-organizational-behavior.docx

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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

DEFINING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB):Organizational behavior has emerged about a couple of decades ago. OB is a theoretical subjectand field of science. Or in other words OB tends to be more theoretically oriented and at themicro level of analysis. Specifically, OB draws from many theoretical frameworks of the

behavioral sciences that are focused at understanding and explaining individual and group

behavior in organizations. So OB can be defined as;

It is an attempt to replace all the management with behavioral science concepts and

techniques.Or much more comprehensive definition can be;

Organizational Behavior is the science which tries to understand, predict and manage the

human behavior in an organization

EXPANATION:

Organizational Behavior represents the behavioral approach to management, not the whole

management. It works on the principles and knowledge of Psychology. OB has its basis fromthe Industrial psychology. But it is not the new version of translation of industrial Psychology.

It has its own grounds of study. Simply, to put it in a few words Organizational behavior is the

science which makes an easy and better management of the human resources to perform better.

WHAT MANAGER DO?What do managers do? One good answer to this question comes from the late Peter Drucker, whose

name that stands out above all others in the century-long history of management studies.

Mr. Drucker divided the job of the manager into five basic tasks. The manager, he wrote:

1) Sets objectives. The manager sets goals for the group, and decides what work needs to bedone to meet those goals.

2) Organizes. The manager divides the work into manageable activities, and selects people to

accomplish the tasks that need to be done.

3) Motivates and communicates. The manager creates a team out of his people, throughdecisions on pay, placement, promotion, and through his communications with the team.

Drucker also referred to this as the integrating function of the manager.

4) Measures. The manager establishes appropriate targets and yardsticks, and analyzes,

appraises and interprets performance.


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5) Develops people. With the rise of the knowledge worker, this task has taken on added

importance. In a knowledge economy, people are the companys most important asset, and it is

up to the manager to develop that asset.

While other management experts may use different words and focus on different aspects of

these responsibilities, Mr. Druckers basic description of the managers job still holds.

MANAGEMENT FUNCTION:Henery Fayol wrote that each manager perform five management function:

1. Planning:

It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action &deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined

goals. According to KOONTZ, Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do &

how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be. A plan is a futurecourse of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is

determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic

thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning isnecessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is

an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

2. Organizing:

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing

productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to

Henry Fayol, To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioningi.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnels. To organize a business involves determining &

providing human and non-human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a

process involves:

Identification of activities. Classification of grouping of activities. Assignment of duties. Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility. Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

3. Staffing:

It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has

assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in

size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put rightman on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to

Kootz & ODonell, Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization
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structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill

the roles designed un the structure. Staffing involves:

Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the personand giving the right place).

Recruitment, selection & placement.

Training & development. Remuneration. Performance appraisal. Promotions & transfer.4. Directing:

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work

efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of theenterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing

are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect ofmanagement which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

Supervision Motivation Leadership Communication

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of

watching & directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work.

Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.

Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work ofsubordinates in desired direction.

Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from oneperson to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

5. Controlling:

It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation ifany to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that

everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to

predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, Controlling is the

process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives andgoals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation. According to Koontz & ODonell

Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order
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to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being

accomplished. Therefore controlling has following steps:

a. Establishment of standard performance.b. Measurement of actual performance.c.

Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any.d. Corrective action.

MANAGEMENT ROLES:These are three roles:

1. INTERPERSONAL ROLES:

Figurehead: All social, inspiration, legal and ceremonial obligations. In this light, the manageris seen as a symbol of status and authority.

Leader: Duties are at the heart of the manager-subordinate relationship and include structuringand motivating subordinates, overseeing their progress, promoting and encouraging their

development, and balancing effectiveness.

Liaison: Describes the information and communication obligations of a manager. One must

network and engage in information exchange to gain access to knowledge bases.

2. INFORMATION ROLES:

Monitor: Duties include assessing internal operations, a department's success and the

problems and opportunities which may arise. All the information gained in this capacity must bestored and maintained.

Disseminator: Highlights factual or value based external views into the organisation and tosubordinates. This requires both filtering and delegation skills.

Spokesman: Serves in a PR capacity by informing and lobbying others to keep key

stakeholders updated about the operations of the organisation.

3. DECISIONAL ROLES:

Entrepreneur: Roles encourage managers to create improvement projects and work to

delegate, empower and supervise teams in the development process.

Disturbance handler: A generalist role that takes charge when an organisation is

unexpectedly upset or transformed and requires calming and support.Resource Allocator: Describes the responsibility of allocating and overseeing financial,

material and personnel resources.

Negotiator: Is a specific task which is integral for the spokesman, figurehead and resource

allocator roles.


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MANAGEMENT SKILLS:Robert L. Katz suggests that three important managerial skills that must be cultivated and

enhanced by the organization are technical, human, and conceptual.' The degree of development amanager has in each of these three skills will have a strong impact not only upon the success of

the organization but also upon the career success of the manager.

1. TECHNICAL SKILLS:

Technical skills are those abilities that are necessary to carry out a specific task. Examples of

technical skills are writing computer programs, completing accounting statements, analyzing

marketing statistics, writing legal documents, or drafting a design for a new airfoil on an

airplane. Technical skills are usually obtained through training programs that an organization

may offer its managers or employees or may be obtained by way of a college degree. Indeed,many business schools throughout the country see their role as providing graduates with the

technical skills necessary for them to be successful on the job.

2. HUMAN SKILLS:

Human skills involve the ability to work with, motivate, and direct individuals or groups in the

organization whether they are subordinates, peers, or superiors. Human skills, therefore, relate

to the individual's expertise in interacting with others in a way that will enhance the successful

completion of the task at hand. Some human skills that are often necessary for managers

todisplay are effective communication (writing and speaking), creation of a positive attitude

toward others and the work setting, development of cooperation among group members, and

motivation of subordinates.

3. CONCEPTUAL SKILLS:

Conceptual skills require an ability to understand the degree of complexity in a given situation

and to reduce that complexity to a level at which specific courses of action can be derived.

Examples of situations that require conceptual skills include the passage of laws that affect

hiring patterns in an organization, a competitor's change in marketing strategy, or the

reorganization of one department which ultimately affects the activities of other departments in

the organization.

While successful managers must possess a high level of expertise in technical, human, and

conceptual skills, it is also true that each skill will vary in importance according to the level at

which the manager is located in the organization. Generally, technical skills become least

important at the top level of the management hierarchy, replaced with a greater emphasis on


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conceptual skills. Technical skills are most pronounced at lower levels of management because

first-line managers are closer to the production process, where technical expertise is in greatest

demand. Human skills are equally necessary at each level of the management hierarchy.

Conceptual skills are critical for top managers because the plans, policies, and decisions

developed at this level require the ability to understand how a change in one activity will affect

changes in other activities.

ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY:Study oforganizational designs and organizational structures, relationship oforganizations with

theirexternal environment, and the behaviorofmanagers and technocrats within organizations.

It suggests ways in which an organization can cope with rapid change.

COMMON ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS:There are three common organizational designs- Simple structure, bureaucracy and the matrixstructure.

