INSTANT REPLAY TELEVISION AS A METHOD FOR

TEACHING CERTAIN PHYSICAL ASPECTS

OF CHORAL CONDUCTING

APPROVED:

Graduate Committee

/]

i'tcU Major Profes&or rf

Minor Professor

• —

Commit toe Member

Committee Member

4 At. c/-w.

Dean of the School of Educrtio

Dean of the Gr rad«ale School V

INSTANT REPLAY TELEVISION AS A METHOD FOR

TEACHING CERTAIN PHYSICAL, ASPECTS

OF CHORAL CONDUCTING

DISSERTATION

Presented to the Graduate Council oi' the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

By

John R. Hunter, B. S., M. A,

Denton, Texas

August, 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. . . vi

Chapte r

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem Hypotheses Definition of Terms The Experiment Limitations of the Study Background and Significance of the Study Current Practices in Teaching Conducting Summary Organization of the Report

I I . TELEVISION IN EDUCATION • 22

Educational Television Instructional Television

Course Content Teacher Training Teacher In-service Training

Television in Athletics Commercial Television Television and Learning Theory Problems S umma ry

III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES 40

The Population Equipment Used in the Experiment Disposition of the Television Equipment Control of Variables Selection of Groups Selection-of Music

H i

Selection of Adjudicators Experimental Design Summary

IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA 54

Reliability of the Adjudicators' Evaluations Pre-instruction Statistical Equality

Between Groups Hypotheses Suramary

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . 65

Summary Conclusions Recommendations

APPENDICES . ' 75

BIBLIOGRAPHY 81

1 V

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

I. Frequency of Instructional Methods 16

II. Composition Assignment Frequencies 50

III. Raw Score Evaluations of Nine Subjects by Three Judges 55

IV. Rank Order of Nine Subjects Established by Conversion of Raw Scores 56

V. Means, Mean Difference, Standard Deviations, and t_ Value of the Mean Difference Between the Experimental Group and the Control Group on the Pre-instruction Videotape Recording 57

VI. Means, Mean Differences, Standard Deviations, and _t Values of the Mean Differences Between the Experimental Group and the Control Group in the Nine Areas of Evaluation Derived from the Post-instruction Videotape Recording. . 59

VII. Means, Mean Difference, Standard Deviations, and t_ Value of the Mean Difference Between the Experimental Group and the Control Group on the Post-instruction Videotape Recording. . 62

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Frequency Curves for Data of Table I 17

2. Customary and Altered Three Beat Patterns in Conducting 34

3. The Physical Distribution of Television Equipment During the Experimental Class Sessions 43

v 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Skill in conducting is a primary requirement of all pro-

spective music educators; consequently, the student majoring

in music education must undergo rigorous training in the tech-

niques of conducting. He must pass a conducting proficiency

examination prior to graduating with a bachelor's degree, and

he is given many opportunities to improve his conducting abil-

ities during practice-teaching experiences. However, in spite

of the emphasis placed on the development of conducting skills,

few students master the conductor's problem of communication

to a degree considered more than adequate. Students are con-

stantly being apprised that, while their performance medium is

either vocal or instrumental, most of their public appearances

will be in the professional capacity of a conductor. Only a

very small percentage of musicians are able to make their pro-

fessional livelihood singing or playing a musical instrument.

The vast majority will make most of their public appearances

representing a school system as conductors of performing

groups. It is quite often that through their ability and

effort as conductors an entire school system may be evaluated.

Therefore, it is imperative that all music students, even

those planning a professional career centered on performance,

be accomplished in all aspects of conducting.

Instructors of conducting classes have used various tech-

niques and methods to help students see themselves as group

motivators, directly responsible for the musical results at-

tained. The traditional methods of instruction in conducting

have been basically

1. teacher-to-stud en t. criticism,

2. student-to-student criticism^

3. student self-criticism through the mirrored image,

4. direct, manipulation of the student's arm by the

teacher.

These methods have proved only partially successful., and any

new technique that could lead to a greater degree of success

would be looked upon favorably by most conducting teachers.

Statement of the Problem

The problem of this study was to determine the effective-

ness of instant replay television as a method for teaching

certain physical aspects of choral conducting to undergraduate

college or university students majoring in music education.

The sub-problem was to determine the effectiveness of instant

replay television as a method for teaching each of nine spe-

cific techniques of conducting. Those basic techniques were

1. preparatory beat,

2. basic beat movement,

3. dynamic indication,

4. cueingi

5. independence of hands,

6. cut-offs,

7. use of face and e y e s s

8. posture,

9. atterstion to musical detail.

The nature of the problem, to determine the value of a

new teaching aid, indicated an experimental approach: the

comparing of matched groups. One group would be designated

a s Experiment a 1 arid would be instructed using television.

The second group would be designated as Control and would

receive conventional instruction.

Hypo t he s e s

The nine specific areas of conducting stated in the

problem provided the hypotheses to be tested in this study.

The summation of these nine areas provided the hypothesis for

overall achievement. The following hypotheses were tested.

1. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency

of preparatory beat.

2. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency

of basic beat patterns.

3. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental, and Control groups in proficiency

of dynamic indication.

4. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency

of cueing.

5. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency

of independence of hands.

6. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency

of cut-offs.

7. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in proficiency

of facial communication.

8. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in appropriate-

ness of posture.

9. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in attention to

musi cal detai1.

10. There will be no significant difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups in overall level

of achievement in conducting techniques.

Definition of Terms

It is desirable to define certain terms which are used

in this study. The meanings stated below should help prevent

confusion of interpretation.

1. The phrase instant replay television refers to the

electronic device that can record and immediately replay both

picture and sound from the same video tape.

2. The term experimental variable refers to the one

planned difference in instruction of the subjects in the

Experimental group, instant replay television, from the sub-

jects in the Control group.

3. The term video tape refers to the recording tape

itself. It is this tape which receives and stores the mag-

netic impulses provided by the videotape recorder.

4. For the purposes of this study, the word videotape*

is synonymous with instant replay television.

5. The word adjudicators refers to the judges who

participated in the experiment.

6. The word a d.j ud i ca t i o n refers to the act of viewing

and evaluating the video tapes of the pre- and post-instruc-

tion conducting of all subjects involved in the experiment.

7. The word effectiveness refers to the degree of dif-

ference between the Experimental and Control groups (as the

*The word videotape is occasionally seen as video-tape although the majority of the literature uses the non-hyphenated version. Hereafter, the non-hyphenated word will be used in this study.

result of the adjudication of the post-instruction recordings)

that could be attributed to instant replay television instruc-

tion.

It is also desirable, for the purpose of clarity, to

define the nine specific areas of conducting techniques that

are stated in the problem and included in the hypotheses.

Those definitions appear below.

1 • Preparato ry beat.--The movement of the hand and arm

immediately prior to the first entrance of the ensemble or

the accompaniment.

Basic beat movement.--The prescribed movement of the

hands and arms in units of two, three, four, or more points

o f s t re s s .

3. Dynamic indication.--The use of hands, arms, and

body to evoke different levels of loudness or softness.

4 . Cueing .--The use of the hands or the head to indi-

cate specific entrances of individuals or groups.

5. Independence o f hands.--The ability to move one hand

in a way unrelated to the movement of the other hand.

Cut-off.--The hand movement which leads to cessation

of sound at the end of a phrase or a composition. '

7 • Use of face and e ye s.--The ability to use facial

expres sions to indicate mood, feeling, or temper of a com-

position.

Posture.--The ability to conduct with a singing

stance without excessive or detractive movement.

Attention to mus i cal detail.--The consumation of the

conductor's entire training and musical experience including

all aspects of a musical performance.

The Experiment

The beginning conducting class at North Texas State

University was selected as the group to take part in the

experiment because enrollment was large enough to allow

dividing the class into two groups for experimental treat-

ment. Because of the unusual distribution of voices it was

necessary to use both randomizing and equating to place the

subjects in different groups. Sopranos, because of their

greater number, were randomly assigned. Altos, tenors, and

basses, because of their smaller number, were equated. A

detailed explanation of this procedure is given in Chapter III

Both the Experimental and Control groups were taught by

the same teacher as part of his regular teaching assignment.

All subjects met for a pre-instruction videotape recording of

each individual conducting "America." The Experimental and

Control groups were then separated for a period of ten weeks.

During this time the Experimental group was taught with the

addition of instant replay television, while the Control

group was taught by conventional instruction.

The ten-week period of experimental instruction was

long enough to allow each subject in each group to conduct

an assigned composition and to receive individual instruction.

8

At the conclusion of the experimental period, all subjects in

both groups met for a post-instruction videotape recording.

Pre- and post-instruction tapes of each subject were

viewed and evaluated by three adjudicators to determine the

extent of improvement between groups. The results of the

adjudication were tabulated and evaluated by the _t test for

the significance of the difference between the means. The

results and analysis of these data are given in Chapter IV.

Limitations of the Study

Becoming a competent conductor requires development in

many areas of musicality. For the purpose of this study,

most of those areas were considered to be outside the scope

of the experiment because the immediate replay aspect of the

experimental design could not be utilized. Specifically

those areas eliminated from the study were

1. knowledge of the literature,

2. rehearsal techniques,

3 . a c o u s t i c s ,

4. techniques of vocal production,

5. program building,

6. musical analysis.

Further, students with considerable conducting and/or teaching

experience could not be included in the study for the follow-

ing reasons:

1. T h e i r c o n d u c t i n g a b i l i t y w o u l d p r o b a b l y be' c o n s i d e r -

a b l y a d v a n c e d o v e r the a v e r a g e b e g i n n i n g c o n d u c t i n g s t u d e n t ,

m a k i n g a n a l y s i s of c o m p a r a t i v e i m p r o v e m e n t d i f f i c u l t .

2. An a d v a n c e d c o n d u c t o r w o u l d p r o b a b l y m a k e i m p r o v e -

m e n t in c o n d u c t i n g t e c h n i q u e s in a m i n u s c u l e w a y r a t h e r than

in the m a x i m a l w a y e x p e c t e d of b e g i n n e r s .

3. An a d v a n c e d or e x p e r i e n c e d c o n d u c t o r is f r e q u e n t l y

u n a b l e or u n w i l l i n g to c h a n g e his c o n d u c t i n g b e c a u s e of the

s t r e n g t h s of p r e v i o u s l y held h a b i t s or b e l i e f s .

B e c a u s e of the f o r e g o i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s the f o l l o w i n g

l i m i t a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d :

1. O n l y that a s p e c t of the c o u r s e c o n t e n t of M u s i c 381

that c o n c e r n e d the a c t u a l p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s of c o n d u c t i n g

was e v a l u a t e d .

2. O n l y t h o s e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s r e g u l a r l y e n r o l l e d

in M u s i c 3 8 1 , B e g i n n i n g C o n d u c t i n g , at N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e

U n i v e r s i t y in the fall of 1 9 6 7 w e r e i n c l u d e d in the s t u d y .

