*Memory

*Atkinson Shiffrin model memory

*Sensory memory

*Iconic – Visual (1/4 - 1 of a second)

*After images

*Echoic – Auditory (up to 2 - 3 seconds)

*Short Term Memory

*Maintaince Rehearsal – extra 20 - 30 seconds (restart)

*George Miller – Magic #7

*Chunking – ICA, BFI = CIA, FBI

*Mnemonic Decices – Never Eat Soggy Waffles

*Long Term Memory

* Episodic - Memory of own life experiences

* (autobiographical)

*Semantic – General knowledge

* Encyclopedia – Christmas = Dec 25th

*Procedural – Learned skill that does not require conscious recollection

* Tying a tie

*Ride a bike

*Declarative memory – factual info

* Knowledge called forth consciously as needed

* i.e.; names, dates, faces, events, concepts, ideas

* Implicit v. Explicit

* Implicit – don’t realize your washing the floor

* Don’t need to be taught, just watched

* Explicit – conscious facts events (declarative)

*Retrieval

*Recall v. Recognition

*Recall – Essay

*Recognition – Multiple Choice

*Ebbinghaus – forgetting curve

*Serial Position Effect – beginning of a list, end of a list is what you remember

*Primacy

*Recency

* Long-Term Potentiation

*Repeated firing strengthens neural connection

*Retrieval

*Tip-of-the-tounge Phenomenon

*Retrieval error

*Flashbulb memory

* when you are trying to remember something and then it “all of a sudden comes to you.”

*Mood-congruent memory

*Not only store the memory of the event, but the feeling you had when it happened

*State-dependent memory

*Retrieval is easiest when in the same state of mind when material was learned.

*Forgetting

*Retroactive interference

* Remember new, interfere old

*Proactive interference

*Remember old, forget new

*Anterograde Amnesia

*Hippocampal damage

*No new memories

*Organization of Memory

* Schema – conceptual framework

* i.e.; elementary school teacher

*Clustering – Long-term version of Chunking

*Conceptual hierarchy

* Semantic Network

* Specific nodes

* Red -> Fire Engine -> Apple (Tangents)

* I.e.; Kim Peek

*Connectionist Model

* Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)

* Different places in the brain fire at once

* You see a picture – multiple places light up in the brain (PET Scan)

Study how our behaviors and thoughts change over our entire lives, from birth to death

*Developmental Psychology

*Nature v. Nurture

*Nature – genetic factors

*Nurture – environmental factors

*Research Methods

*Cross-sectional

*Uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the life span.

* i.e.; 5 – 10, 10 – 20, 20 – 30, 30 – 40

*Quick results, but historical events/culture trends may effect results

*Longitudinal research

* Takes place over a lengthy period of time

*One group of participants

*Advantage of measuring the effects of development on specific group

* Problem – time consuming

*Motor/Sensory Development

*Reflexes – specific, inborn, automatic responses to certain specific stimuli (the following will disappear over time in adulthood)

*Rooting reflex – touch check, baby turns their head in direction of touch to put whatever in their mouth

*Sucking reflex – object in babies mouth infant will suck (combo of rooting/sucking – help babies learn to eat)

*Grasping reflex – Object placed into baby’s palm/foot pad baby will try to grasp

*Moro reflex – when startled baby will fling limbs out and slowly pull back in

*Babinski reflex – baby’s foot stroked, toes will spread

*Motor Development

*Roll @ 5 ½ months old

*Stand @ 8 – 9 months old

*Walk by themselves @ 15 months old

*Parenting: Attachment

Theory

*Attachment – reciprocal relationship between caregiver and child

*Harry Harlow (Monkeys)

*2 artificial wire frame figures resemble mother

*One had a bottle

*Other was wrapped in soft material

*Monkey preferred – soft material

* Importance of physical comfort

*Deprivation of not being with real mother led to distressed monkeys when put in new surrondings.

*Parenting: Attachment

Theory

*Mary Ainsworth (humans) – strange situation: parents left them alone for a short period of time then returned

*Secure attachments – 66% participants confidently explore when parent present, distressed when they leave, come to parents when they return

*Avoidant attachment – 21% participants may resist parents and explore, do not go to parents for comfort upon return from absence

*Anxious/ambivalent attachment (resistant attachment) – 12% participants show extreme stress when parent gone, resistant when they return

*Parenting Style

*Authoritarian parent – set strict standards for child’s behavior, apply punishment for violations of rules

*Obedience valued more than discussion of what went wrong

*Grounded without explanation

*Permissive parents – do not set clear guidelines for their children (Regina George) Rules change, not enforced

*Come in late – parents reaction unpredictable

*Child – emotional control problems/dependent

*Authoritative parents – set consistent standards for their children's behavior, standards are reasonable/explained

