PROSE WORKBOOK

By Nirmaldasan

(nirmaldasan@hotmail.com)

(Web-published, March 2016)

CHAPTER I: READING ALOUD

Prose is composed of words, phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs. There are four functions of prose: narrative, informative, imperative and persuasive. In any prose passage, there is meaning and rhythm. When you read aloud a passage, you should enunciate each sound and pronounce each word clearly so that the listeners can grasp the meaning and the rhythm.

Exercise 1

Read aloud the following passages:

1. Narrative (from Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn)

You don't know about me without you have read a book by the name of 'The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'; but that ain't no matter. That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly. There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. That is nothing. I never seen anybody but lied one time or another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the widow, or maybe Mary. Aunt Polly -- Tom's Aunt Polly, she is -- and Mary, and the Widow Douglas is all told about in that book, which is mostly a true book, with some stretchers, as I said before.

2. Informative (from Manuel Aaron’s Begin Chess)

The most powerful piece in chess is the Queen. The second powerful piece is the Rook. The Queen and Rooks are known as ‘Major pieces’. The Bishop and Knight are approximately equal. Both of them are weaker than the rook but stronger than the pawn which is the weakest on the board. Bishops and Knights are known as ‘Minor pieces’.

3. Imperative (from Project Work Guidelines)

The project must be an original work of the student. Plagiarised projects will be rejected. The guide’s approval must be obtained before each phase of the project. Progress reports must be submitted to the guide on specified dates. A project report must accompany the project and must include a project proposal (approved by the guide) and a student declaration stating that the work is original. The prescribed forms for project proposal and student declaration may be obtained from the guide.

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4. Persuasive (from Tolstoy’s What is Art?)

A man, a horse, a house, a view, a movement may be beautiful, but of actions, thoughts, character, music, we may say they are good, if we like them very much, or not good, if we do not like them; we can say ‘beautiful’ only of what is pleasing to our sight. So that the word and concept ‘good’ includes within itself the concept ‘beautiful’, but not vice versa: the concept ‘beautiful’ does not cover the concept ‘good’. If we say of an object valued for its appearance that it is ‘good’, we are thereby saying that this object is also beautiful; but if we say it is ‘beautiful’, that by no means implies that the object is good.

CHAPTER II: LIST OF WORDS

These 1671 different words from the Longman WordWise Dictionary account for 80% of the English language:

a ability able about above abroad absolutely accept acceptable accident accidental accidentally accommodation according account achieve achievement across act action active activity actual actually add address adjective admire admit advanced advantage advice advise affect afford afraid after afternoon afterwards again against age ago agree agreement ahead aim air alive all allow almost alone along already also although always among amount and angry announce another answer anxious any anybody anyone anything anyway anywhere apart apologize apparently appeal appear appearance apply approval approve area argue argument arm around arrange arrangement arrival arrive art artificial as ashamed ask at attach attempt attention attitude attract attractive authority autumn available average avoid awake aware away (110 words)

back backwards bad badly bag balance ball band bang bank bar base basic basically basis bath battery bear be beat beautiful because become before begin beginning behave behaviour behind belief believe belong below bend beneath benefit beside best bet better between beyond big bill bin birth birthday bit bite black blame blind block blow blue board boat body boil book border bored boring born borrow both bother bottom bound brain branch brave bread break breakfast breath breathe break bridge brief bright bring broad broken brother brown brush build building bunch burn burst bury bus bush business busy but butter buy by bye (102 words)

call calm calmly can cap capital car card care careful careless carry case catch cause centimetre central centre century certain certainly challenge chance change character characteristic charge chase chat cheap cheat check cheek cheque chief child children chin choice choose church cinema circle circumstance city claim class classroom clean clear clearly clever climb close closed closely clothes club clue coat coffee cold collect collection colour combination combine come comfort comfortable command comment commit common communicate communication community company compare compete complain complaint complete completely complicated computer concentrate

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concentration concern concerned concerning conclusion condition conduct confidence confident confused confusing congratulate congratulations connect connected connection consider considering consist constantly consult contact contain container content contents continue contrast contribute control convenient conversation convince convinced convincing cook cool cope copy corner correct correction cost cough could count country couple course cover crash crazy create creature crime crisis criticism criticize cross crowd crowded cruel cruelty cry culture curious custom cut (155 words)

damage damp dance danger dangerous dark date day dead deaf deal dear debt decide decision declaration declare deep defeat defend definite degree deliberate deliberately delicate delight deliver demand demonstrate depend describe description deserve design desperate destroy detail determined develop development die difference different difficult difficulty dig dinner direct direction disagree disappear disappointed disapprove discover discovery discuss discussion disgusting dish display distance distant disturb disturbing divide division doctor door do doubt down downstairs draw drawing dream dress drink drive drop dry dull during duty (83 words)

each eager ear early earn earth easy eat edge education effect effort either else embarrassed embarrassing emergency emotion emphasis emphasize empty encourage end enemy energy enjoy enjoyable enough enter entertainment enthusiastic entrance entry environment equal equipment error escape especially estimate even evening event ever every everybody everyone everything everywhere evidence exact exactly exaggerate exam example excellent except exchange excited exciting excuse exercise exhibition exist exit expect expensive experience experiment explain explanation exploration expression extra extraordinary extremely eye (77 words)

face fact factory fail failure fair fairly fall false familiar family famous far fashion fast fasten fat father fault favour favourite fear feature feed feel feeling female fence fetch few field fierce fight figure file fill film final finally find fine finger finish fire firm first fit fix flat flavour flight float flood floor flow fly fold follow fond food foot for force foreign forever forget forgive fork form formal fortunate fortunately forward frame free freedom freeze frequent fresh friend friendly frighten frightened from front full fun funny furniture further future (91 words)

game gap gas gate gather general generally generous gentle genuine gift get glad glass give go good goodbye government grade gradually grand grateful great greeting ground group grow guard guess guide guilty (32 words)

habit hair half hand handle hang happen happy hard hardly harm hate head health healthy heart have hear heat heavy height hello help her here hers herself hide high him himself his history hit hold hole holiday hollow home honest hope hospital hot hour house how however human hungry hurry hurt (51 words)

