《《古希腊文明演绎古希腊文明演绎》》

Lecturer: Wu Shiyu (Malcolm)Lecturer: Wu Shiyu (Malcolm)

Email: Email: shiyuw@sjtu.edu.cn

Website: http://sla.sjtu.edu.cn/bbsWebsite: http://sla.sjtu.edu.cn/bbs

Greek PhilosophyGreek Philosophy

Pre-Socrates: Quest for Being Pre-Socrates: Quest for Being (the archê) and Becoming(the archê) and Becoming

Review: What Philosophy MeansReview: What Philosophy Means

1. 1. ““PhilosophyPhilosophy”” means means ““love [philia] of love [philia] of wisdom [sophia].wisdom [sophia].””

2. 2. But what is wisdom? But what is wisdom?

Being able to answer the Being able to answer the ““perennialperennial”” or or ““fundamentalfundamental”” questions. questions.

Review: Subject MatterReview: Subject Matter

Our subject matter: The earliest period of Our subject matter: The earliest period of western philosophy which begins in 585 with western philosophy which begins in 585 with the work of Thales of Miletus and ends with the work of Thales of Miletus and ends with Aristotle (322).Aristotle (322).

The course will be divided into four distinct The course will be divided into four distinct units: the Presocratics, Socrates, Plato, and units: the Presocratics, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.Aristotle.

HesiodHesiod’’s Beings Being

Tell me these things, Olympian Muses, Tell me these things, Olympian Muses,

From the beginning, and tell which of them came first. From the beginning, and tell which of them came first.

In the beginning there was only Chaos, the Abyss, In the beginning there was only Chaos, the Abyss,

But then Gaia, the Earth, came into being, But then Gaia, the Earth, came into being,

Her broad bosom the ever-firm foundation of all, Her broad bosom the ever-firm foundation of all,

And Tartaros, dim in the underground depths, And Tartaros, dim in the underground depths,

And Eros, loveliest of all the Immortals. And Eros, loveliest of all the Immortals.

HesiodHesiod’’s s TheogonyTheogony

Thales, the Founder of philosophyThales, the Founder of philosophy

Gave his date as 585 B.C. from Miletus;Gave his date as 585 B.C. from Miletus;

Thales was the first natural philosopher, the Thales was the first natural philosopher, the first thinker in the west to give what the first thinker in the west to give what the Greeks called the Greeks called the ““LogosLogos””, the first to give , the first to give logos of nature (Aristotle).logos of nature (Aristotle).

What is a logos?What is a logos?

A logos is a rational explanation.A logos is a rational explanation.

The word logos is present in many suffix of The word logos is present in many suffix of the English words. (Biology=a logos of life; the English words. (Biology=a logos of life; Psychology= the logos of the soul or mind)Psychology= the logos of the soul or mind)

What is a logos?What is a logos?

““Of those who first pursued philosophy, the Of those who first pursued philosophy, the majority believed that the majority believed that the only principles of only principles of all thingsall things are principles in the forms of matter. are principles in the forms of matter. For that For that out ofout of which all existing things are which all existing things are composed and that composed and that out ofout of which they which they originally come into being, thatoriginally come into being, that into into which which they finally perish, the substance persisting, they finally perish, the substance persisting, but changing in all of its attributes. but changing in all of its attributes. ””

Quoting from AristotleQuoting from Aristotle

Thales is called the first philosopher precisely because he is the first, according to Aristotle, to give logos of nature.

ThaleThale’’s Being (s Being (the archê)the archê) Thales believed that the Thales believed that the ““principleprinciple”” of all things is of all things is

material, is in the form of matter.material, is in the form of matter. The word The word principle(principle(wonderful and extremely wonderful and extremely

important)important) The Greek word The Greek word archê archê can be translated as principle, can be translated as principle,

as origin, as beginning, as source. It also can mean as origin, as beginning, as source. It also can mean ruler. So perhaps what it means is the beginning ruler. So perhaps what it means is the beginning which then rules over everything that follows. which then rules over everything that follows. (archaic, archaeology)(archaic, archaeology)

The The archê archê then is the beginning, not in the sense of then is the beginning, not in the sense of time, but the beginning, the fundamental origin of time, but the beginning, the fundamental origin of everything else.everything else.