1. Simple Structure:

Simple structure is characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, wide span of control,

authority centralized in a single person and little formalization. The simple structure is a felt

organization, it usually has only two or three vertical levels, a lower body of employees and

one individual in whom the decision making authority is centralized. The simple structure is

most widely practiced in small businesses in which the manager and theowner are one and the

same. The strength of the simple structure less in its simplicity. Its fast flexible andinexpensive to maintain and accountability is dear.

2.Bureaucracy:

The key concept that underlies all bureaucracy is standardization. It is a structure with highly

routine operating tasks achieved through specialization very formalized rules and regulations,

tasks that are grouped into functional departments, centralized authority, narrow span ofcontrol and decision making the chain of command.The primary strength of bureaucracy lies in

its ability to perform standardized activities in a highly efficient manner. Putting like

specialties together in functional departments results in economics of scale, minimum

duplications of personal and equipment. Furthermore bureaucracy gives opportunity to lesstalented and hence less costly middle and lower level managers. The pervasiveness of rules and

regulations substitutes for managerial discretion. Standardized operations, coupled with high

formalization allow decision making to be centralized. There is little need therefore forinnovative and experienced decision makers below the level of senior executives.
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3. Matrix Structure:

Matrix structure creates dual line of authority and combines functional and product

departmentalization .The strength of functional departmentalization lies in putting like

specialists together, which minimizes the number necessary while allowing the pooling and

sharing of specialized resources across products. Its major disadvantage is the difficulty ofcoordinating the tasks of diverse functional specialists so that their activities are completed on

time and within budget. Product departmentation, on the other hand, has exactly the opposite

benefits and disadvantages. It facilitates coordination among specialties to achieve on-timecompletion and meet budgets targets. Further more, it provides clear responsibility for all

activities related to a product, but with duplication of activities and costs. The matrix attempts

to gain the strength of each, while avoiding their weaknesses. The most obvious structural

characteristics of the matrix is that it breaks the unity of command concept. Employees in thematrix have two bosses-their functional department managers and their product managers.

Therefore, the matrix has a dual chain of command.The strength of the matrix lies in its ability

to facilitate coordination when the organization has a multiplicity of complex and

interdependent activities. As an organization gets larger, its information processing capacitycan become overloaded. In a bureaucracy, complexity results in increased formularization. The

direct and frequent contact between different specialists in the matrix can make for bettercommunication and more quickly reaches the people who need to take account of it.

MODERN ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS:1. Team Structure

A team structure is a design in which an organization is made up of teams, and each team

works towards a common goal. Since the organization is made up of groups to perform the

functions of the company, teams must perform well because they are held accountable for theirperformance. In a team structured organization there is no hierarchy or chain of command.

Therefore, teams can work the way they want to, and figure out the most effective and efficientway to perform their tasks. Teams are given the power to be as innovative as they want. Some

teams may have a group leader who is in charge of the group.

2. VIRTULE ORGANIZATION

The term virtual organization is used to describe a network of independent firms that jointogether, often temporarily, to produce a service or product. Virtual organization is often

associated with such terms as virtual office, virtual teams, and virtual leadership. The

ultimate goal of the virtual organization is to provide innovative, high-quality products or

services instantaneously in response to customer demands.

The term virtualin this sense has its roots in the computer industry. When a computerappears to have more storage capacity than it really possesses it is referred to as virtual

memory. Likewise, when an organization assembles resources from a variety of firms, a

virtual organization seems to have more capabilities than it actually possesses.


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3. Boundary less Organization

A boundary less organization is one in which its design is not defined by, or limited to, the

horizontal, vertical, or external boundaries imposed by a predefined structure. In other words itis an unstructured design. This structure is much more flexible because there is no boundaries

to deal with such as chain of command, departmentalization, and organizational hierarchy.Instead of having departments, companies have used the team approach. In order to eliminate

boundaries managers may use virtual, modular, or network organizational structures. In a

virtual organization work is outsourced when necessary. There are a small number ofpermanent employees, however specialists are hired when a situation arises. Examples of this

would be subcontractors or freelancers. A modular organization is one in which manufacturing

is the business. This type of organization has work done outside of the company from different

suppliers. Each supplier produces a specific piece of the final product. When all the pieces aredone, the organization then assembles the final product. A network organization is one in

which companies outsource their major business functions in order to focus more on what theyare in business to do.

WHY DO STUUCTURES DIFFER:One extreme well call the mechanistic model. Its generally synonymous with the bureaucracy

in that it has extensive departmentalization, high formalization, a limited information network(mostly downward communication) and little participation by low level members in decision

making. At the other extreme is the organic model. This model looks a lot like the boundary less

organization. Its flat, uses cross hierarchical and cross functional teams, has low formalization,

possesses a comprehensive information network (using lateral and upward communication as

well as downward), and involves high participation in decision making.

With these two models in mind, we are now prepared to address the question: Why are someorganizations structured along more mechanistic lines whereas others follow organic

characteristics? What are the forces that influence the design that is chosen? In the following

paragraphs, we present the major forces that have been identified as causes or determinants ofan organizations structure.

1. STRATEGY

An organizations structure is a means to help management achieve its objectives. Because

objectives are derived from the organizations overall strategy, its only logical that strategy and

structure should be closely linked. More specifically structure should follow strategy. If

management makes a significant change in its organizations strategy, the structure will need to

be modified to accommodate and support this change.

Most current strategy framework focus on three strategy dimensions, innovation cost

minimization and imitation and the structural design that works best with each.


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2. ORGANIZATION SIZE:

There is considerable evince to support the ideas that an organizations size significantly affects

its structure. For instance large organizations those that typically employ 2,000 or more peopletend to have more specialization, more departmentalization, more vertical levels, and more rules

and regulations than do small organizations. However, the relationship is not linear. Rather, size

affects structure at a decreasing rate. The impact of size becomes less important as an

organization expends. Why is this? Essentially once an organization has around 2,000

employees, its already fairly mechanistic. An additional 500 employees will not have much

impact. On the other hand, additional 500 employees will not have much impact. On the other

hand, adding 500 employees to an organization that has only 300 members is likely to result in a

significant shift towards a more mechanistic structure.

3.TECHNOLOGY:

The term technology refer to how an organization transfer its inputs into outputs. Every

organizations has at least one technology for converting financial, human, and physical

resources into products or services.

4. ENVIRONMENT:

An organizational environment is composed of those institutions or forces that are outside the

organization and potentially affect the organizations performance. These typically include

suppliers, customers, competitors, government regulatory agencies, public pressuregroups, and

the like.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES FUNCTIONS:Culture is the unique possession of man. Man is born and brought up in a cultural environment.Man is not only a social animal but also a cultural being. Man cannot survive as a man withoutculture. Culture fulfils our needs and represents the entire achievements of mankind.

E. B. Taylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art,

morale, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of

society."

Culture has been fulfilling a number of functions which may be divided into two - (a) for the

individual and (b) for the group.


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1. Organizational stories:Typically contain a narrative of significant events or people, including such things as theorganizations founders, rules breaking orreaction of past mistakes, and so forth.

2. Rituals:Are repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the keyvalues of the

organizationwhat goals are most important, and which people areimportant.

3. Material symbols:Include the layout of an organizations facility, howemployees dress, the type of automobileprovided to top executives and theavailability of corporate aircrafts. Others include the size of

offices, the eleganceof furnishings, executive perks, and attire.