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I idea identify if ignore ill illness image imagination imagine immediate immediately impatient importance important impossible impressed impression impressive improve improvement in include increase indeed independent influence inform information injury innocent inquire inside insist instant instead instruction instrument intelligent intend interest interested interesting interfere interrupt interruption interview into introduce introduction invitation invite involve issue it its itself (57 words)

job join joke journey judge juice jump just justice (9 words)

keen key keep kick kill kind knock knowledge know (9 words)

label land language large last late later laugh law lay lead lean learn least left leg legal leave lend length less lesson let letter level lie life lift light like likely limit line list little listen live load loan lock lonely long loose lose look loss lost lot loud love low lower luck lucky lunch (55 words)

machine mad mail main mainly maintain major majority male make man manage manner many march mark market married marry mass match material matter maximum may maybe me meal mean meaning means meanwhile measure medium meet meeting memory mend mention mess message method middle might mind mine minimum minor minority minute miss mistake mix mixture model modern moment money month mood moon moral more morning most mother motion mouth move movement much murder muscle music must my myself mysterious mystery (79 words)

name narrow national natural naturally nature near nearly neat necessary neck need needle negative neither nerve nervous never new news next nice night no noise noisy none nonsense no nor normal nose not note nothing notice now nowhere number nurse (40 words)

object objection obtain obvious occasion occasional occur ocean odd of off offence offend offer office official often oil okay old on once one only onto open operate operation opinion opponent opportunity opposite or order ordinary organization organize original other otherwise ought our ours ourselves out outside over owe own (49 words)

pain pair paper part partner party pass passage passenger past path patience patient pattern pause pay payment peace peaceful pen pencil people perfect perform performance perhaps period permission person personal persuade petrol phone physical pick picture piece pile pin pinch pipe pity plain plan place plant plastic plate platform play pleasant please pleased pleasure plenty pocket point poison police polite politics pollution pool poor popular port position positive possession possibility possible possibly post pot pour power powerful practical practice practise praise precise prefer preparation prepare present press pressure pretend pretty prevent previous price pride principle print priority private prize probably problem process produce production professional profit

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programme progress project promise pronounce pronunciation proof proper properly protect protection protest proud prove provide public pull pump punish punishment pupil pure purpose push put (131 words)

quality quantity quarter question quick quickly quiet quite (8 words)

race radio rain raise range rank rare rarely rate rather raw reach react reaction read ready real realize really reason reasonable receive recent recently recognize recommend record recover recovery reduce reduction refer refuse regard region regional regret regular regularly reject related relation relationship relative relax release reliable relief rely remain remark remember remove rent repair repeat replace reply report represent rescue reserve respect responsibility responsible rest result return rich rid ride right ring rise risk road rob roll roof room rough round row rub rubbish rule run rush run (89 words)

sad safe safety sail sale same satisfactory satisfied save say scale scare scared scene schedule scheme school science score scrap scrape scream sea search season seat second secret section see seem sell send sense sensible sensitive sentence separate serious seriously serve service set settle several shade shadow shake shall shallow shame shape share sharp she shelter shine shock shoot shop shopping short should shoulder shout show shrink shut sick side sight sign silent similar simple since sing single sink sister sit situation size skill skin skirt sky sleep slice slide slight slightly slip slow slowly small smart smell smile smoke smooth snow so soak soft software soil solve some somebody somehow someone something sometimes somewhere song soon sore sorry sort sound space spare speak special speech speed spend spill spin spite splash split spoil sport spot spray spread spring square squash squeeze stage stamp stand standard star stare start state statement stay steady steal steam steep steer step stick sticky stiff still sting stir stone stop store storm story straight strange stranger street strength stretch strict strike string strong study stupid style subject substance succeed success successful such sudden suddenly suffer suggest suggestion suit summer supply support suppose sure surface surprise surprised surprising survive swallow sweep sweet swim swimming swing switch system (212 words)

table take talk tall tap tape target task taste tax teach team tear telephone television tell temper temperature tend tense term terrible test than thank thanks that the their theirs them themselves then there they thick thin thing thirsty this think thorough though thought threaten through throughout throw thumb ticket tidy tie tight time tip tired to today together tomorrow tone tongue tonight too tool top total touch tough tour towards town track trade tradition traffic tragedy train translate transparent transport trap travel tread treat treatment trial trick trip trouble trousers true trust truth try tune turn twist type typical (100 words)

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unable uncertain uncomfortable under underneath understand undo unfair unfortunate unhappy uniform union unit unite university unkind unless unlikely unlucky unpleasant until unusual up upon upset upstairs upwards urgent us use used usual usually (33 words)

valuable value vanish variety various very view violence violent vision visit voice vote (13 words)

wait wake walk wall wander want war warm warn warning wash waste watch water wave way we weak wealth wear weather week weekend weigh weight welcome well wet what whatever wheel when whenever where wherever whether which whichever while whisper whistle who whoever whole whom why wide wild will willing win wind window wing winter wipe wire wise wish with within without woman wonder word work world worried worry worse worst worth would wrap write wrong (76 words)

year yes yesterday yet you young your yours yourself (9 words)

zero (1 word)

Exercise 2: From the above list, identify the words whose meanings you do not know. Then use a dictionary to find out the meanings.

Exercise 3: Read the four passages (see Chapter I) and make a list of difficult words. Then use a dictionary to find out the meanings.

CHAPTER III: SPELLING PROBLEMS

There are a number of spelling rules, but each rule may have exceptions. An easy way to become a good speller is to memorise the spelling of words. Learn first the spelling of the 1671 different words, which account for 80% of the language.

Exercise 4: Fill in the blanks with a/e/i/o/u

(95% of the words that educated people misspell are in this list from Word Power Made Easy by Norman Lewis. He calls them spelling demons)

1. _ll r_ght2. c_ _lly3. s_p_rs_d_4. s_cc_ _d5. pr_c_ _d6. _xc_ _d7. pr_c_d_8. pr_c_d_r_9. st_t_ _n_ry sh_p10. st_t_ _n_ry tr_ck11. r_c_mm_nd

12. s_p_r_t_13. c_mp_r_t_v_14. _cst_sy15. _n_lys_16. p_r_lys_17. r_p_t_t__n18. _rr_t_bl_19. _n_m_t_bl_20. _bs_nc_21. s_p_r_nt_nd_nt22. c_nsc_ _nc_