B a c k g r o u n d and S i g n i f i c a n c e of the S t u d y

W h e n an i n d i v i d u a l scans the l i t e r a t u r e that calls a t -

t e n t i o n to the w e a k n e s s e s i n h e r e n t in c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s of

t e a c h i n g c o n d u c t i n g , it is o b v i o u s that n e w m e t h o d s are

n e e d e d . E c k e r (7), D a h l i n (5), and R a s m u s s e n (12) all i d e n -

t i f y the p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in t e a c h i n g c o n d u c t i n g and o f f e r

s u g g e s t i o n s for t h e i r a l l e v i a t i o n . T h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s i n v o l v e

the r e s t r u c t u r i n g of e x i s t i n g t e c h n i q u e s and do not o f f e r

10

anything truly new. There simply was not anything new to

suggest.

The past president of the Music Educators National

Conference, Paul Van Bodegraven (1, p. 32), writing in the

Music Education Source Book, says, "Another course which

does not achieve its purpose is the course in conducting."

Matthews (9, p. 10) says, "The need for the improvement of

collegiate instruction in school music conducting initiated

this study." This present study was initiated by the same

prevailing need.

Recent technological advances have placed a great variety

of television equipment within the reach of all colleges and

universities and many secondary and elementary, schools. With-

in the past two years the number of manufacturers of this type

of product have greatly increased, and, in some instances, the

competition has resulted in lowering of prices (15). Other

manufacturers have concentrated on increasing the number of

special features that add to the versatility of the equipment

(15). With an ever-increasing variety of television recorders

available at a wide range of prices, there is no necessity

for any school to be without a videotape device. Current

uses of videotaping equipment in education are presented in

Chapter II.

Because of the newness of instant replay television in

education, there are no experimental studies which treat the

use of videotaping as a method of teaching the performing

II

arts. Cyphert and Andrews (3, p. 1069) say, "The unavail-

ability of reports of research represents a problem to

scholars in this field." The few articles that are avail-

able give the results in the form of personal opinion with-

out any statistical treatment to validate their statements.

The initial trend in the use of television in education

was toward closed circuit teaching and programmed learning.

Follis (8), in TV. Taping : A_ R e w a r d 1 n g and Remarkable Depar-

ture, explains the closed circuit arrangement in his school

system and cites the improYemeni of instruction and greater

retention of knowledge by the students. Nasca, in Science

Recall and Closed Circuit Instruction, also finds a signifi-

cant improvement in retention of knowledge in chemistry and

physics (11).

Woo ten (18j p. 472), writing in the MENC Source Book III,

s ays,

Television is a wonderful medium which can bring small details clearly and sharply to each child and also give unusual stress to important facts. The isolation of musical themes, phrases, or a single complex rhythm pattern on a cartridge tape is a bless-ing of the medium.

The substance of two recent articles indicates the ex-

pansion of closed circuit television in the public schools:

1. North Highlands Regional High School in Allendale,

New Jersey, recently installed a system which permi. ts the use

of any one of seventy-nine locations throughout the building

as a studio simply by plugging in portable equipment.

12

2. Closed circuit instruction has been used extensively

at the elementary and secondary levels in the schools of Pago

Pago in the Samoan Islands (13).

Extensive use of videotaping in industry is exemplified

by Texas Instruments, Incorporated, of Dallas, Texas, which

uses videotape recordings to describe new products and methods

of technology to its widespread offices and sales engineers

force. So successful has this been that, in cooperation with

Austin College, Sherman, Texas, Texas Instruments is extending

a circuit to its Sherman plant from the network of The Asso-

ciation for Graduate Education and Research of North Texas.

Originating programs will come from Southern Methodist Univer-

sity, Dallas; Texas Christian University, Fort Worth; the

Southwest Center for Advanced Studies, Dallas; and the Uni-

versity of Dallas. Initial course offerings will emphasize

advanced undergraduate and graduate work in science and

engineering. A unique feature will be the use of a two-way

system. "All the TV classrooms will have a 'talk-back' fea-

ture so that the student can talk through a push-botton phone

to the teacher in Fort Worth or Dallas" (16, Sec. D, p. 4).

Self-realization, in the frame of reference of conduc-

ting, involves the ability of the conductor to see himself as

he is and to realize a better conducting technique. This

involves two definitions of the word realization as it pertains

to self: "1. The act of realizing . . , 4. The conversion

13

into fact or action of plans, ambitions, fears, etc." (14,

p. 1121). A study closely related to this important concept

was one made by McDaniel and Filiatreau (10) in A Comparison

o f Televis ion an d Conventional In struct!on a s Determinants

of Attitude Change. The researchers found that carefully

programmed tapes can indeed produce a desired attitude change

more quickly than conventional instruction,, This ability to

change attitudes has a significant bearing on the ability of

a conductor to communicate. A conductor must be aware of his

weaknesses and strengths (and his attitudes toward those

weaknesses and strengths--self-realization) before he generates

the desire to improve his communication with the performing

ensemble. An individual will even reject the criticism of a

teacher because he does not comprehend it as justifiable. If

the cause of the criticism can be illustrated graphically via

television, it could conceivably cause a restructuring of his

attitudes.

There is a study currently underway at the University of

Denver which illustrates the widely divergent paths video-

taping has taken in research. Loring (6) is utilizing video-

tape recordings to analyze a baby's reaction to being ap-

proached at different rates of speed from different directions

and distances.

In the field of music, Daellenbach (4, p. 26), writing

in The Instrumentalist, gives a resume' of the uses to which

14

they put their videotape recorder at the Eastman School of

Music and finds it particularly adaptable to classes in

conducting.

Using the video-tape recorder for conducting classes has also proven successful. Again, the student gets a chance to observe himself conduct as a first violinist would, or a percussionist, or a bassist, or even a member of the audience. It becomes possible for everyone in the class to see the student conducting from all angles. To see what kinds of patterns and •gestures produce r e s u l t s — a n d what often brings on musical disaster--is highly beneficial. Development of conducting poise and left hand facility are achieved much more rapidly when we are able to do more for the student than just describe verbally what he did incor-rectly. Examples of fine conducting are brought into the classroom on video-tape from a variety of sources such as local schools and our own ensemble department. These examples are analyzed and discussed by the stu-dents. We have had the textbook with its conducting patterns and score examples, but now we can bring the printed patterns and notes to life, providing excellent models for the students.

A second report from Eastman School of Music, in the Music

Educators Journal (18), gives much of the same information

without further development or elaboration.

Current Practices in Teaching Conducting

A survey of teaching practices in conducting was carried

out by the investigator as a pilot project prior to this ex-

periment. The project started in March of 1967 with the sub-

mission of a questionnaire to thirty-one schools in the

Southwest. The purpose of this project was to seek answers

to several questions.

15

1. To what extent do conducting teachers currently rely

on the traditional teaching methods of

a. teacher-to-student criticism,

b. student-to-student criticism,

c. direct manipulation,

d. use of the mirrored image?

2. Which schools, if any, used instant replay television

or any other innovation in their conducting classes?

The teachers were asked to indicate how frequently they

used each of the four traditional teaching methods by checking

an appropriate point on a five point scale graduated as

follows: one, never; two, rarely; three, occasionally; four,

often; and five, daily. The data derived from the study

appear below, in Table I and in Figure 1. •

1. Teacher-to-student critic ism.--The traditional class-

room method of lecture and demonstration. All respondents

indicated that they used this method either often or daily,

a range from four to five with a high mean of 4.55. The

results indicate that most teachers rely rather heavily on

this conventional classroom technique.

2* Student-to-student criticism.--This method gives the

student an opportunity to comment on the capabilities of his

fellow students and helps develop his powers of critical ob-

servation. This method had a frequency range from two (rarely)

to five (daily) with a mean of 3.75. The wide range and high

.16

mean indicate that most teachers appreciate the value of this

method while a few teachers allow student opinion to be made

manifest only reluctantly.

3* Direct manipulation.--In this method the teacher

stands behind the student and physically moves the student's

arm in the appropriate movements. This method received the

widest possible range of frequency of use, from one (never)

to five (daily). The probable reason for such a wide range is

that, although direct manipulation is a valid method and most

teachers use it occasionally, many teachers simply will not

place themselves in such close proximity to their students

because of the embarrassment it sometimes causes both teacher

and pupil.

TABLE I

FREQUENCY OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Method No. Responses Range* Mean

1. Teacher-to-student criticism 20 4-5 4.55

2. Student-to-student criticism 20 2-5 3.75

3. Direct manipulation 20 1-5 3.05

4. Mirrored image 20 1-4 2.55

*" (1) Never, (2) Rarely, (3) Occasionally, (4 ) Often, (5) Daily. '

17

4« Mirrored image.--The use of a mirror by a student to

observe his conducting technique. Although the range indicated

is wide, from one to four, the mean of 2.55 indicates that most

teachers do not value this method too highly. It is almost

impossible to concentrate on the many facets of conducting and

do a self-evaluation at the same time. As unreliable as this

method is, until now it was the only way a student could see

himself other than through motion pictures.

The illustration below graphically depicts the data given

in Table I. This was included in order to clarify the rela-

tive importance teachers attach to the conventional methods

used in teaching conducting techniques.

Means

Range

' Teacher-to-student criticism — - — — — St u dent-to-student criticism . Di rect manipulation • • • • • • • Mirrored image

Fig. 1--Frequency curves for data of Table I

18

T h e s u r v e y r e v e a l e d that s e v e r a l s c h o o l s do use m e t h o d s

c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t from the four s t a n d a r d m e t h o d s . One

s c h o o l , out of the t w e n t y r e s p o n d e n t s , b e l i e v e d that a s t u d e n t

s e e i n g h i m s e l f c o n d u c t was i m p o r t a n t and m a d e e i g h t mm films

of each s t u d e n t t w i c e a y e a r . T h i s was d e e m e d to be v a l u a b l e

in s p i t e of the d e l a y for p r o c e s s i n g . T w o s c h o o l s o t h e r than

N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y used v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g s to a

l i m i t e d d e g r e e w i t h t h e i r c o n d u c t i n g c l a s s e s . One s c h o o l used

the e q u i p m e n t w h e n it was not b e i n g used by the a t h l e t i c

d e p a r t m e n t , and the s e c o n d s c h o o l used t h e i r r e c o r d e r to

v i d e o t a p e the final e x a m i n a t i o n s for m o r e c o n s i s t e n t e v a l u a -

t i o n .