*Encourage independence but not past the point of violating rules

*Stage Theories

*Continuity – develop continually – steadfast rate from birth to death

*Vygotsky – ZPD

*Discontinuity – in fits and starts with some periods of rapid development some with relatively little change

*Stage theories (Freud/Erikson)

*Freud: Psychosexual

Stages

*Oral – (Birth – 1.5) infant seeks pleasure through mouth

* People fixated might: overeat, smoke, dependence on things and others

*Anal Stage (1.5 o 2.5) – toilet training

* Retentive – controlling

* Expulsive – out of control

* Phallic Stage (2.5 – 6) – realize their gender

* Oeidpus complex

* Electra complex

* Take on morals, values of parents

*Genital Stage – (6 to adolescents)

* Latency stage – period of calm (may be seen as apart of Genital stages)

* 6 -12 low levesl of psychosexual anxiety

* Adolescents – seek marriage partner

*Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Stage Theory

* Trust v. Mistrust

* Babies Needs fulfilled – trust provider or not?

* Request (crying) = help (Trust)

*Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt

* Autonomy our control over own body (potty training, temper)

* “NO” = control

* Initiative v. Guilt

* “No” to “Why?”

* Children want to understand the world – problem solving (ask many questions)

* If met we feel comfortable sharing out thoughts, if not we feel guilty about asking questions and avoid doing so

* Industry v. Inferiority

* Preschool – Kindergarten

* First time evaluated – if we feel good or as good as the person next to us solving math problems we feel competent

* Inferiority complex arises when we fail to reach standards

*Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Stage Theory

* Identity v. Confusion

*Discover what social ID we are most comfortable with

* Try to fit in groups, find you . . . If not identity crisis

* Intimacy v. Isolation

* Young adults balance their ties and efforts between work (careers, school, self-improvement) and relationships with others

* Platonic/romantic relationship

*Generativity v. Stagnation

* Look critically at life path, create type of life we want for ourselves and family

*We want our lives to go the way we want them to

* If not we try and change our ID, or control others around us

* Integrity v. Despair

* Look back at accomplishment decide if we are satisfied with them or not offer wisdom from stressors in life

*Cognitive Development: Jean

Piaget

*Piaget noted that children of roughly same age almost give similar answers on IQ

*Assimilation – incorporate our experiences into these existing schemata

*Accommodate

*Schema – conceptual frame work

*Example:

*A child seeing a zebra for the first time and calling it a horse. The child assimilates this information into her schema for a horse. When the child accommodates information, she takes into consideration the different properties of a zebra compared to a horse, perhaps calling a zebra a horse with stripes. When she eventually learns the name of zebra, she has accommodated this information

*Jean Piaget

*Sensorimotor Stage (birth to approx 2 years old)

*Babies explore through senses, which is governed by reflex's we are born with. Soon we develop cognitive schemata to explain the world we experience through senses

*Object permanence – Babies at first do not realize that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sensory range. When babies realize things still exist even if out of sight they have achieved Object Permanence.

*Preoperational Stage (2 years old to approx 7)

*Use symbols to represent real-world objects. Beginning of language most important development.

*Egocentric – Look at world only through their eyes.

*Jean Piaget

*Concrete Operations (8 years old to approx 12)

*Learn to think logically about complex relationships between different characteristics of objects.

*Conservation – realization that properties of objects remain the same even when their shapes change.

*Formal Operations (12 years old through adulthood)

*Not all of us reach formal operations in all areas of thought

*Formal operational reasoning is abstract reasoning

* i.e; hypothesis testing

* i.e.; “how would you be different if you were born on a planet that had no light?”

*Metacognition – ability to think about the way we think

*Information-Processing Model

*Information-processing model – ability to memorize, interpret, and perceive gradually develop as we age rather than developing in distinct stages

*i.e.; attention span grows as we get older

*Moral Development:

Lawrence Kohlberg

*Kohlberg – out ability to reason about ethical situations changes over time.

*Heinz dilemma – moral choice about whether to steal a drug he cannot afford in order to save his wife’s life.

*3 Levels:

* Preconventional

* Conventional

* Postconventional

*Lawrence Kohlberg

* Preconvetional

* Decision making focused on avoiding punishment

* Limited to see how it only affects themselves

* i.e.; Heinz should not steal the drug because he might get caught and put into prison

* Conventional

* Moral choice through other’s eyes

* Make choices based on how others will view them

* Follow rules they have learned to be seen as good

* i.e.; Heinz should steal the drug because then he could save his wife and people would think of him as a hero

* Postconventional

* Moral reasoning

* Examines the rights and values involved in the choice, self-defined ethical principles . . . Personal conviction to uphold justice.

* Do not blindly follow societies rules

* i.e.; Heinz should steal the drug because his wife’s right to life outweighs the store owner’s right o personal property

*Carol Gilligan

*Gender differences in Kohlberg’s study

*Boys have a more black/white view girls pay more attention to situational factors

*Just a theory, not proven