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23. _n_ _nt24. r_d_c_l_ _s25. d_sp_ _r26. s_rpr_s_27. _n_c_l_t_28. d_f_n_t_ly29. pr_v_l_g_30. _nc_d_nt_lly31. pr_d_ct_bl_32. d_ss_p_t_33. d_scr_m_n_t_34. d_scr_pt_ _n35. b_ll_ _n36. _cc_rr_nc_37. tr_ly38. _rg_m_nt39. _ss_st_nt40. gr_mm_r41. p_r_ll_l42. dr_nk_nn_ss43. s_dd_nn_ss44. _mb_rr_ssm_nt45. w_ _rd46. pr_n_nc_ _t_ _n47. n_t_c_ _bl_48. d_v_l_pm_nt49. v_c_ _ _s50. _ns_st_nt51. _mb_rr_ss_ng52. _nd_sp_ns_bl_53. d_s_pp_ _r54. d_s_pp_ _nt55. c_rr_b_r_t_56. s_cr_l_g_ _ _s57. tr_nq_ _l_ty58. _xh_l_r_t_ _n59. n_wsst_nd60. l_c_nc_ 61. l_c_ns_

62. _rr_s_st_bl_63. p_rs_st_nt64. d_l_mm_65. p_rs_v_r_nc_66. _nt_l67. tyr_nn_z_68. v_c_ll_t_69. _sc_ll_t_70. _cc_mm_d_t_71. d_l_tt_nt_72. ch_ng_ _bl_73. _cc_ss_bl_74. d_s_r_bl_75. p_n_cky76. s_ _z_77. l_ _s_r_78. r_c_ _v_79. _ch_ _v_80. pr_ct_s_ 81. pr_ct_c_82. _x_st_nc_83. p_rs_ _84. p_st_m_85. p_ss_ss_s86. pr_f_ss_r87. c_t_g_ry88. rhythm_c_l89. v_c_ _m90. b_n_f_t_d91. c_mm_tt_ _92. gr_ _v_ _s93. c_nsc_ _ _s94. pl_b_ _ _n95. t_r_ff96. sh_r_ff97. c_nn_ _ss_ _r98. n_c_ss_ry99. s_rg_ _nt100. m_ssp_ll_ng

CHAPTER IV: SYLLABICATION

Syllable is the unit of utterance. Each syllable has only one vowel sound. Based on a syllabic classification, there are three types of word: monosyllabic (one syllable), disyllabic (two syllables) polysyllabic (three or more syllables). The most frequent words are easy and monosyllabic. Polysyllabic words are usually hard.

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Most problems in syllabication of the 1671 different words occur in the following list:

Exercise 5: Separate the syllables by using dots. Example: ex.am.ple

1. achievement 2. actually 3. anxious 4. basically 5. behaviour 6. business 7. certainly 8. convenient 9. discovery 10. education 11. enthusiastic 12. environment 13. especially14. everybody 15. experience 16. extraordinary 17. familiar

18. fortunately19. genuine 20. government 21. gradually 22. history 23. idea 24. immediately 25. influence 26. interesting 27. knowledge 28. language 29. material 30. medium 31. mysterious 32. necessary 33. obvious 34. official

35. previous 36. pronunciation37. quiet 38. really 39. reliable 40. science 41. seriously 42. situation 43. thorough 44. trial 45. uncomfortable 46. usually 47. valuable 48. variety 49. various 50. violence

Exercise 6: Identify the polysyllabic words in the four passages (see Chapter I)Exercise 7: Write five sentences without using a single polysyllabic wordExercise 8: Write five sentences using only monosyllabic words

CHAPTER V: PHONEMES

Phonemes are the sounds of language. Here are keyboard symbols for 24 consonants, 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels and 10 diphthongs:

Consonants: b (bee) ch (chess) d (dear) f (foot) g (go) h (hen) j (jaw) k (coronach) l (lot) m (mat) n (now) ng (sing) p (per) r (rim) s (sty) S (shell) t (toy) th (breathe) TH (breath) v (vase) w (way) y (you) z (zoo) Z (precision)

Vowels: a (mat) A (calm) e (hen) E (per) i (rim) I (bee) o (lot) aw (jaw) uh (fun) u (foot) U (shoe) ’ (ado) ai (sty) au (now) ei (way) ’u (go) e’ (fair) i’ (dear) oi (toy) u’ (cure) ai’ (mire) au’ (flower)

1. Ado (’/d/U)2. Bee (b/I)3. Calm (k/A/m)

4. Chess (ch/e/s)5. Coronach

(k/o/r/’/n/’/k)

6. Cure (k/u’/(r))7. Dear (d/i’)8. Fair (f/e’/(r))

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9. Flower (f/l/au’/(r))

10. Foot (f/u/t)11. Fun (f/uh/n)12. Go (g/’/u)13. Hen (h/e/n)14. Jaw (j/aw)15. Lot (l/o/t)16. Mat (m/a/t)

17. Mire (m/ai’)18. Now (n/au)19. Shoe (S/U)20. Sing (s/i/ng)21. Sty (s/t/ai)22. Per (p/E/(r))23. Precision

(p/r/i/c/i/Z/(’)/n)24. Rim (r/i/m)

25. Shell (S/e/l)26. Toy (t/oi)27. Breathe (b/r/I/th)28. Breath (b/r/e/TH)29. Vase (v/A/z)30. Way (w/ei)31. You (y/U)32. Zoo (z/U)

Exercise 9: Write five sentences without using tExercise 10: Represent phonemically the following words:

1. Naming 2. Yore 3. Wool 4. Charge 5. Bagged 6. Kept 7. The 8. Zoo 9. Thaw 10. Five 11. Hush12. Seizure

Exercise 11: Represent phonemically the first of the four passages (see Chapter I) Exercise 12: Read the following phonemic sentence: b/i/k/o/s o/v ’ b/U/n ’ b/I/n w/’/z b/aw/n, s/’/u b/uh/n i/t n/o/t i/n th/’ b/A/(r)/n

CHAPTER VI: MORPHEMES

The smallest unit of a word with a grammatical function is called morpheme. The basic structure of a word is prefix-root-suffix. The prefix, root and suffix are morphemes of a word. The general term for prefix or suffix is affix.

Morphemes must be seen from a productive perspective. What scholars may declare to be a morpheme may be unrecognizable to the speaker/writer. An unrecognizable root is no root at all. For example, take the word development. It may be argued that there are three legitimate morphemes: de-velop-ment. But the root velop makes no sense in English and

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speakers/writers don’t use it independently. Therefore, develop-ment has only two morphemes. Likewise, in consist resist desist insist there may appear to be two morphemes, but sist is an unrecognizable root in English. So consist resist desist insist are all mono-morphemic words.