S u m m a r y

C h a p t e r I c o n t a i n s a s t a t e m e n t of the p r o b l e m a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h this s t u d y and l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to the s i g n i f i c a n c e

and the need for the s t u d y . A r e a s of i m p o r t a n c e r e l a t e d to

the p r o b l e m are d e l i n e a t e d as f o l l o w s :

1. H y p o the ses,

2. D e f i n i t i o n of T e r m s ,

3. L i m i t a t i o n s of the S t u d y ,

4. B a s i c A s s u m p t i o n ,

5. C u r r e n t P r a c t i c e s in the T e a c h i n g of C o n d u c t i n g .

O r g a n i z a t i o n of the R e p o r t

An o v e r v i e w of the uses of t e l e v i s i o n in e d u c a t i o n is

p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r II. C h a p t e r III c o n t a i n s a d e t a i l e d

19

description of the experimental design and information per-

tinent to its development. The analysis of the data obtained

from the experiment is presented in Chapter IV. Findings,

conclusions, and recommendations are given in Chapter ¥.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bodegraven, Paul Van, Music Education Source Book, Music Educators National Conference, Chicago, 1949.

2. "Closed Circuit Television in Public Schools," Music Educators Journal, LIV October, 1967), 38.

3. Cyphert, Frederick R., and L, 0. Andrews, "Using the Videotaper in Teacher Education," Audiovisual Instruction, LV (December, 1967), 1069-1070.

4. Daellenbach, Charles, "Videotape Recorders at Eastman," The Instrumentalist, XXI (May, 1967), 26-28.

5. Dahlin, Walter Ode 11, "The Relationship Between the Conducting Needs of School Music Teachers and Present Practices in the Teaching of Conducting," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, New York, 1951.

6* Denver Post, June 30, 1967, Section B, p. 2.

7. Ecker, Richard, "A Developmental Approach to the Teaching of Conducting," unpublished master's thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1950.

8. Follis, Lee, "TV Taping: A Rewarding and Remarkable Departure," Educational Screen and AV Guide, XLIV (May-June, 1967), 17, 19.

9. Matthews, Glen, "An Analysis and Evaluation of Methods for Training Skills in School Music Conducting," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 1963.

10. McDaniel, Ernest, and William K. Kiliatreau, "A Compari-son of Television and Conventional Instruction as Determinants of Attitude Change," The Journal of Educational Research. LVIII (October, 1965), 76-79.

11. Nasca, Don, "Science Recall and Closed Circuit Television Instruction," The Journal of Educational Research, LIX (October, 1966), 76-79.

20

21

12. Rasmussen, Warren Irvin, "An Investigation and Evalua-tion of Undergraduate Courses in Conducting," unpublished master's thesis, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 1955.

13. Smith, Fred R., "The Keys to a Reefbound Realm," Sports Illustrated, XXVIII (January, 1968), 38.

14. Standard College Dictionary, New York, Funk and Wagnalls, 1963, "p. 1121.

15. Statement made by Terry E. Conner, vice president of Universal Magnetics Incorporated, Dallas, Texas, March, 1968.

16. The Dallas M o r n i n g News, January 14, 1968, Sec. D, p. 1.

17. The Dallas Morning News, March 30, 1968, Sec. D, p. 4.

18. "Videotape at Eastman," Mu sic Educators Journal, LIV (November, 1967), 27.

19. Wooten, Jean B., "The Delmarva Educational Television Project," MENC Source Book III, Perspectives i n Mu sic Education, Music Educators National Conference, Washington, D. C., 1966.

CHAPTER II

TELEVISION IN EDUCATION

Television in education has taken two basic directions,

each of which is frequently confused with the other. It is

necessary to differentiate between educational television,

commonly abbreviated as ETV, and instructional television,

commonly abbreviated as ITV. According to Broyles (2), ETV

is an informal learning situation, while ITV is instruction

in a formal learning situation. Viewers of ETV watch a tele-

cast over open circuit networks and are motivated to improve

themselves without the necessity of having specific goals.

ITV, generally a closed circuit institutional situation,

almost always involves learning connected with personal

advancement leading to an occupation or improvement in a

profes sion .

Educational Television

Educational television stations have grown and developed

extensively since the first one was established at the Uni-

versity of Houston, Houston, Texas, in 1953 (7). There are

now 126 ETV stations in existence or planned in 47 of the 51

states. The only states without such a facility are Montana,

22

23

Wyoming, and Alaska. The topography and population distribu-

tion of these states to some extent account, for their lack of

ETV.

Programming on ETV is quite varied, using material from

network television, professionally made educational films,

and locally produced live shows and films. Network shows

which are adapted to ETV generally consist of musical pro-

grams: opera, concerts, and symphonic works. Other popular

features are travelogues and ethnic and ecological studies.

Preparation of instructional tapes is becoming an impor-

tant aspect of this type of education. The National Center

for School and College Television has nine new telecourses

available (7). Television lessons may also be rented from

the Great Plains Instructional Television-Library in Lincoln,

Nebraska (2). These telecourses are appropriate for both

ETV and ITV. One of the adjudicators involved, in the present

study has prepared a telecourse consisting of four instruc-

tional tapes on conducting and rehearsal techniques for the

State of Georgia (14).

The academic level of course content of ETV will vary

somewhat according to the level of the sponsoring academic

agency. Some ETV stations are owned or operated by the local

public school district and use their own faculties to sup-

plement professional telelessons. Others, such as those

operated by the University of Houston and Loyola University

24

of New Orleans, call upon their own higher education special-

ists. It is not unusual for such institutions to include a

statement in their contracts to the effect that "the party

of the second part further agrees to devote some time to the

educational, programs offered over stations WWL and WWL-TV"

(6). The result of this academic division is that ETV sta-

tions specialize in offering courses that reflect the academic

level o f the sponsoring system.

Instructional Television

According to Culver (3), the formal learning situations

involving ITV have centered on three major areas: course

content, teacher training, and teacher in-service training.

Course content relates to teaching the subject matter of a

particular discipline on either live or taped television.

Teacher training, as opposed to learning a subject, involves

the videotaping, viewing, and evaluating of a practice

teacher's classroom techniques and methods. Teacher in-

service training pertains to the continued education of indi-

viduals professionally employed as teachers.

Course Content

Television in the classroom is designed to improve the

presentation of material to be learned by the students and has

been employed in a variety of-ways, Bretz (1) suggests sev-

eral advantages of taping an experiment in chemistry or physics

25

1. Students can get a close-up view of the proceedings

without having to cluster around the apparatus.

2. Videotaping can be repeated as often as necessary

to obtain an optimum presentation of the material.

3. Once an experiment is taped to the satisfaction of

all concerned^ it is always available.

4. This latter aspect contributes greatly to the con-

sistency of quality instruction.

An Army training tape of the disassembly and reassembly

of a rifle uses the television zoom lens to good advantage.

The videotape begins with a full view of the instructor holding

the rifle, moves to a close-up for primary disassembly, and

finally to an ultra close-up for minute detail work (1). This

procedure puts each class member as close to the rifle as the

instructor himself.

Even with such an unlikely subject as music history, ITV

has some obvious and practical uses. Frank (5) wrote a case

history of just such an approach in a university setting.

Because several teachers were teaching different sections of

the same course, a team teaching approach was utilized. This

procedure allowed the special knowledge of each instructor to

be presented to all sections. Musicians individually develop

extensive knowledge of special areas within the discipline

such as Renaissance, Baroque,.or Classical music, instrumental

or vocal. Such a division of responsibility allowed each

26

instructor more time for preparation in his specialty and

offered the best possible instruction to the students in all

sections.

Videotaping of lectures and demonstrations was done at

a time convenient to the 'instructor, on a day when he had few

other commitments. For a telelesson devoted to the music of

the Baroque Period, a harpsichord was brought to the campus

for a taping session on the only evening it was available (5).

A telelesson on the instruments of the orchestra was taped in

segments at times convenient to the individual performers.

Similarly, guest lecturers were videotaped according to their

availability. All of the foregoing examples point to the fact

that good teaching need not be limited to the hour the class

is scheduled.

One of the greatest advantages of these telelessons,

according to Broyles (2), is the "one-to-oneness" involved.

If the instructor looks directly into the lens of the video

camera, then he has simultaneous eye-to-eye contact with each

individual watching the telelesson. Such communication is

impossible in the conventional teaching situation.

Teacher Training

Schools of education are continually searching for better

ways and methods of preparing their students to teach. Because

of this, institutions concerned with this problem were among

the first to adapt videotaping to their repertoire of methods

27

for instruction. In addition to the closed circuit or tele-

lessons previously mentioned, programmed videotapes have been

employed to bring about a change in a student teacher's class

room method s.

Popham (12) developed four twenty-minute programmed \

videotapes designed to modify the actual instructional be-

havior of teachers in described situations. Each of these

tapes was followed by a ten-minute post-test designed to test

perception and strengthen the impact of the videotaped pro-

gram. The author reported "significant results" but did not

specifically state what those results were nor what consti-

tuted significance.

An experiment by Johnson (9) utilized videotaping, pro-

grammed learning, and conventional instruction in an effort

to determine the effects of prompting, practice and feedback

on learning to observe and report student behavior. A video-

tape was produced which was designed to teach education stu-

dents to observe and report accurately. Four groups of stu-

dents were involved in the experiment and were taught in the

following manner:

1. by conventional instruction,

2. by videotape reinforcement,

3. by programmed learning,

4. by both videotape and programmed learning.

The findings indicated a significant improvement in the

28

ability to observe and report student behavior by the group

which received both videotape arid programmed learning.

Immediate feedback (instant replay television) has also

been employed as a method for teaching classroom techniques.

Student teachers have been videotaped in the classroom and

then have viewed the replay. The replay is generally accom-

panied by verbal reinforcement given by the instructor. The

School of Education at North Texas State University maintains

a student-teaching classroom which can be viewed or video-

taped through a one-way window. Soon facilities will be

enlarged to allow the taking of an electrocardiograph of the

student teacher at the same time he is being videotaped.

Through a split-screen process, someone could view the stu-

dent and the electrocardiograph tracing simultaneously on a

single monitor. This technique could give valuable data on

certain aspects of stress experienced by the beginning teacher

Teacher In-Service Train inq

A good teacher constantly evaluates his teaching* prac-

tices to determine his effectiveness. There is evidence that

a teacher can learn much about himself and be able to modify

his classroom techniques to become even better through watch-

ing a videotape replay of himself.

Thorenson (17) did an exploratory study of one specific

student learning p roblem: oral non-participation in discus-

sion classes. A counselor worked directly with seven college

29

history teachers viewing excerpts from videotapes of their

own classroom discussion sessions. During the playback of

the tapes, the counselor verbally and non-verbally reinforced

certain instructor behaviors seen on the videotape. Four

instructors viewed the tapes individually with the counselor;

three instructors viewed the tapes in a group with the coun-

selor. Results of the study indicated the following:

1. The instructors felt that video-playback counseling

was helpful in changing their behavior in the classroom.

2. Instructors became more aware of how their verbal

and non-verbal cues influenced student behavior.

3. Small group playback seemed as effective as individual

playback.

This type of operation seems to indicate that a counseled

appraisal of a teacher's classroom technique should be an in-

tegral of teacher in-service training.

As coordinator of Instructional Radio and Television

Utilization for the Dade County Public Schools, Miami, Florida,

Culver (3) specifies the uses of television in their in-

service training program.

