© t. m. whitmore today more causes of sub-saharan africa & (under)development role of disease...
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© T. M. Whitmore
Today•More causes of Sub-Saharan Africa &
(under)DevelopmentRole of disease (again)The role of development aidRole of debt & “Structural
Adjustment”Women and developmentStructure of African economies
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© T. M. Whitmore
Last Time•Sub-Saharan Africa & Development
The characteristics of the least developed
•Causes of (under)developmentRemnants of colonialism SS African environments and
human usesRole of conflictImportance of population &
demographyAgricultural production
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© T. M. Whitmore
The Burden of Disease (again)
•HIV/AIDS (again)•TB (Tuberculosis)•G I tract diseases (diarrheas)•Malaria•Some of the rest
MeaslesAfrican sleeping sicknessYellow FeverSchistosomiasisOnchocerciasis (River blindness)
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Reduction in production in a Reduction in production in a household with an AIDS death, household with an AIDS death,
ZimbabweZimbabwe
Source: Stover & Bollinger, 1999
•
•
•
•
•
Crops Reduction in output
Maize
Cotton
Vegetables
Groundnuts
Cattle owned
49%
37%
29%
47%
61%
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© T. M. Whitmore
TB: re-emerging killer
•1.6 million new cases of TB in Africa yearly
•600,000 TB deaths occur every year
•TB is the leading cause of death in people with HIV in Africa
•Drug resistance increasing
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HIV/AIDS is Fueling the TB Epidemic
HIV/AIDS Prevalence in sub-Saharan AfricaEstimated percent of adults living with HIV/AIDS
TB High Burden Countries
10% +
3-9%
1-3%
TB Incidence
0-99 per 100,000
100-299 per 100,000
> 300 per 100, 000
Source: UNAIDS Report, July 2002; WHO Report, 2002, Global TB Control
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© T. M. Whitmore
G. I. Tract Diseases• 1.8 billion cases/yr of infant/kid diarrheas,
intestinal parasites, cholera, various types of dysenteryMost are in SS Africa
• Infants and kids who are just weaning are especially susceptible due to impure water
• Many if not most deaths (perhaps 1 million/ yr in the world) can be averted with adequate treatment (Oral Rehydration Therapy)
• To improve => provide adequate sanitation: in rural Africa only about 20% has access to adequate sanitation
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© T. M. Whitmore
Malaria •Also related to water since mosquito
vector needs warm stagnant water•World wide annual toll
More than 1 million deaths 90 % of cases in SS Africa
500 million attacks of acute illness50,000 cases of neurological
damage400,000 episodes of severe anemia
in pregnancy – 400,000 LBW babies•Drugs expensive & resistance
increasing
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Malaria transmissionMalaria transmission
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The Malaria ChallengeThe Malaria Challenge Death rates reduced in Asia but rising in Africa
1900 1930 1950 1970 1990 2000
0.1
1.0
3.0
2.0
China
N.America & Europe
Africa
World
An
nu
al D
eath
s f
rom
Mala
ria
(
million
s)
(R.Carter,1999)
Central & S.America
Asia
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Duration of transmissionDuration of transmission
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Resistance to Chloroquine - 1960Resistance to Chloroquine - 1960
Source: FHI
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Resistance to Chloroquine - 2000Resistance to Chloroquine - 2000
Source: FHI
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© T. M. Whitmore
Many others
•African sleeping sickness — transmitted to humans and livestock by the tsetse fly — endemic in much of SS Africa
•Yellow fever — more epidemic than endemic in most all lowland Africa
•Schistosomiasis (also called bilharzia) — absent only in highland areas
•Onchocerciasis (also called river blindness) — common in savanna zones
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Onchocerciasis
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© T. M. Whitmore
•Aid applied according to development theories & ideologies current at the time – or for geopolitical goalsOften not well enough thought outMuch US aid to Egypt, Israel for
example
•Results often aided the Global N or Trans National Corporations
•NGOs, smaller, may have better record, but still have their own agenda
Aid and underdevelopment
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© T. M. Whitmore
Debt & underdevelopment•Post-independence (1960s-70s)
Good prices for primary sector exports
Encouraged international investment (debt financed)
• Investments were often poorly thought out
•1980s bust in prices => lower income But debt still needed to be paidBy 1980s debt service (interest +
capital) = 25% of all governmental income
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Debt and underdevelopment II
•Inefficient and corrupt governments
•“Structural adjustments” (IMF & World Bank) force governments to reduce spending to pay debtsLoss of social security netsLoss of subsidies to agriculture (e.g., for fertilizer)
•Recently some re-organization and call for debt forgiveness etc.
