsocialial psychology in terms of man's propen psychology in terms of man's propensity to desire the welfare of others. sity to desire the welfare of others.

David Hume, in the David Hume, in the Treatise of Treatise of Human NatureHuman Nature, suggested that , suggested that everyone considers the welfare of everyone considers the welfare of other persons but does not give it as other persons but does not give it as much weight as his own.much weight as his own.

..

Concerning the one area of social Concerning the one area of social science that had undergone science that had undergone significant development prior to the significant development prior to the era of the Scottish Enlightenment - era of the Scottish Enlightenment - political theory - the Scottish political theory - the Scottish moralists strongly rejected the moralists strongly rejected the accepted methodologyaccepted methodology

This view of the contract theory of societThis view of the contract theory of society and government became general duriny and government became general during the nineteenth century. Though Locke g the nineteenth century. Though Locke was still regarded with respect, because was still regarded with respect, because of his empirical philosophy of knowledgof his empirical philosophy of knowledge and the liberal thrust of his political the and the liberal thrust of his political theory, the contract approach fell out of faeory, the contract approach fell out of favour. vour.

As political science developed, its As political science developed, its emphasis was upon the evolution of emphasis was upon the evolution of political institutions and their political institutions and their functional roles in social functional roles in social organization. In recent years has organization. In recent years has there been a revival of contract there been a revival of contract theory, theory,

in the area of ethical philosophy by John in the area of ethical philosophy by John Rawls’s A Theory of Justice (1971), and Rawls’s A Theory of Justice (1971), and in the analysis of collective institutions iin the analysis of collective institutions initiated by J. M. Buchanan and Gordon Tnitiated by J. M. Buchanan and Gordon Tullock’s The Calculus of Consent (1962).ullock’s The Calculus of Consent (1962).

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B.DAVID HUME B.DAVID HUME (1711-76)(1711-76)

Hume’s from being appointed to a Hume’s from being appointed to a university post, which he would have university post, which he would have liked. Hume’s strongest attack on liked. Hume’s strongest attack on religion was published only after his religion was published only after his death, though it was written twenty-death, though it was written twenty-five years earlier (Dialogues five years earlier (Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, 1779).Concerning Natural Religion, 1779).

The problem focuses upon the issue of eThe problem focuses upon the issue of egoism versus benevolence in man's natugoism versus benevolence in man's nature. re.

Hume rejected Hobbes's view as Hume rejected Hobbes's view as failing to recognize that society is failing to recognize that society is part of man's nature. part of man's nature.

Hume followed other Scottish Hume followed other Scottish philosophers in arguing that man is philosophers in arguing that man is egoistic in the sense that he values egoistic in the sense that he values his own welfare above that .of his own welfare above that .of others, but not to the degree that he others, but not to the degree that he values the welfare of others at zero. values the welfare of others at zero.

His main objective in this connection, hoHis main objective in this connection, however, was not to undermine our moral jwever, was not to undermine our moral judgements but to question the argumenudgements but to question the arguments made for them; just as in his examinatts made for them; just as in his examination of religion he did not attack the specion of religion he did not attack the specific doctrines of Christianity, or any otheific doctrines of Christianity, or any other religion, but the ‘demonstrations’ thr religion, but the ‘demonstrations’ that religionists offer in claiming the doctriat religionists offer in claiming the doctrines to be true. nes to be true.

This argument of Hume's opened a This argument of Hume's opened a discussion that has persisted down to discussion that has persisted down to the present day, known in the the present day, known in the philosophical literature as the ‘is-philosophical literature as the ‘is-ought’ or the ‘fact-value’ dichotomy. ought’ or the ‘fact-value’ dichotomy.

But man, though inferior to other But man, though inferior to other animals as an individual, is able to animals as an individual, is able to increase his power by social increase his power by social association:association:

Thus, in Hume's view, man was not giveThus, in Hume's view, man was not given dominion over the earth by God, nor wn dominion over the earth by God, nor was he endowed by nature with the physias he endowed by nature with the physical capacity to contest it with other anical capacity to contest it with other animals, but he had acquired dominion nemals, but he had acquired dominion nevertheless, through social organization.vertheless, through social organization.

Hume’s argument can be set out as follHume’s argument can be set out as follows: ows:

England Other countriesEngland Other countries

Increase in money Increase in money

Rise in prices Rise in prices

Increase in imports Increase in imports Increase in exports Increase in exports

Decrease in Decrease in exports exports

Decrease in Decrease in imports imports

Outflow of money Outflow of money Inflow of money Inflow of money

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C. ADAM SMITHC. ADAM SMITH (1723-90) (1723-90)

Adam Smith is best known today as Adam Smith is best known today as the father of economics, hut he made the father of economics, hut he made wider contributions to social science wider contributions to social science that we cannot neglect.that we cannot neglect.