Television as a medium for in-service has provided the school system an opportunity to conduct types of research which could not otherwise be done as well. It is a means of informing teachers of new developments in content areas, new methods of presentation, new ways of using resources, and of new materials available for classroom use (p. 912).

A camera will record the teaching situation and provide a mirror for se1f~eva1uation and improvement. Complexities of teaching can be carefully analyzed

30

through repeated viewings of video tapes. Teachers can focus on particular aspects of the teaching-learning process and study them repeatedly to determine strengths as well as weaknesses (p. 913).

The examples presented in the preceding paragraphs indi-

cate a variety of applications of television for teacher in-

service training. Apparently, the number and type of appli-

cations are limited only by the imagination of the television

dire ctor.

Television in Athletics

One of the earliest uses of videotaping equipment out-

side of commercial television occurred in sports, particularly

football. Instant replay, plus slow-motion, allowed the

viewer to see outstanding plays repeatedly and permitted

detailed examination of specific plays. Professional teams,

and later colleges and high schools, became aware of the

advantages of taping an entire game for later evaluation.

They then realized that an opponent's play could be evaluated

during the course of a game and counter measures put into

force. This latter aspect soon met with disapproval from the

governing bodies of all organized sports and resulted in the

banning of the viewing of videotapes during a contest. In

the absence of penalties for doing so, scouts and coaches

continued to use videotape equipment during the game. This

year the American Football League added the needed penalties

for violation of the rule by authorizing a five-year suspension

31

for the guilty person and a fine of up to $50,000.00 for the

offending team (4). The size of the fine possible is indica-

tive of the advantage instant replay television presumably would

afford one team over another which did not use videotaping.

In sports other than football, videotaping has proven

helpful in almost every area of athletic endeavor. Speed

(15), writing in the Athletic Journal, tells of its value to

tennis, track, ice hockey, gymnastics, and archery. Other

areas that benefit from "mirror TV" (11) are golf (club

swing and stance) and baseball (batting). In all of these

areas "form" is an important element for achievement. Instant

replay television gives an athlete the opportunity to analyze

his form in depth, to define and refine those movements which

are most conducive to success. The parallel between form in

athletics and form in musical conducting is that the conductor,

also relying on muscular coordination, can define and refine

his moves just as beneficially as an athlete. Efficiency in

every one of the nine areas of basic conducting techniques

evaluated in this study is determined from the form exhibited

by the student conductors. A conductor without form may be

likened to a singer with laryngitis: neither one can achieve

satisfying results.

Commercial Television

Commercial television should not be overlooked as an

educational medium. Music teachers frequently assign the

32

viewing of a particular show as part of their students' music

education. An example of such a program was the Sol Hurok

Presents special which was telecast in March, 1968. Pianists

had the opportunity to hear and view the artistry of one of

the greatest pianists of all time, Artur Rubinstein, and also

to observe the outstanding conducting of Alfred Wallenstein.

Observing such excellent musicians could do much toward the

development of an aspiring young musician.

Another outstanding example of the educational capabil-

ities of commercial television was the American Broadcasting

Company's program titled How Life Begins,which also appeared

in March, 1968. This program, assigned viewing for many

junior high school science students, tastefully, accurately,

and beautifully told of the process of reproduction, showed

the birth of a dog and a calf, and finally, the birth of a

human being. The consumate quality and clarity of this com-

mercial television program was an educational experience for

viewers of any age.

Television and Learning Theory

Any experiment involving the teaching-learning process

must have some foundation in the theories of learning. The

instant replay aspect of the experiment and the physical

activity of conducting indicated several concepts of learning

theory appropriate to the study. Those concepts are

1. immediate reinforcement,

2. insight development,

33

3. the Gestalt "whole,"

4. ego involvement.

A discussion of the application of these areas to the

experiment follows.

Immediate Reinforcement

The principal learning theory supporting instant replay

television is that of immediate reinforcement, the strength-

ening of a response (conducting) by the addition of another

stimulus (television). The immediacy of the replay, only a

few seconds following the conclusion of the conducting ses-

sion, continues the involvement of the subject and reinforces

the teacher's constructive evaluation of the performance.

Responses gained immediately after a performance can be

reinforced more solidly than responses gained after a con-

siderable amount of time has elapsed. According to Hull (8),

the greater the delay in reinforcement, the weaker the reac-

tion potential, based on a gradient which falls off rapidly

in the beginning. Because of this, videotaping has the

obvious advantage over cinematography and the necessary delay

involved with processing.

In s i ght Development

Another type of learning resulting from videotaping is

the development of insight (8). This refers to the ability

of an individual to see relationships in a new situation

34

which could lead to an adjustment, the solution of a problem,

or to improvement in a skill. The process of an individual's

observing himself on videotape immediately after conducting

could be conducive to hastening insight development.

The Gesta 11 Whole

One of the primary premises of Gestalt psychology is

that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. One

dictionary defines a Gestalt as "a functional configuration or

synthesis of separate elements of emotion, experience, . . .

that constitutes more than the mechanical sum of the parts"

(16, p. 561). Nowhere is this concept more evident than in

a conductor's beat pattern. Regardless of the number of

beats or points of stress in a pattern, to alter one beat

point within a pattern is to change the entire structure of

that pattern. For this reason, standardized beat patterns

are taught throughout the world. In the illustration below,

a comparison of customary and altered three beat patterns,

only beat one in the altered version has been changed. To

Customary Altered

Fig. 2--Customary and altered three beat patterns in conducting.

35

use the altered version with a choir would cause consider-

able confusion among the singers. It would be particularly

true in this instance because the Gestalt or whole has been

destroyed by changing a primary point of reference, the down

beat.

Ego Involvement

•Finally, the student who views himself on videotape can

experience greater ego involvement. This can raise his level

of aspiration, can make him want to learn the tools of his

trade because of what he knows can be accomplished with them.

Problems

Television, in any form, is not a panacea for the prob-

lems that exist in education. Too often some teachers seek a

magic ingredient that would apparently and forever absolve

them of the necessity of good teaching. When this happens,

the project is ultimately doomed to failure. The difficulty

in using television lies not in expecting the ultimate,

though this occasionally happens, but in not facing the prob-

lems involved realistically.

Some of the common mistakes made by schools attempting

to use television are given by Lapham (10, p. 939);

1. not knowing exactly what the television equipment was expected to accomplish,

2. not hiring an experienced television project manager,

3. not commiting enough money to accomplish the intended television mission.

36

W e b e r (19), in W h at Went W r o n g ? , cites the lack of

q u a l i f i e d t e c h n i c i a n s for a d e q u a t e m a i n t e n a n c e of the e qui p-

m e n t . H a p p i l y , this s i t u a t i o n is b e i n g r e m e d i e d as m o r e

r e g i o n a l s e r v i c e c e n t e r s are o p e n e d and as sales of this

type of e q u i p m e n t c o n t i n u e to r i s e . W e b e r also calls a t t e n -

tion to the p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t when the s y s t e m is not a u n i -

fied one, that is, when it is a c o m p o s i t e of the goods of

m a n y m a n u f a c t u r e r s . T h e e l e c t r o n i c s i n d u s t r y is in a state

of flux. M a n u f a c t u r e r s f r e q u e n t l y cease p r o d u c t i o n of a

s p e c i f i c m o d e l , sell out, or c h a n g e d e s i g n . W h e n this o c c u r s ,

the o w n e r of the e q u i p m e n t f r e q u e n t l y is u n a b l e to o b t a i n

m a i n t e n a n c e s e r v i c e and must p u r c h a s e new items to keep the

e n t i r e system o p e r a b l e .

P r o b l e m s o t h e r than e q u i p m e n t must be c o n s i d e r e d .

R i c h a r d s o n (13, p. 9 1 6 ) raises the q u e s t i o n of the t e a c h e r ' s

a u t o n o m y .

Does the c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r r e a l l y have any a u t o n o m y when a p r e p a r e d lesson comes into his c l a s s -room at a s p e c i f i e d t i m e - - a lesson over w h i c h he has no c o n t r o l and w h i c h he cannot i n t e r r u p t as he sees fit?

T o b i a s (18) cites e v i d e n c e that some t e a c h e r s see t e l e -

v i s i o n as a threat to their e x i s t e n c e .

The latter terms [Educational Television and TV Tutor] were, in fact seen as having marked implica-tions of being used independently of the teacher , . #

and . • . partially associated with automation (p, 95) .

The teachers who dislike certain kinds of materials are likely to affect the achievement of their pupils by the use of such materials in a

37

negative way, thus ending up with "evidence" to support their previously held biases (p. 98).

Another word of warning is given by Broyles (2).

If a student is to see on a box in the corner of the room only what he could see better in its proper scale right there in the classroom, tele-vision is a waste of time and money (p. 918).

These warnings are not intended to deter anyone from

making use of television in education. Rather, it is to

better prepare the prospective user so that he may benefit

from his predecessors. "What television becomes depends

upon our expectations" (3, p. 914).

Summary

This chapter has attempted to show the divergent uses

of television in various forms of educational adaptations.

Further, it has attempted to relate instant replay television

to certain learning theory concepts upon which this study was

established. Finally, acknowledgment was made of some of

the difficulties and problems that have arisen from the

application of television to educational procedures.

The following chapter delineates the design of the

experiment involving instant replay television.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bretz, Rudy, "Low-Cost Video Tape Recordings: AV Tool or Medium," A u d i o v-.i s u a 1 Ins truction , XII (November, 1967), 948-951.

2. Broyles, Glenwood E., "Learning Models for Television: Improving the Program Content," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 917-920.

3. Culver, Katherine B,, "New and Promising Uses of ITV," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 910-914 .

4* Denton (Texas) Record-Chronicle, February 22, 1968, p . 10 .

5. Excerpt from a Loyola University contract, 1968.

6. Frank, Jack B., "Teaching a Freshman Music Course on Television: A Case History," Audiovisual Instruction, XI (February, 1966), 103-105.

7. "Growth of Educational Television," School and Society, VC (January, 1967), 28.

8. Hull, Clark L., cited by Ernest R. Hilgard, Theori es o f Learning, New York, Appleton, Century, Crofts, Incorporated, 1956, p. 135.

9. Johnson, Rita B., "The Effect of Prompting, Practice and Feedback in Programmed Videotape," Ameri can Educational Research Journal, V (January, 1968), 73-79.

10. Lapham, Harry R., "Avoiding Common Pitfalls in the Planning of a Practical Instructional Television System," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November. 1967). 939-943.

11. Miles, James S., "Purdue's Television Unit," Audiovisual Instruction, X (September, 1965), 558-559.

38

39

12. Popham, W. James. ''las t rue t i o na 1 Video Tapes in Teacher Education," AV Communication Review, XIV (Fall, 1966), 371-376.

13. Richardson, Elinor, "Inquiry in Instructional Television: A Pilot Project," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 915-916.