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World Bank & IMF•Created after United Nations
Monetary and Financial Conference (1944-45)
•Loans and grants to ~ 184 members, almost the entire UN
•Focused on Global SouthHuman developmentAgriculture and rural developmentEnvironmental protectionInfrastructure & Governance
•Borrowers must launch reforms
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Criticisms of World Bank & IMF•A tool of the Global N imposing policies
that support Its interestsSupports international corporate
interests over local onesNeo-liberal economic principles
(privatization & markets) Required repayment no matter what
(structural adjustment)•Governance based on level of financial
contribution (from Global N)US 16.4%; Japan 7.9%; Germany 4.5%Major policy shift requires 85% yes;
thus, US controls
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Women and development
•Cycle of Overwork – poverty – and demands of child rearing => Elevated infant mortality Elevated maternal mortality
•Slower fertility decline Close birth spacing =>
•Poor levels of female education
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Western Africa1,040
Eastern Africa1,340
North Africa460
Central Africa 1,020
Southern Africa360
*Maternal deaths per 100,000 live births
Maternal Mortality Ratio*
Source: Kenneth Hill, Carla Abou Zahr, & Tessa Wardlaw: Estimates of maternal mortality for 1995. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol.79, no.3, 182-193.
Sub-Saharan Africa 1,100
South Asia 430
East Asia/Pac. 140
LA & C 190
DevelopingCountries 440
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Ratio of Girl’s to Boy’s Primary Education
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Structure of economy & development
•Narrowly focused economies often have troublesPrimary sector (such as agriculture or mining) economies have most problems
Recall the least developed countries
A risky primary sector economy => little opportunity to create a more diverse economy
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Agricultural pastoral economies
•West Africa: Liberia, Cote d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
•East Africa: Tanzania
•Central Africa: Congo, Cameroon, C. African Republic
•Southern Africa: Madagascar, Mozambique, Malawi
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Agricultural pastoral economies
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African Crop Land
Navin Ramankutty, Nicholas J. Olejniczak, and Jonathan A. FoleyCenter for Sustainability and the Global Environmenthttp://www.sage.wisc.edu
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Problems for ag-pastoral economies
•Commercial/export ag often benefits only a fewusually occupies best lands
•Ag/pastoral sector usually less rapidly growingat risk to environmental fluctuationsat risk to land degradation and loss of
productive potential•Great competition among ag sector primary
product exporters tends to lower prices to producers (e.g., many countries world-wide export coffee)
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Mostly mineral extraction-based primary/extractive
economies•West Africa:
Nigeria•Central Africa:
Zaire/Democratic Congo Republic, Gabon
•Southern Africa: Zambia, Botswana, Namibia, Angola
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Mineral extraction-based primary/extractive economies
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Problems with mineral-export economies
•Price fluctuations often extreme
•Minerals are a “wasting” resource
•Often mines are foreign owned and controlled
•Environmental problems in places
•Corruption seems to accompany mineral wealth
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Dual - Sector Economies: agricultural/pastoral and
minerals•West Africa:
Mauritania, Senegal, Guinea, Ghana
•Southern Africa: Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Lesotho
•Problems Still primary sector based => low rates of growth and productivity
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Dual - Sector Economies
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Diverse economies — not just primary sector
•KenyaYet Kenya’s GNI/capita still very low
•South Africa
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Diverse economies
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Themes for SS Africa Development/Underdevelo
pment •Environmental uncertainty•Disease•Population growth•Food production shortfalls•Conflict•Debt •Structure of economy•All work together in geographic
complexity!