ThaleThale’’s Being (s Being (the archê)the archê)

““TThe archê he archê is water.is water.”” (Thales) (Thales) Aristotle speculates how Thales couldAristotle speculates how Thales could ’’ve come ve come

up with this idea, that is, the origin of all up with this idea, that is, the origin of all things is water. things is water. ““Maybe Thales got the idea Maybe Thales got the idea from seeing that nourishment of all things is from seeing that nourishment of all things is moist, and the hot itself comes to be from the moist, and the hot itself comes to be from the moist.moist.”” (Aristotle) (Aristotle)

ThalesThales

Thales of MiletusThales of Miletus

One of the Seven Wise Men One of the Seven Wise Men

Thales: Quest for BeingThales: Quest for Being

Thales is an empirical thinker, who use sense Thales is an empirical thinker, who use sense to experience in order to get information or to experience in order to get information or knowledge about the world; uses his eyes, his knowledge about the world; uses his eyes, his ears in order to understand the world. ears in order to understand the world.

From all of the observations, Thales derived a From all of the observations, Thales derived a conclusion: Arche, the principle, the origin conclusion: Arche, the principle, the origin was water. was water.

Thales of Miletus

With the spirit of free inquiry, Greek thinkers With the spirit of free inquiry, Greek thinkers then began to challenge the traditional and then began to challenge the traditional and established ideas, and also present their own. established ideas, and also present their own.

Using his reasoning capacity, using his senses, Using his reasoning capacity, using his senses, using his mind. (primitive, childish, but using his mind. (primitive, childish, but revolutinary)revolutinary)

ItIt’’s the battle that Plato 200 years later would s the battle that Plato 200 years later would describe as the old battle between describe as the old battle between philosophy philosophy and poetryand poetry. .

The Milesian SchoolThe Milesian School

Thales (585 B.C.), Anaximander (610-540 B.C.), and Thales (585 B.C.), Anaximander (610-540 B.C.), and Anaximenes (585-528 B.C. ).Anaximenes (585-528 B.C. ).

The Milesian School began their quest for being (The Milesian School began their quest for being (the the archê)archê), that is, how the world is originated and what , that is, how the world is originated and what is it made up of? They were interested in looking for is it made up of? They were interested in looking for a a unifyingunifying element, asking the question: what is there element, asking the question: what is there behind all the constant change? In their search for behind all the constant change? In their search for the the archêarchê(the origin of all becoming), each of the three (the origin of all becoming), each of the three philosophers would come up with their own theory. philosophers would come up with their own theory.

Anaximander (610- 540 B.C.) Anaximander (610- 540 B.C.) The second thinker of the Milesian School and The second thinker of the Milesian School and

student of Thalesstudent of Thales Agreed with Thales that the world has an origin Agreed with Thales that the world has an origin

((archêarchê) that can be comprehended by rational thought. ) that can be comprehended by rational thought. Disagreed with Thales on what the Disagreed with Thales on what the archêarchê was. Where was. Where

Thales claimed water, Anaximander held that the Thales claimed water, Anaximander held that the archêarchê is not in ordinary, limited, determinate is not in ordinary, limited, determinate substance like water. substance like water.

In his point of view, In his point of view, ““the indefinite,the indefinite,”” to apeironto apeiron, was , was the the archêarchê. The term . The term to apeironto apeiron in Greek could be in Greek could be translated as translated as ““the indefinite,the indefinite,”” ““the unlimited,the unlimited,”” or or ““the the indeterminate.indeterminate.”” (to=the; (to=the; apeiron=apeiron=indefinite). indefinite).