14. Statement made by Lloyd Pfautsch in Denton, Texas, December 21, 1967.

15. Speed, R. C., "Videotape for Coaching," Athletic Journal, IIL (September, 1967), 48.

16. Standard College Dictionary, New York, Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1963, p. 561.

17. Thorenson, Carl E., "Video in the College Classroom: An Exploratory Study," Personnel and_ Guidance Journa 1 , VL (October, 1966), 144-149.

18. Tobias, Sigmund, "Dimensions of Teachers' Attitudes Toward Instructional Media," Ameri can Educat ional Research Journal, V (January, 1967), 91-98.

19. Weber, Morris, "What Went Wronq?" Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 937-938.

CHAPTER III

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The Population

The subjects in the experiment were students regularly

enrolled in Music 381, titled Beginning Conducting, at North

Texas State University in the fall semester of 1967. A total

of forty-eight students constituted the subjects for the

study,

The characteristics of the subjects permitted a homo-

geneous grouping. All of these subjects were at the junior

level, most were music majors or concentrations, and a few

were elementary or secondary education majors with music as

a second teaching field. All of the men and a few of the

women had had some previous experience in conducting a choral

group.

The one unusual aspect of the population, which occurred

entirely by chance, was the unbalanced distribution of voices.

Of the forty-eight subjects twenty-six were sopranos, ten

were altos, four were tenors, and eight were basses.

Equipment Used in the Study

The television equipment used with the Experimental group

wa s

40

41

1. an Ampex Corporation videotape recorder, model

VR 7000, which uses one inch tape,

2. one Universal Magnetics Incorporated television

camera with viewfinder, model VF 7000,

3. one Canon zoom lens, model 16,

4. one Sylvania television camera, model VRF 400,

5. one Sylvania camera switcher, model TVCA 107/AV-812,

6. one Sampson Quick-set tripod, light duty,

7. two Electro~Voice microphones, models 676 and 647A,

8. two Setche11-Car1son Educator monitors with twenty-

three inch screens, model 2100SD,

9. one McMartin audio mixer preamplifier, model LX40.

The library of video tapes used in the experiment con-

sisted of six one-hour tapes and fifty-four tapes of twelve

minutes duration. The one-hour tapes were used repeatedly to

record the conducting of the Experimental group members during

their regular class meetings. The contents of these tapes

were not retained and were not viewed by the adjudicators.

Each individual in each group was assigned his own personal

twelve-minute tape on which were recorded the pre- and post-

instruction conducting. These were the video tapes that were

viewed and evaluated by the adjudicators.

Disposition of the Television Equipment

In order to avoid exposing the Control group to the ex-

perimental variable, the television equipment was kept stored

42

on the days when it was not actually in use with the Experi-

mental group. During the recording of the pre- and post-

instruction tapes, the monitors were not viewed by any of

the subjects who later comprised both the Experimental group

and the Control group. Thus, those participants who sub-

sequently became the Control group never saw themselves, or

anyone else, conducting on television.

The physical arrangement of the equipment utilized

during the experimental class sessions is shown in the il-

lustration presented on the following page. (See Figure 3,

p. 43.) Classes met in the band rehearsal room,which was

large enough (50 x 80 feet) to allow placement of the tele-

vision equipment in such a way as to present minimum distrac-

tion. All television technicians were located behind the

class. Camera two (f) was fixed-focus and was left unat-

tended. Switching from camera one (e) to camera two (f),

described later in this chapter, was accomplished from the

position of the recorder (g).

Camera one was placed at a slight angle, twenty-five

feet in front of the subject doing the conducting. Camera

two was placed fifteen feet to the left of the subject to

provide a profile view. Two cameras were used in order to

provide a better opportunity for evaluation by the adjudi-

cators .

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Control of Variables

The two groups, Experimental and Control, were taught

in the same classroom at the same hour of the day by the same

instructor. The two groups alternated meeting on Tuesdays

and Thursdays to avoid any advantage one day might have over

the other. Both groups met together on Saturday for lecture

and demonstration to assure uniformity of instruction. Course

content and method of presentation, except for the experi-

mental variable, were the same for both groups. Randomiza-

tion and equating of group assignments, conducting assign-

ments, recording order, and viewing by the judges were steps

undertaken in an effort to negate any chance of prejudice,

bias, or favoritism.

Selection of Groups

Because of the unusual distribution of voices and the

necessity of having balanced vocal groups, it was necessary

to use both randomisation and equating to determine the group

membership of the subjects. Sopranos, because of their

greater number, were assigned to group A or group B by using

a table of random numbers. Altos, tenors, and basses,

because of their smaller number, were equated according to

major (music, music education, or general education), teaching

field (vocal or instrumental), and previous conducting experi-

ence. After equating, the subjects were assigned to either

group A or group B.

45

Before deciding which group would receive the experi-

mental treatment, an effort was made to minimize the Hawthorne

effect by (1) stressing the fact that the selection of the

Experimental group was strictly a matter of chance, (2) as-

suring all subjects that the results obtained would have no

bearing on their final grade for the course, and (3) assuring

equal use of the television equipment to the Control group at

the conclusion of the experiment. At the conclusion of the

pre-instruction recording, the flip of a coin determined

that group A would constitute the Experimental group.

Selection of Music

For the pre-instruction recording it was the opinion of

the instructor and the investigator that the composition to

be used in this procedure should be one of simplicity, con-

taining a minimum number of conducting problems. "America"

was chosen because of its easy three beat pattern, the lack

of conducting difficulties, and the fact that the text and

music were generally well known to all the subjects.

The selection of the compositions for the post-instruc-

tion recording presented problems of a different nature. To

afford aural relief for the adjudicators as well as to provide

differences in styles and conducting problems, it was decided

that three compositions should be used. Those selected were

"Break Forth, 0 Beauteous Heavenly Light," by J. S. Bach; "Jesu,

Priceless Treasure," by Johann Cruger; and the "Ave Verum," by

46

Wolfgang Mozart. All three compositions required a sub-

divided four-beat pattern, varying from legato to marcato.

Two different p r e p a r a t o r y beats were required, also frequent

dynamic changes and differences in cut-offs and style inter-

pretation. The "Ave Veruin" placed considerably more stress

on cueing than did the other two compositions. Random assign

ment of these three compositions to all forty-eight subjects

produced an even frequency distribution of these differences.

(See Table II, page 50.)

Selection of A d j u d i c a t o r s

Although competent judges were available on the music

faculty of North Texas State U n i v e r s i t y , it was deemed advis-

able to secure judges from other institutions to avoid any

p o s s i b i l i t y of prejudice and bias. The judges selected to

participate in the evaluation of the recordings fit all of

the requirements of ability, k n o w l e d g e , and professional

stature. Each adjudicator possessed the following qualifi-

cations :

1. many years of experience in university choral

conducting,

2. many years of experience in the teaching of

conduct ing,

3. extensive experience in a d j u d i c a t i n g ,

4. numerous published choral compositions.

47

In addition, the schools they represented offered a cross-

section of institutions which could utilize such a method of

teaching conducting. The judges and the schools they repre-

sented were

1. Lloyd Pfautsch of Southern Methodist University,

Dallas, Texas;

2. Robert Hines of Wichita State University, Wichita,

Kansas;

3. Daniel Moe of the University of Iowa, Iowa City,

lo wa .

Experimental Design

Music 381, titled Beginning Conducting, was scheduled to

meet Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday at 11:00 a.m. At the

beginning of classes in the f-all semester of 1967, all sub-

jects met together at the regularly appointed time for pre-

liminary instruction in the preparatory beat, the three beat

pattern, and the cut-off. Instruction in these three areas

of the physical aspects of conducting would enable a -beginning

conductor to start, conduct, and stop the ensemble on the pre-

instruction recording o f "Amer i ca ."

After the period of preliminary instruction consisting

of two class meetings, each subject was recorded on individual

television tapes, conduct ing "Ameri ca wi th the entire sample

serving as a choral ensemble so that the effect of sound

could be included. During the recording of the pre-instruetion

48

videotape, recording began with camera one, switched to

camera two at measure seven, and returned to camera one at

measure eleven. Switching was done to give the adjudicators

a better opportunity to evaluate the subjects. The specific

spots chosen for the switching were selected to avoid any

conflict with any of the areas to be evaluated.

During the experimental period, the Experimental and

Control groups alternated meeting on Tuesday and Thursday

with the combined groups meeting on Saturday. The Tuesday

and Thursday sessions were primarily for actual conducting

experience for both groups, while the Saturday session was

for lecture and demonstration by the instructor to assure

uniformity of instruction.

Teaching procedures for both groups were the same except

for the addition of instant replay television with the Experi-

mental group. Step-by-step instruction for the Control group

occurred in the following order.

1. The student conducted the class in an assigned com-

position.

2. The teacher criticized the student's conducting.

3. The students of the class criticized their fellow

student.

4. The teacher demonstrated, if necessary.

5. The student repeated the difficult area, if neces-

sary .

49

Instruction for the Experimental group differed only in

that the class and the individual saw a taped replay of his

conducting.

1. The student conducted the class in an assigned com-

position.

2. The teacher criticized the student's conducting.

3. The videotape recording was played.

4. The students of the class criticized their fellow

student.

5. The teacher demonstrated, if necessary.

6. The student repeated the difficult area, if neces-

sary.

7. The videotape recording was replayed, if necessary.

For ten weeks the two groups worked separately on the

physical techniques of conducting until each subject in each

group had had the opportunity to conduct and receive individual

instruction. Each subject in the Experimental group had the

opportunity to view himself and the rest of the class in the

televised practice sessions.

At the conclusion of the experimental period, all sub-

jects in both groups were assigned the same three compositions

to be prepared for the post-instruction recording. These

compositions, described on pages 45 and 46 of this study,

were assigned to the individual subjects employing a table of

random numbers. No participant knew which composition he

50

would conduct until immediately prior to the actual conducting

and videotape recording. The random assignment of the compo-

sitions yielded uniform frequencies as seen in Table II.

TABLE II

COMPOSITION ASSIGNMENT FREQUENCIES

Group Cruge r Bach Mozart

Control 7 10 7

Experimental T 10 7

Thus, although the compositions were different, and alike,

in many respects, these differences and likenesses were

evenly distributed between the groups.

Since the recording order on the pre-instruction tapes

was randomized, the post-instruction recordings were taken

in the same order. (See Appendix D, page 79.) This proce-

dure provided the same advantage, or disadvantage as that

enjoyed on the first recording.

Switching from camera number one to camera number two

and return occurred in the following places in the'three

post-instruction compositions.

1. In "Break Forth, 0 Beauteous Heavenly Light,"the

switch to camera two occurred on the third beat of measure

five and returned to camera one on the first beat of measure

ten.

51

2. In "Jesu, Priceless Treasure," the switch to camera

two occurred on the fourth beat of measure seven and returned

to camera one on the fourth beat of measure thirteen.

3. In the "Ave Verura," the switch to camera two occurred

on the first beat of measure twenty and returned to camera

one on the first beat of measure thirty-three.