Morphemes pose peculiar problems, which can be resolved only by paying attention to the meanings. The words to get and her are three separate morphemes, but together is two morphemes composed of to and gather with a small change in the spelling. Again, take the words counter and countermove. The word counter has many meanings. If you use it to mean someone who counts or something that counts, then count-er has two morphemes. But if you use it to mean an opposing move, then counter-move has only two morphemes and not three.

There are four types of morpheme:

1. function word (fw): in, of, this ... (free grammatical) 2. content word (cw): come, good, cat ... (free lexical)3. affix (a): -ing, in-, -ship ... (bound grammatical)4. comb. form (c): eco-, chrono-, Chino- ... (bound lexical)

The 12 most common affixes are: dis-, -ed, -es, il-, im-, in-, -ing, ir-, -ly, re-, -s and un- . These prefixes and suffixes account for 97% of prefixed words and suffixed words respectively in printed school English (from Teaching Reading Sourcebook: For Kindergarten Through Eighth Grade by Bill Honig, Linda Diamond, and Linda Gutlohn).

Guidelines for counting morphemes:

1. fw+fw = in+to = into (2 morphemes)2. fw+cw = in+come = income (2 morphemes)3. cw+cw = space+ship = spaceship (2 morphemes)4. cw+a = hard+ship = hardship (2 morphemes)5. a+cw = un+do = undo (2 morphemes)6. c+cw = eco+thought = ecothought (2 morphemes)7. Number or decimal: 357 (1 morpheme), 3.57 (2 morphemes)8. Each name of a proper name: Leela Rani (2 morphemes)9. Honorific: Dr., Mr., Mrs. (1 morpheme each)10. Symbol: @, %, & (1 morpheme each)11. Abbreviation or acronym (1 morpheme)12. Transliterated foreign word (1 morpheme)

Exercise 13: Find out the meaning of each of the affixes, compiled from Randolph Quirk & Sidney Greenbaum’s A University Grammar of English:

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1. a-2. -able3. -age4. -al5. -ant6. anti-7. arch-8. -ary9. -ate10. -ation11. -ative12. auto-13. be-14. bi-15. co-16. counter-17. de-18. di-19. Dis-20. -dom21. -ed22. -ee23. -eer24. -en25. En-26. -eous27. -er28. -(e)ry29. -ese30. -ette31. -ess32. Ex-33. -fashion34. Fore-35. -ful

36. -hood37. Hyper-38. -ial39. -(i)an40. -ible41. -ic42. -ical43. -ie44. -ify45. In-46. -ing47. Inter-48. -ious49. -ise50. -ish51. -ism52. -ist53. -ite54. -itive55. -ity56. -ive57. -ize58. -less59. -let60. -like61. -ling62. -ly63. Mal-64. -ment65. Mini-66. Mis-67. Mono-68. Multi-69. -ness70. Neo-

71. Non-72. -ocracy73. -or74. -ory75. -ous76. Out-77. Over-78. Pan-79. Poly-80. Post-81. Pre-82. Pro-83. Proto-84. Pseudo-85. Re-86. Semi-87. -ship88. -ster89. -style90. Sub-91. Super-92. Sur-93. -tion94. Trans-95. Tri-96. Ultra-97. Un- 98. Under-99. Uni-100. Vice-101. -ward(s)102. -wise103. -y

Exercise 14: Separate the morphemes (morphs) by using dashes. Example: un-like-ly

1. Peacefulness2. Thoughtlessly3. Unreadable

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4. Leadership5. Hopeful6. Equality7. Improvement8. Postdated9. Triangles10. Counterclockwise

CHAPTER VII: PHRASES

Phrase, in the broadest sense of the term, is just a group of related words.

Exercise 15: Fill each of the blanks with a suitable word

1. A _____2. A _____ ago3. A _____ in _____4. A _____ of _____5. A _____ to _____6. After _____7. _____ also _____ 8. An _____9. An _____ to _____10. And _____11. _____ and _____12. Any _____13. As _____ as _____14. As a _____15. At _____ in _____16. Be _____17. _____ be18. Because of _____19. Between _____ and _____ 20. Both _____ and _____21. By _____22. Can you _____ ?23. Come _____24. Could you _____ ?25. Day _____ day26. Do _____27. Either _____ or _____28. Even _____

29. For _____30. For a _____31. From _____32. Get a _____33. Give a _____34. Go _____ 35. Good _____36. Have a _____37. He _____38. _____ her 39. _____ him 40. His _____ 41. How are _____? 42. How is _____?43. If _____ then _____44. In a _____45. In the _____46. It is _____47. Just a _____48. Just an _____49. Know _____ 50. Like a _____51. Like a _____ in the _____52. Like a _____ on the _____53. Look ______54. Make _____55. Most _____56. Much _____

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57. Much _____ about _____58. My _____59. Neither _____ nor _____60. No _____61. Not _____62. Not a _____63. Not _____ but _____64. Not only _____ but also _____65. Nothing _____66. Nothing for _____67. Nothing to _____68. _____ of _____69. On _____70. On a _____71. _____ one72. Only _____73. _____ or _____74. Other _____75. Over the _____76. _____ out77. Say _____78. _____ see

79. So _____80. Some _____ 81. Such _____82. Take a _____83. _____ than _____84. _____that 85. Tell _____86. The _____87. The _____ of _____88. To _____89. _____ to _____90. To get _____91. _____ too92. Under the _____93. _____ up 94. Upon a _____95. _____ will _____96. With _____97. With a _____98. Would you _____ ?99. Very _____100. _____ you

CHAPTER VIII: CLAUSES

The clause may be composed of subject (S), verb (V), complement (C), adverbial (A) and object (O). The object may be direct (D) or indirect (I). The complement says something about the subject. The adverbial says something about the verb.

There are only seven clauses:

1. Eve arose. (S-V)

2. Adam was asleep. (S-V-C)3. She went for a walk. (S-V-A)4. She ate an apple. (S-V-O)5. She gave Adam a bite. (S-V-I-D)6. He tasted it happily. (S-V-O-A)7. God declared them sinners. (S-V-O-C)

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Each clause has only one finite verb — a verb that is affected by number, person and tense. Here is a simple example: I am good. The present tense verb am will be changed to is if the person I is changed to either he/she or it. Also, am will be changed to was if the past tense is required: I was good. The seven clauses are written in the past tense. They may also be written in the present tense:

1. Eve arises. 2. Adam is asleep. 3. She goes for a walk. 4. She eats an apple. 5. She gives Adam a bite. 6. He tastes it happily. 7. God declares them sinners.