4. Language:Is used by organizations and units within organizations as a way toidentify members of a culture

or subculture. By learning this language, membersattest to their acceptance of the culture and,on so doing, help to preserve it. Organizations, over time, often develop unique terms todescribe equipment,offices, key personnel, suppliers, customers, or products that relate to its

business.Once assimilated, this terminology acts as a common denominator that unitesmembers

of a given culture or subculture

Culture as a Liability:1. Barriers to change:

Culture is a liability when the shared values are not in agreement with those that will further the

organizations effectiveness. This is mostly likely to occur when an organizations anorganization is dynamic. When an environment is undergoing rapid change, an organizations

entrenched culture may no longer be appropriate. So consistency of behavior is an asset to an

organization when it faces a stable environment .

2. Barriers to diversity:Hiring new employee who, because of race, age, generation, disability, or other differences, arenot like the majority of the organizations members create a paradox. Management wants new

employee to accept the organizations core culture values. Otherwise , these employee are

unlikely to fit in or be accepted. But at same time, management wants to openly acknowledge

and demonstrate support for the differences that these employee bring support to the workplace.

3.Barriers to acquisitions and Mergers:Cultural compatibility has become the primary concern. While favorable financial statement or

product line may be the initial attraction of an acquisition candidate, whether the acquisition

actually works seem to have more to do with how well the two organizations culture match up.


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Keeping a culture alive :1. Selection:

Concern with how well the candidates will fit into the organization.Provides information to

candidates about the organization.

2. Top Management:Senior executives help establish behavioral norms that are adopted bythe organization.

3. Socialization:The process that helps new employees adapt to the organizations culture

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:Organizational structure refers to the way that an organization arranges people and jobs so that its

work can be performed and its goals can be met. When a work group is very small and face-to-facecommunication is frequent, formal structure may be unnecessary, but in a larger organization

decisions have to be made about the delegation of various tasks. Thus, procedures are established

that assign responsibilities for various functions. It is these decisions that determine the organizationalstructure.

In organized structure how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated. There are sixkey elements that manages need to address when they design their organizations structure. These

are: work specialization, departmentalization chain of command, span of control, centralization and

decentralization and formalization. The following sections describe these six elements of structure.

1.

WORK SPECIALAZATION:

Early in the twentieth century, Henry Ford became rich and famous by building automobiles on

an assembly line. Every Ford worker was assigned a specific, repetitive task. For instance, one

person would just put on the right-front wheel and someone else would install the right-front

door. By breaking jobs up into small standardized tasks, which could be performed over and

over again, Ford was able to produce cars at the rate of one every 10 seconds, using employees

who had relatively limited skills.

For demonstrated that work can be performed more efficiently if employees are allowed to

specialize. Today we use the term work specialization, or division of labor, to describe the

degree to which activities in the organization are subdivided into separate jobs.

The essence of work specialization is that, rather than an entire job being done by oneindividual, it is broken down into a number of steps, with each step being completed by a

separate individual. In essence, individuals specialize in doing part of an activity rather than theentire activity.


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2. DEPARTMEMTALIZATION:

Departmentalization by function organizes by the functions to be performed. The functionsreflect the nature of the business. The advantage of this type of grouping is obtaining

efficiencies from consolidating similar specialties and people with common skills, knowledge

and orientations together in common units.

Also, Functional departmentalization - Grouping activities by functions performed. Activities

can be grouped according to function (work being done) to pursue economies of scale byplacing employees with shared skills and knowledge into departments for example human

resources, IT, accounting, manufacturing, logistics, marketing, and engineering. Functionaldepartmentalization can be used in all types of organizations.

3. CHAIN OF CAMMOND:

The chain of command, sometimes called the scaler chain, is the formal line of authority,

communication, and responsibility within an organization. The chain of command is usuallydepicted on an organizational chart, which identifies the superior and subordinate relationships in theorganizational structure. According to classical organization theory the organizational chart allows

one to visualize the lines of authority and communication within an organizational structure and

ensures clear assignment of duties and responsibilities. By utilizing the chain of command, and itsvisible authority relationships, the principle of unity of command is maintained. Unity of command

means that each subordinate reports to one and only one superior.

4. SPAN OF CONTROL:

The concept of "span of control," also known as management ratio, refers to the number of

subordinates controlled directly by a superior. It is a particularly important concept for smallbusiness owners to understand because small businesses often get into trouble when the founder

ends up with too wide a span of control. Span of control is a topic taught in management schools

and widely employed in large organizations like the military, government agencies, and educationalinstitutions. When a small business owner's span of control becomes too large, it can limit the

growth of his or her company. Even the best managers tend to lose their effectiveness when they

spend all their time managing people and their issues and are unable to focus on long-term plansand competitive positioning for the business as a whole.

5.CENTRALIZATION:

Centralization is said to be a process where the concentration of decision making is in a fewhands. All the important decision and actions at the lower level, all subjects and actions at thelower level are subject to the approval of top management. According to Allen, Centralization is

the systematic and consistent reservation of authority at central points in the organization. The

implication of centralization can be :-

1. Reservation of decision making power at top level.2. Reservation of operating authority with the middle level managers.


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3. Reservation of operation at lower level at the directions of the top level.Under centralization, the important and key decisions are taken by the top management and theother levels are into implementations as per the directions of top level. For example, in a business

concern, the father & son being the owners decide about the important matters and all the rest of

function.Like product, finance, marketing, personnel, are carried out by the department heads andthey have to act as per instruction and orders of the two people. Therefore in this case, decision

making power remain in the hands of father & son.

6.DECENTRALIZATION:

Decentralization is a systematic delegation of authority at all levels of management and in all of

the organization. In a decentralization concern, authority in retained by the top management for

taking major decisions and framing policies concerning the whole concern. Rest of the authority

may be delegated to the middle level and lower level of management.

7.FORMALIZATION:

Formalization is the extent to which rules and procedures are followed in an organization. This

element varies greatly across organizations. For example, in some organizations arrival and

departure times to and from work are specified to the minute, with time clocks used to controldeviant behavior. In other organizations it is understood that employees will spend sufficient time

on the job to get the work done. In some organizations rules and procedures cover most activities,

while in others people are allowed to exercise their own judgment.

AUTHORITY:

In an organization, authority refers to that which makes control legitimate. The individuals

working for an organization must see the control methods as legitimate; that is, the organization

must control human activity reasonably, appropriately, and lawfully. A subordinate should accept

the orders of a supervisor as long as the orders are reasonable, appropriate, and lawful. If asubordinate refuses legitimate orders, the subordinate gets fired. If the supervisor gives illegitimate

orders, the supervisor gets fired. Regardless of perspective, control and authority both become

manifest through the communication practices in an organization.

Unity of command principle helps preserve the concept of unbroken line of authority. Authority is

backed up with a reward system or appropriate sanctions.

SOURCES OF INFLUENSE OR POWER:

Five widely recognized sources of power are used by managers and leaders to influence their subordinates,

and not all of these sources require a big title to be effective. Most of these sources you will probably

recognize as being used all around you. The five sources of power and influence are: reward power,

coercive power, legitimate power, expert power and referent power.
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1. POWER REWARD:

Using a reward to obtain power is something you may be familiar with from childhood. Perhaps

you were offered a trip to the amusement park if you earned good grades in school. Motivation

through the offering of reward is common, and when you have the ability to offer such a

reward, you have a source of power. Offering your employees the opportunity to leave workearly if they accomplish the desired task is using the power of reward.