These specific spots for switching were chosen to avoid

coinciding with any evaluation area such as cueing or cut-

off. Switching was identical for all subjects to assure

uniformity of opportunity for evaluation.

Two weeks prior to the adjudication date the judges were

furnished with a sample evaluation instrument (see Appendix A,

page 75), and a detailed set of criteria covering each area to

be evaluated (see Appendix B, page 76). This sample provided

them with the opportunity to become acquainted with the vari-

ous areas to be evaluated, to ascertain what constituted

proficiency in each of those areas, and to fully understand

the method of evaluation.

After concluding the post-instruction recording, the

three adjudicators were assembled at North Texas State Uni-

versity to view and evaluate the recordings. The judging of

the forty-eight pre- and post-instruetion recordings began

at 9:00 a.m. on December 21, 1967, and were concluded at

4:30 p.m. the same day.

52

The judges viewed the tapes in the same order in which

they were recorded. The judges did not know the identity of

the subjects nor their group membership. The judges were

cautioned not to consult each other concerning the evaluation

of any of the subjects. Questions raised by the adjudicators

concerning evaluations were resolved by the investigator prior

to the viewing of the tapes.

Each judge was furnished with an evaluation instrument

for each subject which required only the checking of a given

variable at a particular level of achievement. Because each

subject had an individual tape containing both the pre- and

post-instruction recordings, the judges could easily ask for

a replay of any of the subject's tapes for clarification or

confirmation of their previous evaluation. Several of the

tapes which showed a particularly high difference between the

two recordings were re-viewed.

The results of the adjudicators' evaluations were tabu-

lated, computer evaluated for the _t test for the significance

of the difference between the means at the .05 level, and

analyzed. The following chapter contains a report of the

findings, and the analysis of these data.

Summary

This chapter presented a detailed description of the

experimental design and of the factors directly associated

with that design. Those factors were

53

1. the population involved and the selection of groups,

2. the equipment used in the experiment and the disposi

tion thereof,

3. the control of variables,

4. the selection of the music and the adjudicators.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the data which

were collected in the manner described in the previous chapter

and to summarize the findings obtained from such an analysis.

The data analyzed will be that pertinent to the following:

1. the reliability of the adjudicator's evaluations,

2. the statistical equality between groups prior to the

beginning of the experiment,

3. the results obtained for each of the ten hypotheses.

Reliability of the Adjudicator's Evaluations

It was necessary to establish the reliability of the

adjudicator's evaluations in order to be able to draw con-

clusions concerning the data. The Kendall coefficient of

concordance was used to determine the degree of agreement

between the three adjudicators. This coefficient is deter-

mined by comparing the rank (high, medium, or low) assigned

to an individual by the three judges. Ranks were determined

by converting the raw scores achieved on the post-instruction

recording. Nine sets of raw scores, selected at random from

54

55

the total number of forty-eight, we re converted to rank order

and statistically treated with the Kendall formula for the

coefficient of concordance. This formula appears below. For

a detailed explanation of the formula see Appendix E, page 80,

W = ( 1 )

^ N 3 - N J Table III contains the raw scores assigned by the judges

to the nine individuals who were randomly selected. Table IV

contains the rank order of the nine subjects derived from the

raw scores given in Table III.

TABLE III

RAW SCORE EVALUATIONS OF NINE SUBJECTS BY THREE JUDGES

Subj ect s Judges

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Judge One 19 37 22 40 32 21 20 22 35

Judge Two 20 36 18 42 32 16 16 20 35

Judge Three 21 34 21 30 36 19 16 22 36

In converting raw scores to ranks, the highest score was

assigned rank one. When tied scores occurred, the scores

were assigned the average of the ranks they would have been

assigned had no ties occurred.

TABLE IV

RANK ORDER OF NINE SUBJECTS ESTABLISHED BY CONVERSION OF RAW SCORES

56

Subj ects Judges

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Judge One 9 2 5.5 1 4 7 8 5.5 3

Judge Two 5.5 2 7 1 4 0.5 8.5 5.5 3

Judge Three 6.5 3 6.5 4 1.5 8 9 5 1.5

V 21.0 7 19.0 6 9.5 23.5 25.5 16.0 7.5

A perfect concordance would yield a W = l.OO. The co-

efficient of concordance obtained for nine subjects and three

judges was W = .925. The reliability of the judges' evalua-

tions appeared to be adequate for this study.

Pre-Instruction Statistical Equality Between Groups

In order to realistically evaluate any difference between

the two groups on the post-instruction videotape reording, it

was necessary to determine the statistical equality of the

groups at the beginning of the experimental period. Table V

contains the data derived from the pre-instruction recording

and includes the means, mean difference, standard deviations,

and _t value of the mean difference between the Experimental

group and the Control group on the pre-instruction videotape

recording.

TABLE V

MEANS, MEAN DIFFERENCE, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND _t VALUE OF THE MEAN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP ON THE PRE-INSTRUCTION

VIDEOTAPE RECORDING

57

Group Mean Mean Difference S .D. jt

Control 21.6500 4.7293 .0150 .0892

Experimental 21.7750 4.7738

For a difference between the groups to be significant

at the .05 level, a _t of 2.01 was required. As shown in

Table V, the _t value of .0892 for the difference between the

means of the Experimental and Control groups on the p re -

instruction recording indicates no significant difference.

On that basis it was possible to make judgments concerning

the differences between the two groups on the post-instruc-

tion videotape recording.

Hypotheses

The hypotheses stated in Chapter I predicted that "there

will be no significant, difference between the means of the

Experimental and Control groups" in each of the nine areas of

evaluation and in overall achievement. These areas were

1. preparatory beat,

2. basic beat movement,

58

3. dynamic indication,

4. cueing,

5. independence of hands,

6. cut-offs,

7. facial communication,

8. posture,

9. attention to musical detail.

The raw score data obtained from the adjudicators' eval-

uations were treated statistically with the _t test for the

significance of the difference between the means of the two

groups. All computations were done by computer.

Results

Following are the results and the analysis of the data.

Means, mean differences, standard deviations, and t_ values

for each of the nine areas of evaluation are stated in

Table VI. It will be remembered that a _t value of 2.01 must

be achieved to be statistically significant at the .05 level.

1. Preparatory be at.--A comparison of the means for

this area revealed a difference between the means of .5000

in favor of the Experimental group. The resultant _t value

of .9893 was considerably smaller than the 2.01 required.

Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.

2« Basic beat m o v e m e n t . — T h i s area produced the largest

difference between the means of the two groups, 1.0417. The

resultant jt of 1.5516 was also the largest obtained although

59

less than the required 2.01. The data indicated no" statis-

tically significant difference between the two groups in

this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.

TABLE VI

MEANS, MEAN DIFFERENCES, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t_ VALUES OF THE MEAN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

AND THE CONTROL GROUP IN THE NINE AREAS OF EVAL-UATION DERIVED FROM THE POST-INSTRUCTION

VIDEOTAPE RECORDING

Area

Group Means

Control Experi mental

Mean Differ-ence

S .D

Control Expe ri• mental

1. Prepara-tory Beat

2. Basic Beat Patterns

3. Dynamic Indication

4. Cueing

5. Independ-ence of Hand s

6. Cut-offs

7. Facia 1 Commun i -cation

8. Posture

9. Atten t ion to Musical Detail

8.2500

9.1416

8.4166

8.7083

8.9583

8.2500

8.9166

10.7916

8 .3333

8.7500

10.0833

9.4166

8.6666

9.5000

9.0000

9.5416

10.9166

8.7500

.5000

1 .0417

1.0000

-.0417

.5417

.7500

.6250

.1250

.4167

1 .9843

2.6375

2.6912

2.6999

2.1110

2.4874

2.7676

1.4427

2 .4267

1.3919

1.8465

2.6601

1.8856

2.2912

1.9578

3.0135

1.7300

2.1842

.9893

1.5516

1. 2673

-.0606

.8338

1. 1362

.7325

.2661

.6120

60

Dynamic i n d i c a t i o n . — T h e observed difference between

the means of 1.0000 produced a _t value of 1.2673 in favor of

the Experimental group. The data indicated no statistically

significant difference between the two groups in this area.

Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.

4- Cueing.--In this one area only did the difference

between the means, and the t_ value, favor the Control group.

The observed mean difference of -.0417 and the resultant

t_ value of -.0606 indicated no difference between the two

groups in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was

accepted .

5. Independence of hands.--The observed difference

between the means of .5417 produced a jt value of .8338 in

favor of the Experimental group. The data indicated no

statistically significant difference between the groups in

this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.

Cut-offs.--The observed difference between the means

of .7500 produced a _t value of 1.1362. The data indicated no

statistically significant difference between the two groups

in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.

7. Facial communi ca tion.--The observed difference

between the means of .6250 produced a t_ value of .7325. The

data indicated no statistically significant difference between

the two groups in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis

was accepted.

61

®* Posture.--The observed difference between the means

of . 1250 produced a _t value of .2661. The data indicated no

statistically significant difference between the two groups

in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.

9* Attention to musical det a i 1.---The observed differ-

ence between the means of .4167 produced a t value of .6120.

The data indicated no statistically significant difference

between the two groups in this area. Therefore, the null

hypothesis was accepted.

10. Overall achievement.--The observed difference between

the means of 1.6804 produced a t_ value of .9725. The data

indicated no statistically significant difference between the

groups in this area. Therefore, the null hypothesis was

accepted .

Table VII, on page 62, contains the means, mean differ-

ence, standard deviations, and _t value derived from the

evaluation of the post-instruction recording. It will be

recalled that the two groups were statistically equal in

conducting ability at the beginning of the experimental

period, as determined from the analyses of the pre-instruc-

tion recording data. The t_ value of .9725 for overall

conducting ability at the end of the experiment did not

attain the required 2.01. Therefore, the null hypothesis

was accepted.

62

TABLE VII

MEANS, MEAN DIFFERENCE, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND l VALUE OF THE MEAN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE EXPERIMENTAL

GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP ON THE POST-INSTRUCTION VIDEOTAPE RECORDING

Group Mean Mean Difference

S .D . _t

Control 26.4833 6.2606 1.6804 .9725

Experimenta1 28. 1637 5.4283

S ummary

The reliability of the adjudicators' evaluations was

validated. This permitted the analysis of the data with the

following results:

1. The Experimental and Control groups were statisti-

cally equal in conducting ability at the beginning of the

experimental period.

2. No statistically significant results were obtained

from the po s t-i n s t ru ct. i on evaluations. Therefore, all ten of

the null hypotheses were accepted.

3. The results favored the Experimental group in nine

out of the ten areas evaluated. In only one area, cueing,

did the results favor the Control group with a t_ of -.0606.

Chapter V contains a summary of the study, the conclu-

sions reached as a result of the analysis of the data, and

63

recommendations for further experimentation. In addition,

difficulties involved in videotaping fluorographic studies

are presented.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

Siegel, Sidney, Nonparametri c Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1956, pp. 229-233.