The principle of all things, Anaximander The principle of all things, Anaximander maintained, is not an element, be it air, water, maintained, is not an element, be it air, water, earth or fire. Neither is it something in earth or fire. Neither is it something in between. He claimed that those elements could between. He claimed that those elements could not explain all of the opposites found in the not explain all of the opposites found in the universe. The one that can explain is the universe. The one that can explain is the substance substance to apeironto apeiron, which can eternally give , which can eternally give birth to whatever will be. He explained that the birth to whatever will be. He explained that the origin of the Universe is the separation of origin of the Universe is the separation of opposites in the primal matter. And then all opposites in the primal matter. And then all dying things are returning to dying things are returning to apeironapeiron, the mass , the mass from which they came. from which they came.

他是这样写作的——一个典型的哲学家，只要还没有被外异的要求夺去自然质朴的品质，就会这样写作：以风格宏伟、勒之金石的字体，句句都证明有新的启悟，都表现出对崇高沉思的迷恋。每个思想及其形式都是通往最高智慧路上的里程碑。作出解释呢？

AnaximanderAnaximander 有一回这样言简意赅地说道： “事物生于何处，则必按照必然性毁

于何处；因为它们必遵循时间的秩序支付罚金，为其非公义性而受审判。”

一个真正的悲观主义者的神秘箴言，铭刻在希腊哲学界石上的神谕。（让我想起米利都这个城邦的命运）

他停留在浓密的阴影里，这阴影象巨大的鬼魂一样笼罩在这样一种世界观的峰巅。 "不确定者 " 如何能堕落为确定者，永恒者如何能堕落为暂时者，公义者如何能堕落为非公义者呢？我们愈是想接近这个问题，夜色就愈浓。

Thales and AnaximanderThales and Anaximander Thales, as an empiricist, using his ability to Thales, as an empiricist, using his ability to

make observation about the world, and then make observation about the world, and then concluding from his observations that the concluding from his observations that the world at its core must be water. world at its core must be water.

Anaximander, however, rejects this view of his Anaximander, however, rejects this view of his teacher, rejecting what it seems to be Thalesteacher, rejecting what it seems to be Thales ’’ most positive contribution to the development most positive contribution to the development of Western philosophy. of Western philosophy.

Thales and AnaximanderThales and Anaximander

The The archêarchê, in his view,, in his view, is responsible for is responsible for everything else and therefore the everything else and therefore the archê archê must must be be fundamentally differentfundamentally different from everything from everything else (everything in world of becoming). else (everything in world of becoming).

Seen from this perspective, Anaximander is a Seen from this perspective, Anaximander is a kind of kind of rationalistrationalist, using , using pure reasoningpure reasoning in in order to arrive at his conclusion. Anaximander order to arrive at his conclusion. Anaximander might have reasoned that if we want to might have reasoned that if we want to preserve the concept of being, of the preserve the concept of being, of the archê,archê, then it was imperative to negate all limits.then it was imperative to negate all limits.

Anaximenes (585-528 B.C. )Anaximenes (585-528 B.C. )

Anaximenes, student of Anaximander, both agreed Anaximenes, student of Anaximander, both agreed and disagreed with his teacher Anaximander. and disagreed with his teacher Anaximander.

Agreed that there is a rationalAgreed that there is a rational archê archê of the world of the world and that there was a problem with Thalesand that there was a problem with Thales ’’ view that view that the the archêarchê is the water. is the water.

Disagreed with Anaximander that the Disagreed with Anaximander that the archê archê is the is the indeterminate (indeterminate (to apeironto apeiron). Anaximander). Anaximander’’s s to to apeiron apeiron (the indeterminate), in Anaximenes(the indeterminate), in Anaximenes ’’ view, is view, is no different from Hesiodno different from Hesiod’’ CHAOS, and both of CHAOS, and both of them become unintelligible. them become unintelligible.

Anaximenes (585-528 B.C. )Anaximenes (585-528 B.C. )

To think, Anaximenes argues, is to think To think, Anaximenes argues, is to think about something determinate. For Anaximenes, the about something determinate. For Anaximenes, the archêarchê was air. Air is to be found everywhere, and it was air. Air is to be found everywhere, and it participates in physical processes. Air was acted on participates in physical processes. Air was acted on by natural forces and transformed into other by natural forces and transformed into other materials, which came together to form the world materials, which came together to form the world through the processes of rarefaction (through the processes of rarefaction ( 变稀薄变稀薄 ) and ) and condensation (condensation ( 浓缩浓缩 ).).