2.POWER OF COERCION:

Coercive power is also something that you may be familiar with from childhood. A parent using

coercion will send a child to bed early if the child refuses to clean his room, just as an employer

will threaten disciplinary action if an employee refuses to perform the desired task. When your

employee complies with your orders in an effort to avoid punishment, you have effectively

utilized coercion as a source of power.

3. LEGITIMATE POWER:

Legitimate power is power granted and recognized by your position. As a manager, you have

legitimate power over those who directly report to you. Your position is recognized as that of

authority, and your direct reports recognize they are obligated to comply with your requests.

Even when your direct report feels he has a better way to complete the task, your wishes will be

followed out of respect for your position.

4. REFERENT POWER:

When you admire someone, or when you feel that you relate to him, and this leads to a desire to

earn his approval, it can be said that he has a referent source of power. It is likely that you have

been influenced by, or have influenced others through referent power some time in your life. In

a basic sense, referent power is a son attempting to earn the approval of his father or mother.

The son will do what is asked of him, expecting approval or acceptance in return.

5. EXPERTISE POWER:

Being knowledgeable and experienced in your position provides you with a source of power

known as expert power. With expert power you do not require the title of manager, nor do youneed to be in any position of leadership to effectively influence those around you. The respect

you earn from your experience and knowledge becomes your source of power. Others will listen

to you and follow your guidance because of your high level of expertise.

CONSIDERATIONS:


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The use of coercion as a source of power often leads employee resentment and poor morale.

Other sources of power such as reward power, expert power and legitimate power can be used

in combination to achieve positive results for all levels of your organization.

AUTHORITY AND THE QUESTION OF OBIDIENCE:No human social organization can function without some degree of obedience to authority, as

the alternative would be anarchy leading to total chaos. Hence we find some sort of a

hierarchy in both the most underdeveloped and the most civilized societies where certainindividuals exercise authority over others. Almost everyone will agree that some degree of

authority in certain individuals or groups (and their obedience by other groups) is desirable

for the proper functioning of a society. The problem arises when the obedience to authority is

taken to extremes. Unfortunately, history has shown that this happens time and again, usuallywith undesirable results. It is this blind obedience to authority that every individual with a

conscience needs to guard against.

The conflict between compliance with the demands of those in authority and individualshaving private and sometimes different views, has been a subject of debate since ancient times

in religion and philosophy. Gods command to Abraham to kill his son, being one such

example. Many psychologists and writers have thought about, discussed and conductedexperiments to understand this human characteristic. The psychology experiments conducted

by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s and 70s to study obedience to authority among ordinary

individuals are, perhaps, the most significant and startling.

These experiments were conducted at a time when the world was still struggling to understand

the atrocities committed by the Nazis in World War II. Milgrams experiments, conclusivelyshowed that such traits of obedience to authority as exhibited by the Germans, were by no

means confined to them or even to a particular set of circumstances.

MILGRAMS EXPERIENT:

Milgrams experiment consisted of selection of teachers from ordinary people who wereasked to participate in an experiment in which the teacher was to ask certain simple

questions from a learner. In case of an error or incorrect response from the learner, he was to

be given an electric shock through a generator. These shocks were to start at a mild 15 voltsand gradually increased to an extremely painful (and lethal) level of 450 volts. During the

experiment the teacher was coaxed to continue giving the shocks to the learner. The results of

the experiment were most disturbing: most (60%) of the teachers (who were ordinary

people) continued to give the electric shocks right up to the maximum (lethal) level of 450volts, just with a little bit of coaxing from the psychologist.

Milgram repeated his experiments in several other countries apart from the USA, like Australia,South Africa and several European countries. The response of the teachers in most of these

countries was similar. In one of these studies, 85% of the teachers readily obeyed to give the

maximum (lethal) punishment to the erring learner.


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CONCLUSION:

Although no such experiment can be 100% conclusive, the Milgram experiments do shedconsiderable (and disturbing) light on the behavior of ordinary people in obedience of

authority. They also explain, to a large extent, the seemingly perplexing behavior of many

ordinary Germans during World War II and some American soldiers in Vietnam.(Milgram, Obedience to Authority..).

CONFLICT :Conflict means different things to different people. For some, a definition of conflictinvolves fighting, war, trade embargos and so on. For others, it may be a difference in

opinion, perspective or personality.

One party may feel they are in a conflict situation, when the other party feels that they are

just discussing opposing views. A lot depends on our personal "take" of the situation.

FOR EXAMPLE:

As managers, we need to be aware of how conflict arises and how to manage conflict. If

unhealthy conflict is allowed to develop, the spin off effects can result in lasting damage torelationships and the business

TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT:It is entirely appropriate to say that there has been conflict over the role of conflict in groups

and organizations. One school of thought has argued that conflict must be avoided that it

indicates a mal functioning within the group. We call this the traditional view. Another school

of thought the human relations view, argues that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in

any group and that it need not be evil, but rather has potential to be a positive force in

determining group performance The third, and most recent, perspective proposes not only that

conflict can be a positive force in a group but explicitly argues that some conflict is absolutely

necessary for a group outperform effectively. We label this third school the interactions view.Lets take a closer look at each of these views.

1. THE TRADITIONAL VIEW:

The early approach to conflict assumed that all conflict was bad. Conflict was viewed

negatively and it was used synonymous with such terms as violence, destruction and

irrationality to reinforce its negative connotation. Conflict by definition, was harmful and was to


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be avoided. The traditional view was consistent with attitudes that prevailed about group

behavior in the 1930s and 1940s. Conflict was seen as a dysfunctional outcome resulting from

poor communication, lack of openness and trust between people and the failure of managers to

be responsive to the needs and aspirations of their employees.

2. THE HUMAN RELATIONS VIEW:

The human relations view argued that conflict was a natural occurrence in all groups and

organizations. Because conflict was inevitable, the human relations school advocated

acceptance of conflict. Proponents rationalized its existence. It cannot be eliminated, and there

are times when conflict may benefit a groups performance. The human relations view

dominated conflict theory from the late 1940 through the mid-1970s.

3. THE INTERECTIONIST VIEW:

While the human relations view accepted conflict, the interactionist view encourage conflicts on

the grounds that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to becoming

static apathetic and non-responsive to needs for change in innovation. The major contribution of

the ineteractionist view therefore is encouraging group leaders to maintain an ongoing minimum

level of conflict enough to keep the group viable, self critical and creative.

CONFLICTMANAGEMENT:Conflict management is the principle that all conflicts cannot necessarily be resolved, but

learning how to manage conflicts can decrease the odds of nonproductive escalation. Conflict

management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-awareness about

conflict modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a structure for management of

conflict in your environment.

CONFLICTRESOLUTION TECHNIQUES ORMETHOD:Conflict situations are an important aspect of the workplace. A conflict is a situation when the

interests, needs, goals or values of involved parties interfere with one another. A conflict is a

common phenomenon in the workplace. Different stakeholders may have different priorities;

conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects, organization and client, boss and

subordinate, organization needs vs. personal needs. Often, a conflict is a result of perception. Is

conflict a bad thing? Not necessarily. Often, a conflict presents opportunities for improvement.Therefore, it is important to understand (and apply) various conflict resolution techniques.