Exercise 16: Write the above present tense clauses in the future tenseExercise 17: Separate the syllables of each of the present tense clauses by using slashesExercise 18: Separate the morphemes of each of the present tense clauses by using dashes Exercise 19: Represent phonemically each of the present tense clauses

If two clauses occur in a sentence, each may be independent of each other (coordination) or one may be dependent on the other (subordination). We will look at this in some detail in the next chapter.

CHAPTER IX: SENTENCES

A sentence is a group of words that make complete sense. There are three types of sentence: simple, compound and complex. If a sentence has only one clause, it is called a simple sentence. All the examples of the seven clauses in the previous chapter are simple sentences. A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses. In other words, if simple sentences are connected by conjunctions such as and because but or, it is a compound sentence. Here are some examples of compound sentences:

1. Eve arose but Adam was asleep2. She ate an apple and (She) gave Adam a bite 3. Eve arose and (She) went for a walk

The complex sentence has at least one subordinate clause. The subordinate clause can occur before or after the main clause. Here are some examples:

1. When Adam was asleep (subordinate clause), Eve went for a walk (main clause) 2. Eve went for a walk when Adam was asleep

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3. Because they ate an apple (subordinate clause), God declared them sinners (main clause)

4. God declared them sinners (main clause) because they ate an apple (subordinate clause)

Exercise 20: Count the clauses in the four passages (see Chapter I)Exercise 21: Write 5 simple sentences, 5 compound sentences and 5 complex sentences

CHAPTER X: FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR

Here are some important grammatical and punctuation rules:

1. The verb must agree with the subject in number (singular/plural) and person (first/second/third). Example: Most Russians play chess

2. The pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person, gender (common/male/female/neuter) and case (subjective/possessive/objective). Example: They (Russians) love the game so much

3. The tense of the verbs should be maintained within a sentence. Example: She went up the stage and danced / She goes up the stage and dances

4. In questions, the verb comes before the subject. Example: Are you happy?5. The list comma is used in a list. Example: I like chess, poetry, mathematics and ...6. The parenthetical comma(s) separates a parenthetical phrase/clause. Example:

Lord Buddha, according to Sir Edwin Arnold, is the light of Asia7. The imperative comma is used in the imperative sentence. Example: Johnny,

come here 8. Semicolon is used to separate clauses. Example: He likes music; she likes poetry9. The colon is used for a greater pause than a semicolon and for a lesser pause than

a full stop 10. The full stop, the question mark and the exclamation mark usually come at the

end of a sentence11. The open and the closed double quotes enclose direct speech. Example: She said:

“I think like a poet!”12. The open and the closed single quotes enclose a fragment of direct speech.

Example: She said that she thought ‘like a poet’. 13. Every sentence begins with a capital letter

Exercise 22: Fill in the blanks to make a sentence:

1. _____ are _____2. _____ can _____3. _____ could _____4. _____ do _____

5. _____ does _____6. _____ had _____7. _____ had a _____8. _____ had an _____

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9. _____ had been _____ 10. _____ has _____11. _____ has a _____12. _____ has an _____13. _____ has been _____14. _____ have _____15. _____ have a _____16. _____ have an _____17. _____ have been ____

18. _____ is _____19. _____ was _____20. _____ were _____21. _____ will _____22. _____ will be _____23. _____ will have _____24. _____ will have a _____25. _____ would _____

CHAPTER XI: USAGE AND STYLE

Not all words can be used in all contexts. Usage tells us what words are used in what context. For example, you ride a cycle but drive a car. Interchanging ride and drive would be a fault of usage.

Style is usually a question of choice. A writer may prefer British to American spelling (colour to color) or the active voice to the passive (He drove a car to A car was driven by him). But newspapers have style books, which set standards for the sake of uniformity and consistency.

Exercise 23: Edit the following sentences for grammar, style and usage:

1. The ball was passed by Ram and the goal was scored by Shyam.2. Somu, me and Ramu went to the book fair.3. In chess, poetry and mathematics lie the beauty of the intellect.4. Most people fear snakes than wolves.5. Diving into the waters, a rock hit him.6. A policeman misbehaved with a woman in a drunken state.7. The policeman apologised but it was not accepted.8. The political parties reached a consensus of opinion on the issue.9. A temple is in the process of being constructed.10. The bus capsized; the trapped passengers tried to dismount from the vehicle in

vain.11. A building was partially destroyed.12. The secretary and treasurer were absent at the meeting.13. Pele's skill is greater than Maradona.14. The queen delivered a baby.15. Lakshmanan respects his older brother.16. The female at the reception asked him to wait. 17. Lilavati was literally over the moon.18. Singh, who married in 1956, won the Nobel Prize for peace.

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19. A speeding truck hit a stationary shop.20. The panda eats, shoots and leaves.21. A woman, without her man, is nothing.22. The people in the queue who managed to get tickets were happy. 23. This is the most unkindest cut of all.24. Walking the ramp is Lilavati, who the judges crowned Miss Universe.25. Back home is Niraimathi, whom people thought would be crowned Miss World.

CHAPTER XII: THE PARAGRAPH

A paragraph is usually a sequence of sentences related to a single idea. The last paragraph of Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things has only one word Tomorrow. However, a plain paragraph can have four to six sentences. The three-sentence paragraph may have a simple structure comprising topic, development and resolution. The topic sentence introduces the subject; the development sentence takes the idea forward; and the resolution sentence makes a conclusive statement about the subject. Usually, the topic and the resolution sentences connect to the previous sentences with the help of links called transitions.

According to Anne Heisenberg in ‘Guide To Technical Editing’: “Transitions are words, phrases or sentences that provide continuity between main ideas and the development of these ideas, between sentences in paragraphs, or between paragraphs in a longer document.” According to Melvin Mencher in ‘News Reporting And Writing’: “Transitions are used after the reporter has planned his piece by blocking out the major sections. Transitions link these blocks as well as the smaller units, the sentences. Transitions are the mortar that holds the story together so that the story is a single unit.”

Mencher identifies four major types of transitions. They are 1. Pronouns (refer to nouns in previous sentences) 2. Key words and ideas (repeat words and ideas in preceding sentences and paragraphs) 3. Transitional expressions (connecting words) and 4. Parallel structure (repetition of the sentence pattern).