The The Moral SentimentsMoral Sentiments was an was an important book in the history of important book in the history of social science, whether one views it social science, whether one views it generally, or specifically in terms of generally, or specifically in terms of the development of sociology and the development of sociology and social psychology. It was neglected social psychology. It was neglected for a while by historians mainly for a while by historians mainly because of the greater significance of because of the greater significance of the same author's Wealth of Nations.the same author's Wealth of Nations.

1. Philosophy of science1. Philosophy of science

Adam Smith was no exception to this Adam Smith was no exception to this conception of social science; indeed, conception of social science; indeed, he was one of its important he was one of its important promoters.promoters.

Smith adopted the views that Hobbes Smith adopted the views that Hobbes had advanced a century earlier: that had advanced a century earlier: that there is a common human nature; there is a common human nature; that it is ascertainable by that it is ascertainable by introspection; and that a scientific introspection; and that a scientific study of social phenomena can be study of social phenomena can be built upon this empirical base.built upon this empirical base.

Adam Smith was to discover, however, aAdam Smith was to discover, however, as social scientists have repeatedly sciencs social scientists have repeatedly science, that modeling a society is not as easy e, that modeling a society is not as easy as modelling a solar system.as modelling a solar system.

2. The nature of man2. The nature of man

The counterpart of Newton's principle of The counterpart of Newton's principle of gravitational attraction in the modelling gravitational attraction in the modelling of social phenomena, so Adam Smith woof social phenomena, so Adam Smith would appear to believe, is some universal uld appear to believe, is some universal property of human nature.property of human nature.

In the Wealth of Nations, however, the NIn the Wealth of Nations, however, the Newtonian property is man's self-interest. ewtonian property is man's self-interest. There appears to be an inconsistency heThere appears to be an inconsistency here: ‘the Adam Smith problem’, it is sore: ‘the Adam Smith problem’, it is sometimes called.metimes called.

The determinants of human behaviour, The determinants of human behaviour, we now realize, are very complex. Adam we now realize, are very complex. Adam Smith simplified, as all scientists do, for Smith simplified, as all scientists do, for heuristic purposes; that is to say, he adoheuristic purposes; that is to say, he adopted the notion that man is a rational anpted the notion that man is a rational animal for methodological reasons:imal for methodological reasons:

it enabled him to proceed with the analyit enabled him to proceed with the analysis of social phenomena by construing tsis of social phenomena by construing them as springing from the purposive behem as springing from the purposive behaviour of rational individuals that one haviour of rational individuals that one observes by introspection and by regardobserves by introspection and by regarding others as homologous to oneself.ing others as homologous to oneself.

According to Adam Smith, man's main gAccording to Adam Smith, man's main goal is to ‘better his condition’.oal is to ‘better his condition’.

Though this passage in the Wealth of Though this passage in the Wealth of Nations refers specifically to man's Nations refers specifically to man's propensity to save in order to propensity to save in order to accumulate wealth, it can be read accumulate wealth, it can be read more generally as expressing Smith's more generally as expressing Smith's view that man is the dissatisfied view that man is the dissatisfied animal, always desiring animal, always desiring improvement.improvement.

3.Moral sentiments3.Moral sentiments

Smith believed, one might be able to Smith believed, one might be able to go on to consider the ethical problem go on to consider the ethical problem of what constitutes morally good of what constitutes morally good sentiments and their practical sentiments and their practical implications in concrete cases. implications in concrete cases.

The determination of what The determination of what oughtought to be c to be cannot be derived from the investigation annot be derived from the investigation of what of what isis, but the philosophy of empiric, but the philosophy of empirical science tells us that the study of what al science tells us that the study of what is so in fact is the proper place to begin.is so in fact is the proper place to begin.

God - would formulate moral judgementGod - would formulate moral judgements but how a very imperfect being - man - s but how a very imperfect being - man - is able to do so. He rejects the idea that is able to do so. He rejects the idea that man is furnished with an innate moral seman is furnished with an innate moral sense which tells him what is right and whnse which tells him what is right and what is wrong.at is wrong.

4. Division of labour4. Division of labour

The opening sentence of The opening sentence of An Inquiry An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of NationsWealth of Nations discloses what the discloses what the author considers to be the chief author considers to be the chief cause of that wealth: cause of that wealth:

The great improvement in the productivThe great improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part e powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgement witof the skill, dexterity, and judgement with which it is anywhere directed, or applih which it is anywhere directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the ed, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour.division of labour.