1. PROBLEM SOLVING (COLLABORATIVE):

People tending towards a collaborative style try to meet the needs of all people involved. These

people can be highly assertive but unlike the competitor, they cooperate effectively and


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acknowledge that everyone is important. This style is useful when you need to bring together a

variety of viewpoints to get the best solution

Examples of when collaboratingmay be appropriate:

When consensus and commitment of other parties is important In a collaborative environment When it is required to address the interests of multiple stakeholders When a high level of trust is present When a long-term relationship is important When you need to work through hard feelings, animosity, etc When you don't want to have full responsibility

Possible advantages ofcollaborating:

Leads to solving the actual problem Reinforces mutual trust and respect

Builds a foundation for effective collaboration in the future

Shared responsibility of the outcome

You earn the reputation of a good negotiator

For parties involved, the outcome of the conflict resolution is less stressful

Some caveats ofcollaborating:

Requires a commitment from all parties to look for a mutually acceptable solution May require more effort and more time than some other methods. A win-win solution

may not be evident For the same reason, collaborating may not be practical when timing is crucial and a

quick solution or fast response is required

Once one or more parties lose their trust in an opponent, the relationship falls back toother methods of conflict resolution. Therefore, all involved parties must continue

collaborative efforts to maintain a collaborative relationship

2. COMPROMIZING:

People who prefer a compromising style try to find a solution that will at least partially satisfy

everyone. Everyone is expected to give up something, and the compromiser him- or herself also

expects to relinquish something. Compromise is useful when the cost of conflict is higher than

the cost of losing ground, when equal strength opponents are at a standstill and when there is a

deadline looming.

Examples of when compromise may be appropriate:


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When the goals are moderately important and not worth the use of more assertive ormore involving approaches, such as forcing or collaborating

To reach temporary settlement on complex issues To reach expedient solutions on important issues As a first step when the involved parties do not know each other well or havent yet

developed a high level of mutual trust When collaboration or forcing do not work

Possible advantages ofcompromise:

Faster issue resolution. Compromising may be more practical when time is a factor Can provide a temporary solution while still looking for a win-win solution Lowers the levels of tension and stress resulting from the conflict

Some caveats of using compromise:

May result in a situation when both parties are not satisfied with the outcome (a lose-lose situation)

Does not contribute to building trust in the long run May require close monitoring and control to ensure the agreements are met

3. AVOIDING:

People tending towards this style seek to evade the conflict entirely. This style is typified by

delegating controversial decisions, accepting default decisions, and not wanting to hurt

anyone's feelings. It can be appropriate when victory is impossible, when the controversy istrivial, or when someone else is in a better position to solve the problem. However in many

situations this is a weak and ineffective approach to take.

Examples of when avoidingmay be appropriate:

When the issue is trivial and not worth the effort When more important issues are pressing, and you don't have time to deal with it In situations where postponing the response is beneficial to you, for example -

o When it is not the right time or place to confront the issueo When you need time to think and collect information before you act (e.g. if you

are unprepared or taken by surprise)

When you see no chance of getting your concerns met or you would have to put forthunreasonable efforts

When you would have to deal with ostility When you are unable to handle the conflict (e.g. if you are too emotionally involved or

others can handle it better)

Possible advantages of avoiding


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When the opponent is forcing / attempts aggression, you may choose to withdraw andpostpone your response until you are in a more favourable circumstance for you to push

back

Withdrawing is a low stress approach when the conflict is short Gives the ability/time to focus on more important or more urgent issues instead

Gives you time to better prepare and collect information before you act

Some caveats of avoiding

May lead to weakening or losing your position; not acting may be interpreted as anagreement. Using withdrawing strategies without negatively affecting your own position

requires certain skill and experience

When multiple parties are involved, withdrawing may negatively affect yourrelationship with a party that expects your action

4. SMOOTHING:

Also known as accommodating.This style indicates a willingness to meet the needs of others at the

expense of the person's own needs. The accommodator often knows when to give in to others, but can be

persuaded to surrender a position even when it is not warranted. This person is not assertive but is highly

cooperative. Accommodation is appropriate when the issues matter more to the other party, when peace

is more valuable than winning, or when you want to be in a position to collect on this "favor" you gave.

However people may not return favors, and overall this approach is unlikely to give the best outcomes.

Examples of whensmoothingmay be appropriate:

When it is important to provide a temporary relief from the conflict or buy time untilyou are in a better position to respond/push back

When the issue is not as important to you as it is to the other person When you accept that you are wrong When you have no choice or when continued competition would be detrimental

Possible advantages ofsmoothing:

In some cases smoothing will help to protect more important interests while giving upon some less important ones

Gives an opportunity to reassess the situation from a different angleSome caveats ofsmoothing:

There is a risk to be abused, i.e. the opponent may constantly try to take advantage ofyour tendency toward smoothing/accommodating. Therefore it is important to keep theright balance and this requires some skill.

May negatively affect your confidence in your ability to respond to an aggressiveopponent

It makes it more difficult to transition to a win-win solution in the future


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Some of your supporters may not like your smoothing response and be turned off5. COMPETING:

People who tend towards a competitive style take a firm stand, and know what they want. They

usually operate from a position of power, drawn from things like position, rank, expertise, orpersuasive ability. This style can be useful when there is an emergency and a decision needs to

be make fast; when the decision is unpopular; or when defending against someone who is trying

to exploit the situation selfishly. However it can leave people feeling bruised, unsatisfied and

resentful when used in less urgent situations.

Examples of whenforcingmay be appropriate

In certain situations when all other, less forceful methods, dont work or are ineffective When you need to stand up for your own rights, resist aggression and pressure When a quick resolution is required and using force is justified (e.g. in a life-threatening

situation, to stop an aggression)

As a last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflictPossible advantages offorcing:

May provide a quick resolution to a conflict Increases self-esteem and draws respect when firm resistance or actions were a response

to an aggression or hostility

Some caveats offorcing:

May negatively affect your relationship with the opponent in the long run May cause the opponent to react in the same way, even if the opponent did not intend to

be forceful originally

Cannot take advantage of the strong sides of the other sides position Taking this approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some individuals

CONFLICTSTIMULATION TECHNIQUES:Conflict stimulation is also a measure to solve conflict. In traditional concept, conflict was

taken as dangerous factor. But in modern concept, conflict is not taken as dangerous all

time. Nowadays, some institutes create conflict to find new way and for innovation. If thereis not created conflict in institute, manager should think that there is some mistake. Thats

why conflict is index of development. So that while solving the conflict, it is necessary to

create the conflict. While creating conflict, following methods should be applied;

1. USES OF COMMUNICATION:


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Communication encourages and discourages the conflict. So that, while creating conflict in

required level unclear message should be sent. Threatened and challenge to the workers also

a measure to create conflict.