64

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summa ry

The purpose of this study was to determine the effective-

ness of instant replay television as a method for teaching

certain physical aspects of choral conducting. This necessi-

tated the establishment of an experimental situation involving

two matched groups.

The forty-eight subjects involved in the experiment were

students regularly enrolled in Music 381, Beginning Conducting,

at North Texas State University in the fall semester of 1967.

These subjects were randomly assigned (sopranos) or equated

(altos, tenors, and bass) into two groups, Experimental and

Control. The Experimental group was selected by the flip of

a coin.

The two groups met together for two class periods of

instruction in the basic conducting techniques of preparatory

beat, the three beat pattern, and the cut-off. At the con-

clusion of the introductory instruction, all subjects were

recorded on videotape conducting "America."

For the ensuing ten weeks the Experimental and Control

groups met separately on alternating Tuesdays and Thursdays.

65

66

The two groups met together on Saturday for lecture and

demonstration to assure uniformity of instruction. The only

difference in instruction between the groups during the ex-

perimental period was the addition of instant replay tele-

vision recording and viewing with the Experimental group.

At the conclusion of the experimental period all subjects

were videotaped as they conducted one of three compositions

that had been assigned for preparation. The specific composi-

tion each subject was to conduct was not revealed until

immediately prior to the post-instruct ion recording.

Three competent adjudicators met to view and evaluate the

pre- and post-instruction videotape recordings of all forty-

eight subjects. The results of their evaluations were computer

tested with the t_ test for the significance of the difference

between the means of the two groups, and the results were then

analyzed.

The level of significance for all areas of evaluation was

set. at .05. A _t value of 2.01 was required to be significant

at that level. None of the obtained _t values reached a level

of statistical significance although the findings favored the

Experimental group in all but one area.

Conclusions

Although no statistically significant _t score was

achieved, several encouraging results were noted.

6 7

1. T h e r e s u l t s f a v o r e d the E x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p in n i n e

of the ten e v a l u a t i o n s . T h e t_ s c o r e s for t h o s e a r e a s r a n g e d

f r o m .2661 to 1 . 5 5 1 6 . C e r t a i n l y such c o n s i s t e n t r e s u l t s ,

a c h i e v e d in s p i t e of the w e a k n e s s e s of the s t u d y w h i c h w i l l

be cited l a t e r , i n d i c a t e that i n s t a n t r e p l a y t e l e v i s i o n as a

m e t h o d for t e a c h i n g the p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s of c o n d u c t i n g s h o u l d

be h i g h l y r e g a r d e d .

2. In the area of c u e i n g , the o n l y area w h e r e the

r e s u l t s f a v o r e d the C o n t r o l g r o u p , the _t s c o r e of - . 0 6 0 6

i n d i c a t e d that t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the two

g r o u p s .

3. F o u r of the m o r e i m p o r t a n t areas of c o n d u c t i n g

a c h i e v e d t h e h i g h e s t _t s c o r e s . T h o s e areas w e r e

a. p r e p a r a t o r y b e a t ,

b» b a s i c beat m o v e m e n t ,

c . d y n a m .1 c i n d i c a t i o n ,

d. c u t - o f f s .

S e v e r a l of the a r e a s a c h i e v e d e i t h e r a h i g h e r or l o w e r

_t s c o r e than e x p e c t e d . T h o s e areas and the p r o b a b l e cause

for the u n e x p e c t e d r e s u l t s w e r e the f o l l o w i n g :

C u e i n g . - - T h e a b s e n c e of d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n g r o u p s

in t h i s area can p r o b a b l y be a t t r i b u t e d to the s h o r t a g e of

c u e i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s in two of the p o s t - i n s t r u c t i o n c o m p o s i -

t i o n s . O n l y the " A v e V e r u m " s t r e s s e d this a r e a .

68

2* Posture.--Prior to the experiment the investigator

believed that this area v.ould benefit .greatly from the use

of instant replay television. The fact that there was no

greater difference between groups than that obtained was

probably due to the fact that there were very few posture

problems to contend with among the subjects.

.3* Attention to mus i cal detail.--In this area the in-

structor and the investigator did not expect any difference

to be manifest. It was not expected that this area could be

taught, visualized, or evaluated on television because of the

multitude of factors involved. The fact that the t score

reached as high a level as it did could be indicative of

some value of the equipment not yet realized.

Several factors in the experimental design, and in the

experiment itself, could conceivably have had a detrimental

effect on the results obtained. Those factors were as

follows:

Choice of pre-inst ruction coinpo s i t i on . - -It was orig-

inally believed that "America" would be appropriate because

of the students' familiarity with the text and music. It is

now believed that this very familiarity allowed the students

to appear more competent than they actually were, particularly

in the.area of facial communication. As a result, the

observable range of difference between the pre- and post-

instruction tape recordings was considerably diminished.

69

2» Length of s t u d y . — T h e ten week experimental period

was not long enough to allow each student member of the

Experimental group more than one appearance before the camera.

It is believed that an experimental period lasting an entire

semester would increase the observed difference between the

groups and produce significant results.

3* Design of evaluation i n s t r u m e n t . — I t is possible

that a built-in bias was provided for the judges by putting

the evaluation of the pre- and post-instruction recordings on

the same page.. Allowing the judges ready reference to the

s.cores they assigned to the p re-in s t rue t i on videotape record-

ings could conceivably have influenced the scores they assigned

to the post-instruction recording.

Use of equipment.--During the experimental class

periods the instant replay television equipment was frequently

idle while the instructor lectured or conducted. The worth of

a new teaching aid can not be evaluated without using it to

the fullest extent of its capabilities. It is believed that

full utilization of the equipment would have produced a

greater difference between the two groups in favor of the

experimental group.

Had these four difficulties not existed the possibility

of achieving significant results would have been greatly en-

hanced.

Without exception, every participant in the experiment

was enthusiastic about the possibilities in using instant

70

replay television to teach the physical aspects of conducting,

Statements made by members of the Experimental and Control

groups, the instructor, and the adjudicators are given below.

These statements are typical of the reactions of the partici-

pants and are not at all unusual or exceptional,

1. "Now I can see what he has been trying to tell me

for the past two months" (4).

2. "It was very helpful. I just wish I could have used

it more often" (6).

3. "It [instant replay television] is not the answer to

all the problems of teaching conducting, but I can see the

improvement in the students that are using it" (8).

4. "I wish I had equipment like this, I can see so

many ways to get a point across to a student" (5).

5. "It's a terrific project [using television to teach

conducting] and a heck of a lot better and more useful for

the future than a hundred projects on bad Renaissance com-

posers whose music should have been left undiscovered" (2).

6. "I'lL be glad when I don't have to share the equipment

with the athletic department and can use it more often" (7).

Recommendations

It is recommended that a replication of this study be

done. Any delving into ari unknown (determining the value of

a new teaching aid) involves preparation for many unforesee-

able circumstances conducive to misjudgment, as in the errors

of design previously cited. However, the lessons learned are

71

valuable as they help to provide guidelines for future experi-

mentation. It is hoped that others will undertake an exten-

sion of this study.

In addition to conducting, many other uses of instant

replay television in music education became apparent during

this experiment. The investigator was able to use instant

replay television in many areas of applied music, any of

which could be the source of another study. Listed below

are those areas with some comment about the usefulness of

videotaping to each area.

1• Opera workshop.--The instant replay aspect of video-

taping was particularly useful for early staging rehearsals.

"One rehearsal with videotape is the equivalent of ten with-

out it" (3). Final performances could be taped for possible

telecasting by a commercial or educational television station

In this instance a commercial size recorder should be used.

Vocal p e d a g o g y . — I n s t a n t replay television gave

ample opportunity to evaluate, criticize, and discuss re-

medial measures involved in teaching voice. The zoom lens,

supplemented by additional lighting, permitted ultra close-up

pictures which readily revealed vowel and consonant forma-

tion, including the development of unwanted diphthongs. This

was particularly apparent in slow motion. The recorder used

in this experiment was not equipped with this feature but it

was possible to simulate it by manually rotating the take-up

reel at a slow rate of speed.

72

3. String teaching,--Slow motion proved to be partic-

ularly helpful in teaching bowing and finger technique.

4- Piano.--Here too, slow motion was helpful in teaching

fingering.

5 * Perfo rmance.--In all areas of applied music, video-

taping of performances proved helpful in evaluating stage

presence, interpretation, and the communication of a performer

with his audience. Further, it graphically illustrated any

mannerisms that could prove distracting to an audience.

6. Video fluorographic studies.--There have been several

studies which have utilized moving picture cameras and projec-

tors in association with x-ray investigations. This usually

entailed the difficult task of synchronizing sound with the

x-ray film. By using a videotape recorder, connected directly

to the video camera mounted in the x-ray equipment, all syn-

chronizing and processing can be avoided. A second advantage,

and a very important one, is that the x-ray equipment can be

operated at a much lower power level. This exposes the sub-

ject to far less radiation and further reduces the already

minimal chance for over-exposure. The same factor also

extends the length of time a subject can remain under x-ray

(1) .

The only difficulty in fluorographic videotaping is that,

two different monitors are required for the playback. Regular

television cameras transmit, and monitors show, 525 lines of

73

resolution. X-ray cameras and monitors use the 875" lines of

resolution common in Europe. The greater the number of lines

of resolution,the higher the fidelity of the picture. Video-

tapes made with a 525 line camera can not be viewed on an 875

line monitor. The reverse is also true. The solution is to

have one or more monitors of each type connected in tandem.

Then, when a videotape is played which was recorded with both

875 and 525 cameras, each monitor will selectively show the

part of the recording with which it is compatible. The

recorder itself is not selective. Any recorder will record

on the video tape as much of what it receives as it is capable

of recording. The recorder used in this experiment has a

capability of 350 lines of re so lution, and yet it capably

recorded the output of both the 525 and the 875 line cameras.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Finlay, Alexander, radiologist, a statement made March 16,

1968.

2. Hines, Robert, experiment adjudicator, a statement from a letter dated December 23, 1967.

3. Kerne, Donald, opera workshop director, North Texas State University, a statement made April 19, 1968.

4. McLeod, Charles, student member of the Control group, a

statement made January 6, 1968.

5. Moe, Daniel, experiment adjudicator, a statement made December 21, 1967.

6. Nagid, David, student member of the Experimental group, a statement made January 13, 1968.

7. Pfautsch, Lloyd, experiment adjudicator, a statement made December 2 1 , 1 9 6 7 .

8. Roe, Paul, conducting teacher, a statement made November 15, 1967.

74

APPENDIX A / b

a Dd o o

w

1 2 <

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w *o

m 4~i

U "+-I y n (» d

W (3 U

H ̂ 00 tc

® -g c3 di a;

*w 5C

&o a

fcD cc

•u <D a> m <y T3 cti <u <y J2

<y <u « a <u J3 o

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•H P

EVALUATION INSTRUMENT

APPENDIX B

CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING CONDUCTING ABILITY

1 • Preparatory Beat

a. The preparatory beat must be commanding and authori-tative, nearly always using both hands.

b. Speed or tempo of the preparatory beat must be con-sistent with the beginning tempo of the composition.

c. Magnitude or size of the beat should be indicative of the volume or amount of sound desired.

d. The preparatory beat should be in contrary motion to the entrance beat.

e. The conductor should breathe with the ensemble.