The most common transitions are those called transitional expressions. These may be classified under several heads: 1. Place (here, there) 2. Time (now, then) 3. Catalogue (first, last) 4. Contrast (but, instead) 5. Similarity (like, similarly) 6. Emphasis (surely, certainly) 7. Example (for instance, that is) 8. Consequence (hence, therefore); and so on.

Parallel structure is a subtle way of connecting sentences. This is done by respecting the sentence pattern. Here is Melvin Mencher’s example:

“No one dared speak in his classes. No one ventured to address him in any but the most formal manner. No one, for that matter, had the courage to ask questions in class. His lectures were non-stop monologues.”

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Even within the sentence, parallel structure must be observed. Especially when correlative conjunctions (either/or, neither/nor, both/and) are used. Anne Heisenberg says: “In parallel construction, all the items joined in a series or comparison have the same grammatical form: adjectives are linked with adjectives, prepositional phrases with prepositional phrases, infinitives with infinitives…”

Exercise 24: Identify the transitions in the four passages (see Chapter I)

CHAPTER XIII: RHYTHM

The rhythm of prose is marked by variety rather than by regularity. Rhythm is created when function words and content words come together to form a phrase. Usually, content words are stressed and function words are unstressed. Some polysyllabic words may have a primary stress and a secondary stress. Affixes are not stressed.

The unstressed syllable is ta and the stressed syllable is tum. The combination of stressed and unstressed syllables is called foot. Sometimes, a syllable may gain or lose stress. For example, take the word them. It is stressed in the phrase to them (ta-tum) but is unstressed in told them clearly (tum ta-tum-ta).

In verse, the foot may not respect word boundaries. In prose, however, a foot can only be composed of a word or words. There are four types of foot: rising (ta-tum), falling (tum-ta), galloping (ta-ta-tum) and marching (tum-ta-ta). The recurrence of any of the four feet creates rhythm. One must be guided by the ear to identify the rhythmic pattern. Here are some guidelines for prose rhythm:

1. Monosyllabic function words do not have stress 2. Monosyllabic content words have stress 3. Punctuation marks can occur only before or after a foot 4. A stressed monosyllabic word is a foot if it begins the sentence or if it is preceded

by another foot 5. Unstressed monosyllabic word(s) usually form a foot along with a following

stressed monosyllabic word (Example: for a while ta-ta-tum) or a non-monosyllabic word (Example: a rebel ta-tum-ta)

6. A word cannot be split to form another foot Let us look at a few phrases (the feet are separated by /) :

1. A season of mischief (ta-tumta / ta-tumta)2. As easy as ABC (ta-tumta / ta-tumtatum)3. Quickly run (tumta / tum)

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4. In the morning (ta-ta-tumta)5. Dark was the night (tum / ta-ta-tum)

We can also talk about the rhythm of a clause/sentence. Let us look at the rhythm of the seven clauses:

1. Eve arose. (tum / tatum)

2. Adam was asleep. (tumta / ta-tatum)3. She went for a walk. (ta-tum / ta-ta-tum)4. She ate an apple. (ta-tum / ta-tumta)5. She gave Adam a bite. (ta-tum / tumta / ta-tum)6. He tasted it happily. (ta-tumta / ta-tumtata)7. God declared them sinners. (tum / tatum / ta-tumta)

Exercise 25: Identify the rhythm of the first sentence of each of the four passages (see Chapter I) CHAPTER XIV: 1H5W QUESTIONNAIRE

The six questions that can fetch the answers we want are how what who why when where. Rudyard Kipling in Just So Stories has a song on this beginning:

I keep six honest serving men (They taught me all I knew); Their names are What and Why and WhenAnd How and Where and Who.I send them over land and sea,I send them east and west;But after they have worked for me,I give them all a rest.

Exercise 26: Respond in exactly three sentences to each of the questions in the 1H5W Questionnaire:

1. How would you like to spend a holiday?2. What are your childhood memories?3. Who are your inspirations?4. Why do we ask why?5. When do you think of your ancestors?6. Where would you like to die?

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Exercise 27: Create a different 1H5W Questionnaire

CHAPTER XV: READABILITY

William DuBay defines readability as ‘the ease of reading created by a literary style that fits the reading level of the audience’. In the U.S. and the U.K. the average audience have about eight years of schooling. So public documents, newspaper reports and features must be written at this eighth grade level. But how do we know whether a text is written at a certain level?

The Strain Index is my readability formula which measures texts on a scale of 1 to 17+ years of schooling. Let S3 be the number of syllables in three sentences. Then, Grade Level (GL) = S3/10.

Let us apply the formula on the four passages (see Chapter I).

In the first passage, S3 = 60. So, GL = 60/10 = 6 years of schooling.

In the second passage, S3 = 32. So, GL = 32/10 = 3.2 years of schooling.

In the third passage, S3 = 42. So, GL = 42/10 = 4.2 years of schooling.

In the fourth passage, S3 = 159. So, GL = 159/10 = 15.9 years of schooling.

Though all the four passages are well written, they are all written for different grade levels. Passage 2 is the easiest; a child who has about three years of schooling can understand it. The most difficult passage is the fourth, which can only be understood by post graduates.

Exercise 28: Apply the Strain Index on each of your responses to the 1H5W Questionnaire

POSSIBLE KEYS TO SOME EXERCISES

Key to Exercise 3

Here is a probable list of difficult words (meanings in brackets) from the four passages:

1. ain't (is not)2. stretched (lied)3. stretchers (lies)4. approximately (fairly correctly) 5. original (firsthand)6. Plagiarised (stolen)7. concept (abstract idea)

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8. appearance (outward form)9. implies (suggests)

Key to Exercise 4

(95% of the words that educated people misspell are in this list from Norman Lewis’s Word Power Made Easy)

1. all right2. coolly3. supersede4. succeed5. proceed6. exceed7. precede8. procedure9. stationery shop10. stationary truck11. recommend12. separate13. comparative14. ecstasy15. analyse16. paralyse17. repetition18. irritable19. inimitable20. absence21. superintendent22. conscience23. anoint24. ridiculous25. despair26. surprise27. inoculate28. definitely29. privilege30. incidentally31. predictable32. dissipate33. discriminate34. description35. balloon36. occurrence37. truly38. argument39. assistant