2. BRINING IN OUT SIDE:

Conflict also can be created by entering members with different background, value, view

and managerial skill. The discussion with the person with different background helps to find

new way. In this way, orientation with different members from outsides provides creative

way at last

3. RESTRUCTURING THE ORGANIZATION:

By changing current design of organization, functional conflict can be created. With the help

of restructure, the size of organization is changed. In this way with the help of restructure

different difficulties and problems are solved in current situation.

4. APPOINTING A DEVILS ADVOCATE:

Appointing a Devils Advocate, the organization also can create the conflict. This types of

person solves the problems differently of the members of organization. He works as conflict

motivator. If he has good skill, knowledge and mind, can be good advocator of organization.

TYPES OF CONFLICT:Followings are the types of conflict:

1. INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT:

Interpersonal conflict involves two or more individuals. Such conflict situations are made up of

atleast two individuals who hold polarized points of view, who are somewhat intolerant of

ambiguities, who ignore delicate shades of grey, and who are quick to jump to conclusions.

Individuals, who join an organization, bring along with them certain needs and beliefs. When

they work for the organizational goal the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of individuals do

clash and this results in conflict.

Reasons for inter-personal conflict:

Reasons for interpersonal conflict are the following

1. Personal dif ferences;

Everyone has different values and preferences and the environment in which everyone is grownis different from the others and hence everyone has a different personality which is different


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from the others. So, personal differences is the main cause of personal conflict because no one

has the same family, education, values and beliefs. And there is often a disagreement which

takes a very emotional and aggressive appearance.

2. I nformation defi ciency;

This source of conflict and disagreement is due to the communication breakdown in the

organization. It is possible that in an organization two people have a conflict because they usedifferent information and hence they do not agree on a certain matter. This kind of conflict is

also emotionally charged but once the information is corrected there is no conflict.

3. Role incompatibil ity;

Sometimes a conflict arises because of the different roles played by different persons.

Sometimes what a person wants is not compatible and according to the needs of other person

and hence there is a conflict aroused between the two persons. For example, the work of a sales

and marketing manager is to increase sales and that of a production is to reduce costs to aminimum level. To reduce costs the production manager keeps the inventory low (say ten units

of the product) to avoid warehouse rent. Now suppose that the sales manager promises a

customer the twenty units of the product and there are no more that ten units and hence there isa conflict or clash created between the two managers which is due to the different roles of the

managers which dont match.

4.Environmental stress;

There can also be a pressure or stress in the environment which can cause disagreement and

conflict among the individuals. For example, downsizing (when the organizations reduce the

size of their personal) occurs the workers and employees want to remain employed and not to be

hired and this also causes a disagreement and conflict among all the workers for the less

remaining positions and posts.

1.INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT:

Conflict within a person is not always easy to identify, but it can become apparent when mood

swings are present or depression is evident. Intrapersonal conflict is also apparent when aperson has trouble choosing between two or more goals. Most of us do not possess the skills to

handle serious intrapersonal conflicts, therefore referring your afflicted employee to a trained

professional is the best way to handle this problem.

2. INTRAGROUP CONFLICT:

Intragroup conflict refers to a specific kind of conflict that occurs between members of a group

that shares common goals, interests or other identifying characteristics. Intragroup conflict canbe small-scale, such as within a workplace or large-scale, such as between members of a


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specific population group. Though conflict is generally regarded as a problem, intragroup

conflict can also serve as a valuable tool in some contexts.

Intragroup conflict is distinctive in that it occurs between members of a group or team who are

theoretically united over a common characteristic or objective; in contrast, intergroup conflict

occurs between two competing or distinct groups. Intragroup conflicts are most common inworkplaces that divide employees into specific teams or departments. An example of intragroup

conflict would be members of a marketing group debating about the best way to launch a new

product. If the group was experiencing intergroup conflict, the marketing team may argue with

the technology development team about the launch.

3. Inter-group Conflict:

Intergroup conflicts are one of the most important types of conflict in an organization, as an

organization is structured in the form of several interdependent task groups. These groups could

be formal or informal, and the members of these groups interact with each other for differentpurposes. These groups differ in goals, work activities, power, and prestige. The seeds of

intergroup conflict are sown in these differences. The various reasons for intergroup conflict inan organization include goal segmentation/diversity of goals/incompatible goals; task

interdependence; resource allocation; differential reward systems; ambiguities and task

uncertainty; differences in values and perceptions; overload on some groups; and introductionof change.

REASONS FOR INTERGROUP CONFLICT:

Some major reasons for the intergroup conflict are;

1. Competition for resources: -

Most organizations have very limited resources and so is the case with the group within

organizations as there are limited budget funds, space, supplies, personnel, and support services.

2. Task interdependence: -

If two groups in an organization depend on one another there tends to be more conflict between

the groups than if the groups are independent of one another.

3. Jurisdictional ambiguity: -

When there is an ambiguity because of the roles and responsibilities of the two or more groups

there always arises a conflict. So, this type of conflict arises when the groups try to take controlof activities that do not relate to them.

4. Status struggles:-


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This conflict arises when one group tries to improve its status and have an edge over the other

group and the other group perceives it as a threat to its position or status. Or when a group feels

that they are not equally treated with other groups in an organization it gives rise to this typeconflict.

Example: - In many organizations the human and resources department personnel think that

they are not given as much importance as the marketing, finance, and operations department.

Conflict and Organizational Performance:

The assumption that conflict is always unhealthy or dysfunctional is frequently fallacious.

Conflicts have functional aspects too. They have also therapeutic value. For organizations to be

productive, certain amount of conflict is always necessary. An optimum level of conflictprevents stagnation, stimulates creativity, allows tension and stress to be released, and initiates

the seeds for change. It also facilitates critical thinking among group members, makes a group

more responsive to the needs for change, and provides similar other benefits that can enhancegroup and organizational performance. Such a level of conflict resulting in productive stress is,

thus, definitely good for the organization.

It is to be realized that the demarcation between functional and dysfunctional conflict is neither

clear nor precise. The functionality of a conflict can be measured by the impact it has on the

group/unit performance rather than on a single individual. It is known that in organizations,there is an optimal, highly functional level of conflict at which the units / organizations

performance is at the maximum. This can happen because at that level of conflict, the group or

units internal environment is characterized by self-criticism and innovativeness. When the

conflict level is low, it is dysfunctional as the units / organizations performance is low due to

apathy, stagnation, lack of new ideas, and non-responsiveness of the organization members tothe demands of change. On the other hand, when the conflict level is too high it is again

dysfunctional as the survival of the group is threatened due to diversion of energy away fromperformance and goal attainment. The most important task for managers would be to stimulate

conflict during those times when it is low, and contain conflict during those times when it is

high, so that conflict can be effectively brought to the optimum level, which leads to productive

stress, and thus proving good for the organization.

GOAL CONFLICT:Another common source of conflict for a person or individual is a goal conflict that has both

positive and negative features. Whereas in frustration, motives are blocked before the goal isreached, in goal conflict two or more motives block one another. Three separate types of goal

conflict are identified as;

1. Approach-approach conflict, where the person is to motivated to approach two or more

positive but mutually exclusive goals.


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2. Approach-avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach a goal and at

the same time is motivated to avoid it. The single goal contains both positive and negative

characteristics for the person.

3. Avoidance-avoidanceconflict, where an individual is motivated to avoid to avoid two or

more negative but mutually exclusive goals.