In AnaximenesIn Anaximenes’’ view, air, like water, is intelligible, view, air, like water, is intelligible, but air is superior to water for it is intangible. It is but air is superior to water for it is intangible. It is easier, therefore, to conceive of air as being easier, therefore, to conceive of air as being responsible for all things. Anaximenes probably responsible for all things. Anaximenes probably thought that air combined the advantages of Thalesthought that air combined the advantages of Thales ’’ archêarchê with the indefinite qualities of Anaximander with the indefinite qualities of Anaximander ’’s s to apeironto apeiron. With air, Anaximenes attempted to solve . With air, Anaximenes attempted to solve the problem of Being and Becoming, of the One and the problem of Being and Becoming, of the One and the Many.the Many.

“He used simple and economical Ionic speech”。这是相对于 Anaximander 而言的。阿那克西曼德虽然是用散文撰述哲学作品的第一人，但仍保留诗意化的语言：“ speaking of them thus in rather poetical terms” 。阿那克西曼尼能够使用简单而经济（ simple and economical ）的语言来进行哲学写作，表明思辨能力以及语言的掌握、运用能力的提高。

From the above, it can be seen that the Milesian From the above, it can be seen that the Milesian School, in fact, School, in fact, started the first debatestarted the first debate in in Western philosophy which was held on the Western philosophy which was held on the question question ““Is Being itself determinate or Is Being itself determinate or indeterminate?indeterminate?””

Being and BecomingBeing and Becoming These are basic philosophical terms. These are basic philosophical terms. The word becoming refers to the process coming into The word becoming refers to the process coming into

being and going out of being, coming into being and being and going out of being, coming into being and perishing. Becoming is a category. It labels a chunk perishing. Becoming is a category. It labels a chunk of reality. That chunk of reality which goes through of reality. That chunk of reality which goes through the process. the process.

By contrast, the word being refers to that which By contrast, the word being refers to that which endures, something which is in the world of around, endures, something which is in the world of around, in the category of becoming into being and goes out in the category of becoming into being and goes out of being. But being itself remains. It remains the of being. But being itself remains. It remains the same. same.

Reformulate HesiodReformulate Hesiod’’, Thales, Thales’’, Anaximander, Anaximander’’s and s and AnaximenesAnaximenes’’ position. position.

Xenophanes and Pythagoras Xenophanes and Pythagoras

Besides the Milsian School, also speculating Besides the Milsian School, also speculating about the world were two other thinkers in the about the world were two other thinkers in the 6th century BC, Xenophanes6th century BC, Xenophanes(570-475 B.C.)(570-475 B.C.) and Pythagorasand Pythagoras(570-500 B.C.)(570-500 B.C.) . .

XenophanesXenophanes

Born in Colophon, near Miletus, around 570. Born in Colophon, near Miletus, around 570. As neighbor to the Milesian School As neighbor to the Milesian School geographically, he was also a neighbor geographically, he was also a neighbor conceptually. conceptually.

On one hand, he began to use rational thought On one hand, he began to use rational thought to probe into the world; on the other hand, he to probe into the world; on the other hand, he joined the Milesian quest for Being. joined the Milesian quest for Being.

XenophanesXenophanes

For Xenophanes, god is the For Xenophanes, god is the archêarchê and god is and god is the Being. God is one and permanent. God the Being. God is one and permanent. God itself does not move, but it is able to move itself does not move, but it is able to move everything else by his mind alone. everything else by his mind alone.

XenophanesXenophanes A critic of the Greek polytheism (A critic of the Greek polytheism (   多神教多神教 ,, 多多

神论神论 ). He asked the question: why, if the god ). He asked the question: why, if the god insists on the morality for us, doninsists on the morality for us, don ’’t they act the t they act the moral way? Why is Zeus having all these moral way? Why is Zeus having all these affairs? affairs? ““Now I tell you something,Now I tell you something,”” said said Xenophanes, Xenophanes, ““If dogs have gods, they would If dogs have gods, they would look like dogs; if frogs have gods, they would look like dogs; if frogs have gods, they would like frogs. All of these are just our reading of like frogs. All of these are just our reading of ourselves into the world of a divine.ourselves into the world of a divine.””