40. grammar41. parallel42. drunkenness43. suddenness44. embarrassment45. weird46. pronunciation47. noticeable48. development49. vicious50. insistent51. embarrassing52. indispensable53. disappear54. disappoint55. corroborate56. sacrilegious57. tranquility58. exhilaration59. newsstand60. licence 61. license 62. irresistible63. persistent64. dilemma65. perseverance66. until67. tyrannize68. vacillate69. oscillate70. accommodate71. dilettante72. changeable73. accessible74. desirable75. panicky76. seize77. leisure78. receive

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79. achieve80. practise 81. practice82. existence83. pursue84. pastime85. possesses86. professor87. category88. rhythmical89. vacuum

90. benefited91. committee92. grievous93. conscious94. plebeian95. tariff96. sheriff97. connoisseur98. necessary99. sergeant100. misspelling

Key to Exercise 5

1. a.chieve.ment 2. ac.tu.a.lly 3. anx.ious 4. ba.sic.ally 5. be.hav.iour 6. busi.ness 7. cer.tain.ly 8. con.ve.ni.ent 9. dis.cov.e.ry 10. ed.u.ca.tion 11. en.thu.si.as.tic 12. en.vi.ron.ment 13. es.pe.cial.ly14. ev.ery.bod.y 15. ex.pe.ri.ence 16. ex.traor.di.na.ry 17. fa.mil.iar

18. for.tu.nate.ly19. gen.u.ine 20. gov.ern.ment 21. grad.u.al.ly 22. history 23. i.dea 24. im.me.di.ate.ly 25. in.flu.ence 26. in.terest.ing 27. knowl.edge 28. lan.guage 29. ma.te.ri.al 30. me.di.um31. mys.te.ri.ous 32. ne.ces.sa.ry 33. ob.vi.ous 34. of.fi.cial

35. pre.vi.ous 36. pro.nun.ci.a.tion37. qui.et 38. real.ly 39. re.li.a.ble 40. sci.ence 41. se.ri.ous.ly 42. sit.u.a.tion 43. thor.ough 44. tri.al 45. un.com.fort.able 46. u.su.al.ly 47. val.ua.ble 48. va.ri.e.ty 49. var.i.ous 50. vi.o.lence

Key to Exercise 6

Polysyllabic words in the four passages:

1. adventures 2. anybody 3. another4. powerful 5. approximately

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6. original 7. plagiarised 8. rejected9. approval 10. submitted11. specified 12. accompany 13. proposal 14. declaration 15. beautiful16. character17. appearance

Key to Exercise 10

1. n/ei/m/i/ng 2. y/aw/(r) 3. w/u/l 4. ch/A/r/j 5. b/a/g/d 6. k/’/p/t 7. th/’ 8. z/U 9. TH/aw 10. f/ai/v 11. h/uh/S12. s/I/Z/’/(r)

Key to Exercise 11

1. n/a/r/’/t/i/v (f/r/’/m m/A/k t/w/ei/n/s h/’/k/l/b/e/r/i f/i/n)

y/U d/’/u/n/t n/’/u ’/b/au/t m/i w/i/th/au/t y/U h/a/v r/e/d ’/ b/u/k b/ai th/’ n/ei/m ’/v th/’ ’/d/v/e/n/t/ch/’/(r)/s ’/v t/o/m s/aw/y/’; b/uh/t TH/a/t e/i/n/t n/’/u m/a/t/’. TH/a/t b/u/k w/’/z m/ei/d b/ai m/i/s/t/’ m/A/k t/w/ei/n, ’/n/d h/i t/’/u/l/d th/’ t/r/u/th, m/ei/n/l/i. th/’/r w/’/z TH/i/ng/s w/i/ch h/’ s/t/r/e/ch/d, b/’/t m/ei/n/l/y h/i t/’/u/l/d th/’ t/r/u/TH. TH/a/t i/z n/uh/TH/i/ng. ai/ n/e/v/’ s/I/n e/n/i/b/o/d/i b/’/t l/ai/d w/’/n t/ai/m/ ’/(r) ’/n/uh/th/’, w/i/TH/au/t i/t w/’/s A/n/t p/o/l/i, ’/r th/’ w/i/d/’/u, ’/r m/ei/b/i m/ei/r/i. A/n/t p/o/l/i – t/o/m/s A/n/t p/o/l/i, S/’ i/z – ’/n/d m/ei/r/i, ’/n/d th/’ w/i/d/’/u

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d/uh/g/l/e/s i/z A/l t/’/u/l/d ’/b/au/t i/n TH/a/t b/u/k, w/i/ch i/z m/’/u/s/t/l/i ’ t/r/u b/u/k, w/i/th s/uh/m s/t/r/e/t/ch/’/r/s, ’/z ai s/e/d b/i/f/’/o.

Key to Exercise 12

Because of a boon a bean was born, so burn it not in the barn. (A mnemonic to remember all the five long vowels of English: boon, bean, born, burn, barn)

Key to Exercise 14

1. Peace-ful-ness2. Thought-less-ly3. Un-read-able4. Lead-er-ship5. Hope-ful6. Equal-ity7. Im-prove-ment8. Post-date-d9. Tri-angle-s10. Counter-clock-wise

Key to Exercise 15

1. A girl2. A day ago3. A boy in school4. A cup of icecream5. A time to study6. After lunch7. We also dream 8. An apple9. An island to show10. And banana11. Ramu and Somu12. Any thing13. As well as you14. As a doctor15. At home in Chennai16. Be aware17. May be

18. Because of you19. Between you and me 20. Both A and B21. By me22. Can you swim?23. Come here24. Could you help ?25. Day by day26. Do it27. Either you or me28. Even then29. For example30. For a favour31. From tomorrow32. Get a pen33. Give a book34. Go ahead

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35. Good time36. Have a chocolate37. He did38. Trust her 39. To him 40. His things 41. How are you? 42. How is Charumathi?43. If this then that44. In a box45. In the news46. It is nice47. Just a minute48. Just an apple49. Know something 50. Like a plant51. Like a bird in the nest52. Like a flower on the tree53. Look beautiful54. Make something55. Most important56. Much needed57. Much ado about nothing58. My pencil59. Neither you nor me60. No time61. Not yet62. Not a thing63. Not Ramu but Meenu64. Not only he but also me65. Nothing there66. Nothing for you67. Nothing to eat

68. Full of books69. On time70. On a run71. No one72. Only thing73. One or two74. Other than75. Over the hill76. Watch out77. Say something78. I see79. So what80. Some place 81. Such ideas82. Take a break83. better than more84. See that 85. Tell me86. The house87. The way of reading88. To come89. Way to go90. To get some91. Me too92. Under the table93. Come up 94. Upon a time95. I will play96. With peace97. With a snack98. Would you sing ?99. Very good100. Thank you

Key to Exercise 16

1. Eve will arise.

2. Adam will be asleep. 3. She will go for a walk.

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4. She will eat an apple. 5. She will give Adam a bite. 6. He will taste it happily. 7. God will declare them sinners.