Example: when a person has to avoid two goals when they are not relevant to each other.

ROLE CONFLICT AND AMBIGUITY:A person has many roles to play in a society and the personality of a person has many faces and

roles. For example a person at the same time has many roles like a father, a brother, a son, a

husband, a worker and a friend. Every of the roles of the person has expectations and sometimesthere arises a conflict among the expectations of these roles and the person faces real pressure

and depression in decision making.

Example; in a company a person was working as a labor and now as a supervisor to check and

control the working of working of the other workers and to report to the top management. The

person observes that one of his closest friends and coworker is not performing the job. Thesupervisor has two roles to play, as the supervisor to report and his longtime friend may be fired

and the second role as a friend and he has to protect his friend by not reporting. Now the person

faces role conflict.

CONFLICT NEGOCIATIONS:1. LOW RISK NEGOTIATION TECHNIQUES

a. Flattery:Subtle flattery usually works best, but the standards may differ by age, sex, and cultural factors.

b. Addressing the Easy Points first:This helps build trust and momentum for the tougher issues.

c. Silence:This can be effective but one must be careful not to provoke anger and frustrate in opponents.

d. Oh Poor Me:This may lead to sympathy but could also bring out the killer instinct in opponents.

e. Inflated Opening Position:

This may illicit a counter offer that shows the opponents position or may shift the point of

compromise.

2. HIGH RISK NEGOTIATION TECHNIQUES:


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a. Unexpected Temper Losses:Irrupting an anger can break an impasse in get ones point across but in can also be viewed as

immature or manipulative and lead opponents to harden their positions.

b. High-Balling:

This is used to gain trust by appearing to give into the opponents position but when over turnby a high authority concisions or gains based on the trust.

c. Boulwarism (Take it or Leave it):This is a highly aggressive strategy that may also produce anger and frustration in opponents.

d. Waiting Until the Lost Moment:After using stall tactics and knowing the deadline is near, a reasonable but favorable offer is

made. Leaving the opponent with little choice but to accept.

COPING STRATEGIES FOR CONFLICT:1. Abandoning.Abandoning a conflict means, literally or figuratively, walking away from it. Some conflicts

amount to pointless jousting with few or no consequences, good or bad. They are simply not

worth your time and energy. Moreover, when you are terribly outnumbered, feel physically

threatened, or find yourself in the middle of someone else's conflict (and for personal,professional or ethical reasons don't wish to participate), then abandoning is probably the best

choice.

2. Avoiding.

Avoidance is one of the most common strategies for coping with conflict. Avoiding a conflict

doesn't mean you're a cowardunless, of course, you do it all the time. Avoiding is a legitimate

strategy when you need time to cool off, when you stand to gain nothing from confronting a

situation, when power is drastically unequal, when you want to put distance between yourselfand the other person, or when you need time to prepare. Avoidance buys time. Use the time

wisely once you have it. For example, if you postpone a meeting, immediately get to work,

prepare yourself and reschedule.

3. Dominating.

Dominating is an effective strategy when a quick decision is needed or when the issue isrelatively unimportantit gets things done. Dominating is usually power-oriented and delivered

assertively. The ability to take control can actually be quite helpful when the other person lacksknowledge or expertise, and your opponent may be relieved that you have offered a solution.

Don't try to dominate too often, however. Dominating is only effective as long as you have

"right and might" on your side.

4. Obliging.


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This strategy deliberately elevates the other person, making him or her feel better about the

situation. By obliging, you play down the differences between yourself and your opponent. It's a

way of seeking common ground. Obliging requires that yougive away power, which, if youhave plenty to spare, can build trust and confidence. If you are secure in your position, obliging

becomes almost a form of delegation.

5. Getting help.

This strategy involves bringing in a third party to act as a conflict mediator. Sometimes aconflict can't be resolved by opponents acting alone. If big skill differences put either of you at a

distinct disadvantage, if emotions are highly charged, if there's a language barrier, or if your

opponent is blatantly uncooperative, you probably need to get help. Mediation is always neededif your opponent threatens in any way to retaliate against you. Depending on the seriousness of

the conflict and the potential impact of the resolution, the person doing the intervention can be

anyone from a skillful communicator to a professional mediator, just as long as he or she is

unbiased and respectful of both (or all) parties involved.

6. Humor.

Using humor to defuse a conflict can be particularly effective if you and your opponent are

peers, or if the conflict is not terribly serious. Being humorous may involve looking at thesituation in a comical way, poking fun at yourself for a style of reacting that frequently gets youinto trouble, or generally making light of the situation.

7. Postponing.

Postponing is putting off until tomorrow what neither you nor the other person is prepared to

deal with today. It differs from avoiding in that postponing is a low-level, handshake type ofpreliminary agreement. The ability to jointly agree to put off dealing with a conflict until you

have cooled off, are more rested, or have your facts straight requires control and skill. However,postponing is a strategy, not an escape hatch, so before going your separate ways, establish the

time and place of your next contact.

8. Compromise.

This is a middle-of-the-road strategy that gets everyone talking about the issues and moves youcloser to each other and to a resolution. In compromise, each person has something to give and

something to take. Compromise is most effective when issues are complex, and power is

balanced. Compromise can be chosen when other methods have failed and when both you andyour opponent are looking for middle ground, willing to exchange concessions. It almost alwaysmeans giving up something in order to attain part of what you want.

9. Integrating.

Integrating focuses on gathering and organizing information; at the same time, it encouragescreative thinking and welcomes diverse perspectives. Suppose, for example, that the conflict


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concerns a major financial outlay. You don't like the direction things are going, but lack all the

facts and figures. The other person doesn't have complete information either, but sees no reason

to change course. Instead of continuing to argue, you agree to integrateto pool all of theinformation you can get your hands on, put your differences on the table and examine them

along with any data that might contribute to a resolution. Integrating turns you and your

opponent into allies on a mission to master the complexities of the issue and thereby developalternative solutions. Integrating is often a prelude to collaboration and problem-solving.

10. Collaboration/Problem-solving.

Collaborating means working together to resolve the conflict and necessitates information

gathering as well as some form of problem-solving. In order to collaborate, you and youropponent must be able and willing to contribute time, energy and resources to finding and

implementing a solution. You must also trust each other to a degree. Trust grows as you

cooperate in finding a solution to the problem.

A good place to see expert conflict management in action is the courtroom. For many if notmost attorneys, conflict is a way of life. The good ones rarely select a strategy without figuring

out in advance a full range of possible responses from the opposing side. Even displays ofemotion are calculated to produce specific results. I'm not suggesting you start acting like an

attorney (talk about creating conflict!) but, rather, that you view conflict as an opportunity,

giving it the respect and conscious attention it deserves. Win-win resolutions are often possible,and getting to them can be stimulating and productive. Good conflict management can clear the

air, improve relationships, and produce creative solutions to tough problems.

ATTITUDE:This is an important concept in psychology. Below is one definition of attitude:

An attitude is an opinion that one has about someone or something. It can reflect a favorable,

unfavorable, or neutral judgment.

We may have attitudes about many things. For example, we have attitudes about people,political issues, pets, music, art, movies, books, and education.

Attitudes may reflect both beliefs and feelings. For example, a positive attitude concerning

a psychology course may include the belief that the course involves learning about something

that is important to your life and the feeling that you like the course.

