Phonetics: It is the science of speech sounds. It is the study of the production and reception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the sounds of language; how these sounds are articulated and how listeners perceive them.

Articulatory phonetics (production): The study of how speech sounds are produced or articulated.

Auditory phonetics (perception): The study of how speech sounds are perceived via the ear.

Acoustic phonetics: It deals with the physical properties of the sounds.

A consonant sound is formed when the airstream is restricted or stopped at some point in the vocal tract, as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth.

That is, consonants are produced with some narrowing or obstruction of the articulatory passageway.

To describe a consonant, we have to consider:

1. The state of the glottis (voiced or voiceless vocal cords): When the vocal cords are open, the consonant sound is voiceless; When they are vibrating, the consonant is voiced.

2. The Place of articulation: It is the point where the contact between the articulators takes place.

3. The manner of articulation: how the airstream is modified by the vocal tract to produce sounds. It depends on the degree of closure or constriction of the articulators – how close together or far apart they are.

Sounds are classified on the basis of their voicing. Sounds can be voiced or voiceless.

Voiced sounds require vibration of the muscles in the larynx that form the vocal cords.

The space between these vocal cords is called the “glottis.”

Larynx, or voice box which contains

Two Vocal Cords (upper left) When vocal cords are drawn

tight, they produce a voice sound

When vocal cords are spread apart, they produce voiceless sounds.

For example, the pairs s/z, p/b, f/v and t/d

The first sound is voiceless, the second is voiced.

As a rule, the voiceless member of the pair will be produced with more muscle tension, more airflow, and a shorter sound duration than the second member.

A place of articulation is a point of contact where a sound is produced.

Most consonants are produced by using the tongue and other parts in the mouth to constrict the airway.

There are many places of articulation as indicated on the left.

1, 2 : Labial Sounds are produced here.3: Inderdental4: Dental sounds5,6: Alveolar sounds7, 8: Palatal sounds, Velar sounds9: Uvular sounds10: Pharyngeal sounds11-14: Glottal sounds15: Interdental sounds16-18: Labiodental sounds

[b]

12

Bilabial Nasal [m]Bilabial Stop [b]

13

[t], [d]: airflow stopped(at the alveolar ridge)

Dental sounds [ð , θ ]

These are sounds formed using both upper and lower lips. The initial sounds in the words pat, bat, way and mat are all bilabials. They are represented by the symbols [p] [b] [m] and [w].

These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip.

The initial sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds of safe and save are labiodentals. Symbols are [f] [v].

The final sound in the word cough, and the initial sound in photo, despite the spelling differences, are both pronounced as [f].

These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth.

The initial sound of thin and the final sound of bath are both dentals. The symbol used for these sounds are [θ], [ð], for example, the, thank,

then & thin

These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and above the upper teeth.

The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo, nut, lap, lit, and right are all alveolars. The symbols are– [t], [d], [s], [z], [n] [l] [r]

Sounds produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals. The hard palate is the hard part in the roof of your tongue behind the alveolar ridge.

The initial sounds in the words shout and child. [ʃ] [ʧ].

The voiced palatal represented by the symbol [ʒ] as in the middle consonant in words like treasure and pleasure.

Also the voiced palatal [dʒ] as in words like George or judge.

Sounds produced with the back of the tongue against the velum (soft palate) are called velars.

They are represented by the symbol [k], [g] and [ŋ] as in kid, kill, go, gun, give, sing and ringing.

Despite the variety in spelling, the [k] sound is both then initial and final sound in the words cook, kick and coke.

There is one sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. It is the voiceless sound [h] which occurs at the beginning of have and house.

When the glottis is open and there is no manipulation of the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by [h].

1- Decide whether following words begin with a voiced or voiceless consonant:

1. Treasure2. University 3. Mentor4. Writer5. Photographer6. Question7. Think8. Zoom9. Church10. Japan

1- Provide the phonetic symbol representing each of the following sounds:

1. Voiced labiodental 2. Voiced alveolar 3. Voicelss glottal 4. Voiced velar 5. Voiced dental 6. voiceless palatal 7. Voiceless bilabial

1- Identify the place of articulation for each of the following sounds:

1. [dʒ ] 2. [ n ]3. [ w ] 4. [ f ]5. [ p ] 6. [ ʃ ]7. [g]

The manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, and other speech organs are involved in making a sound make contact.

That is, how the airstream is modified by the vocal tract to produce sounds. It is the degree of closure or constriction of the articulators – the degree of obstruction of the airstream by these articulators.

For example, [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. They differ in their manner of articulation, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called fricatives.

This type of consonant sound, resulting from a blocking or stopping effect on the air stream, is called a stop (or plosive).

They are produced by some form of “stopping” of the air stream, then letting it go abruptly (sudden release of the air). The set of stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [ɡ]

The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ] involves almost blocking the air stream and having the air push through the very narrow opening.

As the air is pushed through, and a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives.

If you put your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out.

If you combine a brief stopping of the air stream with an obstructed release which causes some friction, these are called affricates.

Such sounds happen at the beginning of the words cheap and jeep. This is the set of affricates sounds : [ʧ] and [ʤ].

When the velum is lowered and the air stream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce the sounds are described as nasals.

The words morning, knitting and name begin and end with nasals. Set of nasals sounds [m], [n] and [ŋ]

They are produced by letting the air stream flow around the side of the tongue, while the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. This produces the sound [l] as in the words beginning with light or liver.

Another liquid is [r] which is formed with the tip of the tongue raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge, as in words beginning with red, room.

They are also called semivowels. They are produced like a vowel but with the tongue closer to the roof the mouth, so that there is a slight turbulence. The sounds [w] and [j] are glides

They occur in words beginning with white, work, you, yes.

The glottal stop occurs when the space between the vocal cords is closed completely (very briefly), then released. Try to say the expression oh oh! or you can find it in place of the “t” in the word Batman or mitten. It is represented by the symbol [ʔ]

Flap occurs when there is a single quick flip of the tongue against the upper part of the mouth. A flap happens when someone pronounces the word butter as buɾer, or later laɾer , writer wriɾer. It is represented by the symbol [ɾ].

Provide the phonetic symbol representing each of the following sounds:

1. Voiced labiodental fricative 2. Voiced alveolar lateral 3. Voicelss glottal fricative4. Voiced velar nasal 5. Voiced dental fricative 6. Voiced palatal fricative

Provide the appropriate three-part articulatory description for the consonant sounds represented in by the following symbols:

1. / dʒ / 2. /n /

3. [ŋ] 4. /w / 5. / f/ 6. / p/ 7. / ʃ /

8. [ʔ]

Natural Classes are groups of sounds in a language that share some articulatory or auditory features. In order for a group of sounds to be a natural class it must include all of the sounds that share a particular feature or a group of features. [b, d, g ] voiced oral stops [p, t, k ] voiceless oral stops [ d, z, l, n] [ p, l, w ]

Obstruents are consonants produced with an obstruction of the airflow. The sounds in this category are stops, fricatives, affricates.

Sonorants are consonants produced with a relatively open passage for the airflow. They include nasals, liquids and glides.

Sibilant Sounds: are characteristically intense consonants which are produced with a hissing sound by directing the air through a narrow channel in the vocal tract towards the sharp edge of the teeth. They include all fricative and affricate consonants including [s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ ].

1. Describe the following natural classes:1. [r, l ] 2. [f, s, ʃ , Ɵ ]3. [ w , y ]

2. List the members of the following natural classes:

1. Alveolar obstruent consonants 2. Voiced labial consonants 3. Velar oral stop consonants4. dental fricative consonants