Key to Exercise 17

1. Eve/ a/ri/ses. 2. A/dam/ was/ a/sleep. 3. She/ goes/ for/ a/ walk. 4. She/ eats/ an/ ap/ple.5. She/ gives/ A/dam/ a/ bite.6. He/ tastes/ it/ hap/pi/ly.7. God/ declares/ them/ sin/ners.

Key to Exercise 18

1. Eve a-rise-s. 2. Adam was a-sleep. 3. She go-es for a walk. 4. She eat-s an apple.5. She give-s Adam a bite.6. He taste-s it happi-ly.7. God declare-s them sinn-er-s.

Key to Exercise 19

1. I/v/ ’r/ai/s/’/s.

2. ’/d/’/m w/’/z ’/s/l/I/p. 3. S/i g/’/u/s f/o ’ w/A/k. 4. S/i I/t/s ’/n a/p/l.5. S/i g/i/v/s ’/d/’/m ’ b/ai/t.6. h/i t/ei/s/t/s i/t h/a/p/i/l/i.7. g/o/d d/i/k/l/’/r/s th/’/m s/i/n/’/r/s.

Key to Exercise 20

1. Narrative (15 clauses)2. Informative (7 clauses)3. Imperative (10 clauses)4. Persuasive (18)

Key to Exercise 22

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1. We are playing2. They can win3. She could sing4. We do talk5. That does it6. I had something7. They had a chocolate8. We had an icecream9. I had been there 10. It has nothing11. Anuja has a talent12. She has an imagination13. It has been good14. I have everything15. They have a bag

16. I have an idea17. I have been studying18. This is nice19. That was good20. They were here21. I will win22. It will be great23. People will have courage24. Dog will have a bone25. That would do

Key to Exercise 23

1. Ram passed the ball and Shyam scored the goal.2. Somu, Ramu and I went to the book fair.3. In chess, poetry and mathematics lies the beauty of the intellect.4. Most people fear snakes more than wolves.5. Diving into the waters, he hit a rock.6. A drunken policeman misbehaved with a woman.7. The policeman apologised but the apology was not accepted.8. The political parties reached a consensus on the issue.9. A temple is being constructed.10. The bus overturned; the trapped passengers tried to get off the vehicle in vain.11. A part of the building was destroyed.12. The secretary and the treasurer were absent at the meeting.13. Pele's skill is greater than Maradona’s.14. The queen was delivered of a baby.15. Lakshmanan respects his elder brother.16. The receptionist asked him to wait. 17. Lilavati was over the moon.18. Singh won the Nobel Prize for peace.19. A truck hit a stationery shop.20. The panda eats shoots and leaves.21. A woman: without her, man is nothing.22. The people who managed to get tickets were happy.

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23. This is the unkindest cut of all.24. Walking the ramp is Lilavati, whom the judges crowned Miss Universe.25. Back home is Niraimathi, who people thought would be crowned Miss World.

Key to Exercise 24 (transitions)

1. Narrative (from Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn)

Second sentence: book (first sentence: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer)

Third sentence: stretched (second sentence: truth)

Fourth sentence: that (third sentence: stretched)

Fifth sentence: lied (fourth sentence: that (third sentence: stretched))

Sixth sentence: Aunt Polly (fifth sentence: Aunt Polly)

2. Informative (from Manuel Aaron’s Begin Chess)

Second sentence: piece (first sentence: piece)

Third sentence: pieces (second sentence: piece)

Fourth sentence: Bishop and knight (third sentence: pieces)

Fifth sentence: both (fourth sentence: bishop and knight)

Sixth sentence: Bishops and knights (fifth sentence: both (fourth sentence: bishop and knight))

3. Imperative (from Project Work Guidelines)

Second sentence: projects (first sentence: project)

Third sentence: approval (first sentence: project)

Fourth sentence: progress reports (third sentence: project)

Fifth sentence: project report (third sentence: project)

Sixth sentence: forms (fifth sentence: project proposal)

4. Persuasive (from Tolstoy’s What is Art?)

Second sentence: so (first sentence: beautiful / good)

Third sentence: good / beautiful (third sentence: good / beautiful)

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Key to Exercise 25

You don't know (ta-ta-tum) about me (ta-tum-ta) without (ta-tum) you have read (ta-ta-tum) a book (ta-tum) by the name (ta-ta-tum) of 'The Adventures (ta-ta-ta-tum-ta) of Tom (ta-tum) Sawyer' (tum-ta); but that ain't (ta-ta-tum) no matter (ta-tum-ta).

The most (ta-tum) powerful (ta-tum-ta) piece (tum) in chess (ta-tum) is the Queen (ta-ta-tum).

The project (ta-tum-ta) must be (ta-tum ) an original (ta-ta-tum-ta-ta) work (tum) of the student (ta-ta-tum-ta).

A man (ta-tum), a horse (ta-tum), a house (ta-tum), a view (ta-tum), a movement (ta-tum-ta) may be beautiful (ta-ta-tum-ta-ta), but of actions (ta-ta-tum-ta), thoughts (tum), character (ta-tum-ta), music (tum-ta), we may say(ta-ta-tum) they are good (ta-ta-tum), if we like (ta-ta-tum) them (tum) very much (ta-ta-tum), or not good (ta-ta-tum), if we (ta-tum) do not like (ta-ta-tum) them (tum); we can say (ta-ta-tum) ‘beautiful’ (tum-ta-ta) only (tum-ta) of what (ta-tum) is pleasing (ta-tum-ta) to our sight (ta-ta-tum).

Key to Exercise 27

1. How can we gain perfect knowledge?2. What are your childhood dreams?3. Who is a true friend?4. Why should we work?5. When do you feel bored?6. Where would you like to live?

nirmaldasan home page: http://www.angelfire.com/nd/nirmaldasan

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