CHARACTERSITICS OF ATTITUDE:You don't have to be born with a good attitude. Books, movies, videos, courses, groups and

movements promote a positive attitude for a successful life. The one thing all these secrets-to-

success stories have in common is a good attitude. The tortoise beat the hare not because he was


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faster, but because he had a better attitude. Henry Ford was right when he said, "Whether you

think you can, or whether you think you can't, you're right."

Good Thoughts:

From Norman Vincent Peale's book "The Power of Positive Thinking" to EST seminars tosports psychology, the search for success has consumed humans forever. One thing they

agree on is that good attitude and good thoughts are inseparable. Those with a good attitude

control their thoughts and keep them positive. This influences their outcomes from trying a

new activity to winning a political or physical race. Noble-winning physicist Max Plancksaid, "When you change the way you look at things, the things you look at change."

Thinking you can succeed is a key characteristic of a good attitude.

Self-Assurance:

Those with a good attitude know their own capabilities. A characteristic of their goodattitude is they accept poor results realistically. They don't become negative if they don't winthe first time they try something because they are realistic about their abilities and talents.

Once they decide to try a new challenge, they give it their whole effort and become as good

as they can be, taking as much pleasure in improving and participating as winning or beating

an opponent.

Positive Comments:

Comments influence attitude. When you make good comments, you foster a positive attitudeboth in you and those around you. Cultivating a good attitude makes you the kind of person

others like to be with, which buoys your positive feelings. A characteristic of those with agood attitude is that they make positive comments about others and themselves. Whether it'slearning to play tennis or master an equation, a good attitude will get you further than

intelligence or ability and produce an outlook of hope, says academictips.org.

Gratitude:

A good attitude also stems from gratitude for what you have right now. Counting blessingsis more than trite --- it works. Nursing grievances can change an attitude from good to bad.A characteristic of a positive outlook on life is to be grateful for the benefits you possess.

This attitude fosters hope that you have more good things to look forward to.

Clear Goals:

Another characteristic of a good attitude is knowing what you want. Clear goals are easy to

define and set a standard to meet, giving you motivation to achieve them. By deciding on setgoals, those with a good attitude unclutter their minds and allow themselves to focus on

what it is they must do to get to where they want.


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CHARACTERSTICS OF ATTITUDE:Attitude can be characterized in the following ways:

An attitude is the predisposition of the individual psychological structure of beliefswhich are to

be evaluated a favorable or an unfavorable manner.

They tend to persist unless something is done to change them.

Attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to veryunfavorable.

Attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has feelings(sometimes called

affect) and beliefs.

Attitudes are different from values. Values refers to the ideals, whereas attitudesare narrows,

they are feelings, thoughts and behavioral tendencies toward a specificobject orsituation

Attitude is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts.

Attitudes are evaluating statements either favorable or unfavorable which concernedabout the

objects and people or event

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE:There are three components of attitude.

1: Cognitive component:

It refers that's part of attitude which is related in general know how of a person, for example,

he says smoking is injurious to health. Such type of idea of a person is called cognitive

component of attitude.

2: Effective component:

This part of attitude is related to the statement which affects another person. For example, in

an organization a personal report is given to the general manager. In report he point out that

the sale staff is not performing their due responsibilities. The general manager forwards a

written notice to the marketingmanager to negotiate with the sale staff.

3: Behavioral Component:

The behavioral component refers to that part of attitude which reflects the intension of a

person in short run or in long run.

For example, before the production and launching process the product. Report is prepared by
http://www.blurtit.com/q566451.htmlhttp://www.blurtit.com/q566451.html


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the production department which consists of there intention in near future and long run and

this report is handed over to top management for the decision

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE:Attitudes serve four major functions for the individual: (1) the adjustments function, (2) the egodefensive function, (3) the value expressive function (4) the knowledge function. Ultimately

these functions serve peoples need to protect and enhance the image they hold of themselves.

In more general terms, these functions are the motivational bases which shape and reinforce

positive attitudes toward goal objects perceived as need satisfying and / or negative attitudes

toward other objects perceived as punishing or threatening. These situations are diagrammed in

Figure below. The functions themselves can help us to understand why people hold the attitudes

they do toward psychological objects.

1. Adjustment Function :

The adjustment function directs people toward pleasurable or rewarding objects and away fromunpleasant, undesirable ones. It serves the utilitarian concept of maximizing reward and

minimizing punishment. Thus, the attitudes of consumers depend to a large degree on their

perceptions of what is needed satisfying and what is punishing. Because consumers perceiveproducts, services and stores as providing need satisfying or unsatisfying experiences we should

expect their attitudes toward these object to vary in relation to the experiences that have

occurred.

2. Ego Defensive Function:

Attitudes firmed to protect the ego or self image from threats help fulfill the ego defensivefunction. Actually many outward expressions of such attitudes reflect the opposite of what the

person perceives him to be. For example a consumer who has made a poor purchase decisionor a poor investment may staunchly defend the decision as being correct at the time or as being

the result of poor advice from another person. Such ego defensive attitude helps us to protect

out self image and often we are unaware of them.

3. Value expression function:

Whereas ego defensive attitudes are formed to protect a persons self image, value expressive

attitudes enable the expression of the persons centrally held values. Therefore consumers adoptcertain attitudes in an effort to translate their values into something more tangible and easily

expressed . Thus, a conservative person might develop an unfavorable attitude toward bright

clothing and instead be attracted toward dark, pin striped suits.

Marketers should develop an understanding of what values consumers wish to express aboutthemselves and they should design products and promotional campaigns to allow these self


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expressions. Not all products lend themselves to this form of market segmentation however.

Those with the greatest potential for value expressive segmentation are ones with high social

visibility. Cross pens, Saks Fifth Avenue clothes. Ferrari automobiles and Bang & Childrenstereo systems are examples.

4.Knowledge function:

Humans have a need for a structured and orderly world, and therefore they seek consistencystability definition and understanding. Out of this need develops attitudes toward acquiring

knowledge. In addition, the need to know tends to be specific. Therefore an individual who does

not play golf, nor wish to learn the sport is unlikely to seek knowledge or an understanding ofthe game. This will influence the amount of information search devoted to this topic. Thus, out

of our need to know come attitudes about what we believe we need or do not need to

understand.

In addition attitudes enable consumers to simplify the complexity of the real world. That is, as

was pointed out in the chapter information processing, the real world is too complex for us tocope with so we develop mechanisms to simplify situations. We saw that this involves sensory

thresholds and selective attention and it also involves attitudes. Attitudes allow us to categorize

or group objects as a way of knowing about them. Thus, when a new object is experienced we

attempt to categorize it into a group which we know something about. In this way the object can

share the reactions we have for other objects in the same category. This is efficient because we

do not have to spend much effort reacting to each new object as a completely unique situation.

Consequently we often find consumers reacting in similar ways to ads for going out of business

sales limited time offers American made goods etc. Of course there is some risk of error in not

looking at the unique aspects or new information about objects but for better or worse, our

attitudes have influenced how we feel and react to new examples of these situations.

TYPES OF ATTITUDES:A person can have thousands of attitudes, butOrganizational Behaviour focuses our

attention on a v

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