Man is, according to Smith, endowed Man is, according to Smith, endowed with a ‘propensity to truck and with a ‘propensity to truck and barter’, so he has the requisite barter’, so he has the requisite natural characteristics for the natural characteristics for the development of development of marketsmarkets. Smith . Smith clearly appreciated that this raises a clearly appreciated that this raises a very basic scientific question:very basic scientific question:

how do markets function as a means by how do markets function as a means by which the differentiated activities of mawhich the differentiated activities of many individual producers are co-ordinateny individual producers are co-ordinated?d?

5. Value5. Value

In order to operate successfully a firm mIn order to operate successfully a firm must consider what it can obtain in revenuust consider what it can obtain in revenue by selling a product and what it will hae by selling a product and what it will have to pay to obtain the labour, raw mateve to pay to obtain the labour, raw materials, and other factors necessary to prorials, and other factors necessary to produce it. duce it.

These revenues and costs are These revenues and costs are determined in part by the prices of determined in part by the prices of products and the prices of production products and the prices of production factors. The general theory of factors. The general theory of economic organization through economic organization through markets explains how movements in markets explains how movements in these prices adjust the production of these prices adjust the production of commodities and the demands for commodities and the demands for them to one another. them to one another.

The distribution of income in a specializThe distribution of income in a specialized economy is also bound up with prices,ed economy is also bound up with prices, since what each person receives as inco since what each person receives as income depends not only on the quantity of fme depends not only on the quantity of factors he sells but also on the per-unit pactors he sells but also on the per-unit price received for them. The income that rice received for them. The income that a labourer receives, for example, depena labourer receives, for example, depends not only on the number of hours he wds not only on the number of hours he works but on the wage rate per hour.orks but on the wage rate per hour.

Smith focused the investigation of the dSmith focused the investigation of the determinants of value strictly on the condeterminants of value strictly on the conditions of production, or supply; demand itions of production, or supply; demand factors were considered relevant only to factors were considered relevant only to fluctuations in the day-to-day prices of cfluctuations in the day-to-day prices of commodities, not to their ‘natural priceommodities, not to their ‘natural prices’.s’.

6. The ‘invisible hand’6. The ‘invisible hand’

The concept of an ‘invisible hand’ in The concept of an ‘invisible hand’ in the the Wealth of NationsWealth of Nations is simply the is simply the idea that there are governing laws idea that there are governing laws controlling economic processes just controlling economic processes just as there are laws governing natural as there are laws governing natural phenomena. phenomena.

The buying and selling that goes on in a The buying and selling that goes on in a market economy is an orderly system: wmarket economy is an orderly system: while each participant in the market intenhile each participant in the market intends only to serve his own interest, in the pds only to serve his own interest, in the process of doing so he ‘is led by an invisirocess of doing so he ‘is led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was nble hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention’ - that is, to play o part of his intention’ - that is, to play his part in a co-ordinated, well functionihis part in a co-ordinated, well functioning economic system.ng economic system.

Smith's own investigation of the market Smith's own investigation of the market mechanism did not lead him to conclumechanism did not lead him to conclude that it could work as an order-producde that it could work as an order-producing system all by itself. Individual activitiing system all by itself. Individual activities cohere into a co-ordinated whole onles cohere into a co-ordinated whole only where there is a general framework of y where there is a general framework of custom or law that establishes rules of jcustom or law that establishes rules of justice. ustice.

For this a government is necessary, but tFor this a government is necessary, but the proper functions of government are nhe proper functions of government are not confined to the maintenance of natioot confined to the maintenance of national defence and the administration of innal defence and the administration of internal justice. Smith had a great deal of ternal justice. Smith had a great deal of confidence in the market mechanism buconfidence in the market mechanism but he did not regard it as working perfectlt he did not regard it as working perfectly.y.

Smith's main objective was to Smith's main objective was to improve the economic policy of the improve the economic policy of the state by providing a sound state by providing a sound foundation of economic analysis. His foundation of economic analysis. His conclusion was that a great deal of conclusion was that a great deal of improvement could be brought about improvement could be brought about by dismantling much of the by dismantling much of the apparatus of state intervention that apparatus of state intervention that had grown up in England piece by had grown up in England piece by piece since Tudor times. piece since Tudor times.

7. The economic conception of 7. The economic conception of historical stageshistorical stages

In the Wealth of Nations there is a In the Wealth of Nations there is a great deal of historical material, great deal of historical material, which would probably have which would probably have established Adam Smith's reputation established Adam Smith's reputation as a historian.as a historian.

It is possible that Smith's interest in It is possible that Smith's interest in economics developed from his early economics developed from his early view that economic factors are the view that economic factors are the real determinants of history.real determinants of history.