2 . Basic Beat Movement

a. The beat will usually flow and curve rather than appear as angular.

b. The ictus should be precise and not below the waist. c. Wrist movement should be neither rigid nor limp but

have a fluid movement which indicates strength. d. Deviation from the prescribed pattern may be made if

the music indicates the necessity for such deviation, e. Elbows should be kept fairly close to the body.

3. Dynamic Indication

a. Generally shown in the left hand: palm down and lowering for a deerescendo; palm up and rising for a crescendo. This should be coupled with the appro-priate magnitude of beat; large for loud, small for soft.

b. On a fermata, both.hands may be used and can be accentuated by a slight body movement in a rising direction.

4. Cueing

a. Simply the pointing of' a hand or a finger toward the individual or section to be cued. Usually the hand closest to the section will be used.

77

b. Eye contact with the individual or section accom-panied by a nod at the appropriate time.

5 . Independence o f Hands

a. The left hand should not consistently be a mirrored image of the right hand.

b. The left hand is used to call attention to anything that occurs in the music that is out of the ordinary.

c. Hands should usually be used together when special emphasis is needed for accents, abrupt tempo changes, crescendos, decrescendos, ritards, or fermatas.

d. When using both hands together they should generally move in opposite directions. However, for a very broad powerful effect, both hands may be used in a sweeping parallei motion.

6. Cut-offs

a. To attain precision, the cut-off should be as well prepared for as an attack.

b. In holding a fermata, the hand should rise slightly until the motion is made for the release.

c. The cut-off should be made quickly in a down and curving movement which stops abruptly for cessation of sound. The hands must not move again until the director desires to go on to the next phrase or drops his arms to indicate the conclusion of the composition.

7• Use of Face and Eyes

a. The conductor must have eye contact with the choir in order to assure that their eyes are on him.

b. Facial expression should reflect the mood or character of the music and communicate the conductor's feelings so the chorus knows much of what he wants from them.

8. Pos ture

a. The conductor should use a singing posture with expan-ded ribs, relaxed shoulders, and his weight balanced on the balls of his feet.

b. The conductor should avoid excessive bending of his waist and excessive movement of the head, torso, knees, or feet.

9. Attention to Musical Detail

a. This area is the consurnation of the conductor's entire training and background including style, performing practices, musical signs, rehearsal techniques, notation, intonation, and diction.

APPENDIX C

COST OF EQUIPMENT USED IN THE EXPERIMENT

Item Cost

1. Ampex Videotape Recorder, Model VR 7000 $ 3,150.00

2. Universal Magnetics Video Camera, VF 700 1,995.00

3. One Canon TV 16 Zoom Lens 400.00

4. Sampson Quick-set Tripod, Light Duty 150.00

• 5. Two Setche11-Car1son 23" Monitors @ $195.00 390.00

6. Two Electro-Voice Microphones Model 676 $60.00

Model 647A, Lapel $49.00 109.00

7. McMartin LX 40 Audio Mixer Preamplifier 240.00

8. Two One-hour Video Tapes @ 59.00* 118.00

9. Television C a b l e ® .056 per foot 4.25

10. Connectors 9.00

Total Expenditure $ 6,565.25

*Add i t iona1 tapes used in the study were purchased through another grant and were not part of the original expenditure

78

APPENDIX D

ORDER OF RECORDING AND VIEWING, GROUP MEMBERSHIP, THE RAW SCORE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PRE-

AND POST-INSTRUCTION RECORDING

AND

Diff.Between Diff.Between Tape No. Group Tapes Tape No. Group Tapes

1 c: .34 2.5 C .67 2 E -1.33 26 C 2.33 3 E 8.67 27 E 17.67 4 E 11.33 28 E 1.00 5 E 5 .00 '29 E 4 .00

6 C 4.33 30 C -.67 7 E 10.33 31 E 12.34 8 E -4.67 32 C 7.00 9 c: 9.33 33 E 8 .67

10 C -2.67 34 C 3.67

11 C 5.33 35 C 9.00 12 C 8.34 36 c 6.00 13 c; 5.67 37 E 7.67 14 E 7.00 38 c 11.00 15 c: 7 .33 39 E 11 .66

16 E 3.67 40 E 8.67 17 E 2.33 41 E 5.00 18 c; 6.33 42 c -.66 19 E 8.33 43 E 4.33 20 C 3.33 44 c 17.67 21 E 4.66 45 C 7.00 22 E 6.00 46 C 1.66 23 E 5.67 47 E 5.33 24 C .00 48 C 3.67

79

APPENDIX E

THE KENDALL COEFFICIENT OF CONCORDANCE

To compute W, first find the sum of ranks, R., in each J

column of a k X N table. Then sum the R- and divide that %)

sum by N to obtain the mean value of R • . Each of the R, J J J

may then be expressed as a deviation from the mean value.

The larger the deviation, the greater is the degree of

association among the k sets of ranks. Finally s, the sum

of squares of these deviations, is found. Knowing these

values, compute the value of W:

W =

J_,2 12 k* (^N3-N ̂

where s = sum of squares of the observed deviations 2

from the mean of Rj, that Kf« *X i s . S = ) I R 4 - -LLI

w \ N / k - the number of judges

N = the number of individuals ranked

_ L k 2 ̂ n3-nJ the maximum possible sum of the squared

deviations, that is, the sum s which would

occur with perfect agreement among k rankings

80

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Hilgard, Ernest R., Theories of Learning, New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Incorporated, 1956.

S i e g e 1, Sidney, No npa rame t r i c Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences , New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1956.

S tandard College Dictionary, New York, Funk and WagnalIs, 1963.

Article s

Bretz, Rudy, "Low-Cost Video Tape Recordings, AV Tool or Medium," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 948-951.

Broyles, Glenwood E., "Learning Models for Television: Improving the Program Content," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 917-920.

"Closed Circuit Television in Public Schools," Music Educators Journal , LIV (October, 1967), 38.

Culver, Katherine B., "New and Promising Uses of ITV," Audio-visual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 910-914.

Cyphert, Frederick R., and L. 0. Andrews, "Using the Video-taper in Teacher Education," Audiovisual Instruction, LV (December, 1967), 1069-1070.

Daellenbach, Charles, "Videotape Recorders at Eastman," The Instrumentali st, XXI (May, 1967), 26-28.

Follis, Lee, "TV Taping: A Rewarding and Remarkable Departure," Educational Screen and AV Guide, XLIV (May-June, 1965), 17, 19.

Frank, Jack B,, "Teaching a Freshman Music Course on Tele-vision: A Case History," Audiovisual Instruction, XI (February, 1966), 103-105.

81

82

"Growth of Educational Television/' School and Society, VC (January, 1967), 28.

Johnson, Rita B., "The Effect of Prompting, Practice and Feedback in Programmed Videotape," American Educat iona1 Research Journal, V (January, 1968), 73-79.

Lapham, Harry R., "Avoiding Common Pitfalls in the Planning of a Practical Instructional Television System," Audiov i sua 1 Instruction , XII (November, 1967), 939-943.

McDaniel, Ernest, and William K, Filiatreau, "A Comparison of Television and Conventional Instruction as Determinants of Attitude Change," Thje Journal of Educational Research, LVIII (October, 1965),"76-79.

Miles, James S., "Purdue's Television Unit," Audiovisual Instruction, X (September, 1965), 558-559.

Nasca, Don, "Science Recall and Closed Circuit Instruction," The Journal o f Educational Research, LIX (October, 1966), 76-79. '

Popham, W. James, "Instructional Video Tapes in Teacher Educat ion ," AV Communication Review, XIV (Fall, 1966), 371-376. ' ~

Richardson, Elinor, "Inquiry in Instructional Television: A Pilot Project," Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 915-916.

Smith, Fred R., "The Keys to a Reefbound Realm," Sports Illustrated, XXVIII (January, 1968), 38.

Speed, R. C., "Videotape for Coaching," Athletic Journal, IIL (September, 1967), 48.

Thorenson, Carl E., "Video in the College Classroom: An Exploratory Study," Personnel and Guidance Journal, VL (October, 1966), 144-149.

Tobias, Sigmund, "Dimensions of Teachers' Attitudes Toward Instructional Media," American Educational Research Journal t V (January, 1967), 91-98.

"Videotape at Eastman," Music Educator's Journal, LIV (November, 1967), 27.

Weber, Morris, "What Went Wrong?" Audiovisual Instruction, XII (November, 1967), 937-938.

83

Publications of Learned Organizations

Bodegraven, Paul Van, Music Education Source Book, Chicago, Music Educators National Conference, 1949.

Teacher Contract, Loyola University, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1968.

Wooten, Jean B., "The Delmarva Educational Television Project," MENC Source Book III, Perspectives In Music Education, Washington, D. C., Music Educators National Conference, 1966.

Unpublished Materials

Dahlin, Walter Odell, "The Relationship Between the Conducting Needs of School Music Teachers and Present Practices in the Teaching of Conducting," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, 1951.

Ecker, Richard, "A Developmental Approach to the Teaching of Conducting," unpublished master's thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1950.

Matthews, Glen, "An Analysis and Evaluation of Methods for Training Skills in School Music Conducting," unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, 1963.

Rasmussen, Warren Irvin, "An Investigation and Evaluation of Undergraduate Courses in Conducting," unpublished master's thesis, Northwestern University, Evans ton, Illinois, ]955.

Newspapers

The Dallas Morning News, January 14, 1968, Section D, p. 1.

The Dallas Morning News, March 30, 1968, Section D, p. 4,

Denton (Texas) Record-Chronicle. February 22, 196b, p. 10.

Denver Post , June 30, 1967, Section B, p. 2.

84

S t a t e me nts

Conner, Terry E., Vice-president of Universal Magnetics Incorporated, Dallas, Texas, a statement made in Dallas March, 1,968.

Finlay, Alexander, radiologist, a statement made in Denton, Texas, March 16, 1968.

Hines, Robert, experiment • adjudicator, a statement from a letter dated March 23, 1968.

Kerne, Donald, opera workshop director, North Texas State University, a statement made April 19, 1968.

McLeod, Charles, student member of the Control group, a statement made January 6, 1968.

Moe, Daniel, experiment adjudicator, a statement made in Denton, Texas, December 21, 1967.

Nagid, David, student member of the Experimental group, a statement made January 13, 1968.

Pfautsch, Lloyd, experiment adjudicator, a statement made in Denton, Texas, December 21, 1967.

Roe, Paul, conducting teacher, a statement made November 15, 1967.