XenophanesXenophanes

Xenophanes was also questioning social Xenophanes was also questioning social values and criticized the worship of Athletes values and criticized the worship of Athletes of his age: of his age: ““Why do we pay so much attention Why do we pay so much attention to these overweight muscled-up boxers who to these overweight muscled-up boxers who went to the Olympic Game? What have they went to the Olympic Game? What have they ever done to serve anyone? Why should they ever done to serve anyone? Why should they receive food and board to their rest of their receive food and board to their rest of their lives and make fortunes? lives and make fortunes? ””

Pythagoras (570-500 B.C.) Pythagoras (570-500 B.C.)

Pythagoras of SamosPythagoras of Samos

PythagorasPythagoras

While Thales was called While Thales was called ““the father of philosophythe father of philosophy””, , Pythagoras was known as "the father of numbers". Pythagoras was known as "the father of numbers".

Pythagoras believed that everything was interrelated Pythagoras believed that everything was interrelated with mathematics, and thought that everything was with mathematics, and thought that everything was able to be measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles, able to be measured in rhythmic patterns or cycles, and the musical intervals could be explained and the musical intervals could be explained mathematically. In sum, he worshipped in numbers, mathematically. In sum, he worshipped in numbers, which, he believed, were permanent and stable. which, he believed, were permanent and stable.

PythagorasPythagoras

To him, Number is an excellent candidate for the To him, Number is an excellent candidate for the archêarchê. Pythagoras would take the side of Thales and . Pythagoras would take the side of Thales and Anaximenes in the Milesian debate. Anaximenes in the Milesian debate.

The The archê archê must be determinate, and numbers have must be determinate, and numbers have this feature. Numbers cannot be touched or seen or this feature. Numbers cannot be touched or seen or sensed in any way, but they can be thought, namely, sensed in any way, but they can be thought, namely, they are intelligible like Thalesthey are intelligible like Thales ’’ water and water and AnaximenesAnaximenes’’ air. Numbers are stable and permanent. air. Numbers are stable and permanent. Particular things, however, in Pythagoras mind, are Particular things, however, in Pythagoras mind, are sensible and they do change.sensible and they do change.

And the Pythagoreans believed in reincarnation (And the Pythagoreans believed in reincarnation ( 再再投胎投胎 ,, 再生再生 ,, 转世转世 ). ).

Pythagoras was most famous as the founder of the Pythagoras was most famous as the founder of the Pythagorean TheoremPythagorean Theorem

In addition, Pythagoras also made significant In addition, Pythagoras also made significant contributions to philosophy and religious teaching in contributions to philosophy and religious teaching in the late 6th century BC. The influence of Pythagoras the late 6th century BC. The influence of Pythagoras has transcended the field of mathematics.has transcended the field of mathematics.

The Pythagorean theorem: The sum of the areas of the two squares The Pythagorean theorem: The sum of the areas of the two squares on the legs (on the legs (aa and and bb) equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse ) equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse

((cc).).

Medieval woodcut showing Pythagoras with bells in Pythagorean tuningMedieval woodcut showing Pythagoras with bells in Pythagorean tuning

Pythagoras, the man in the center with the book, teaching music, in Pythagoras, the man in the center with the book, teaching music, in The School of Athens

A kind of crisis has been developing in the sixth century, in the ancient Greek philosophy.

Questions to discuss

1. Do you think that the world has an archêarchê? If so, does it seem more plausible to you that it is determinate or indeterminate?

2. What might be some contemprary candidates for the archê?archê?

3. The contemporary world is often described as “the 3. The contemporary world is often described as “the age of the computer.” Are we living in Pythagorean age of the computer.” Are we living in Pythagorean times?times?

4. Do you think there are aspects of life that cannot be 4. Do you think there are aspects of life that cannot be reduced to numbers? What might these be?reduced to numbers? What might these be?

Heraclitus (535-475B.C.) Heraclitus (535-475B.C.)