教育目標的分類 taxonomy of educational objectives 1.cognitive domain 2.affective domain...

教育目標的分類教育目標的分類Taxonomy of Educational ObjectivesTaxonomy of Educational Objectives

1.Cognitive Domain1.Cognitive Domain

2.Affective Domain2.Affective Domain

3.Psychomotor Domain3.Psychomotor Domain

Descriptions of the Major Categories in Descriptions of the Major Categories in

the the Cognitive DomainCognitive Domain (1) (1)

• KnowledgeKnowledge: Knowledge is defined as : Knowledge is defined as the remembering of previously the remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the learned material. This may involve the recall of a wide range of material, recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate bringing to mind of the appropriate information. Knowledge represents information. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.in the cognitive domain.

Descriptions of the Major Categories in Descriptions of the Major Categories in the the Cognitive Domain Cognitive Domain (2)(2)

• ComprehensionComprehension: Comprehension is defined : Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by translating material. This may be shown by translating material from one form to another (words or material from one form to another (words or numbers), by interpreting material numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), and by (explaining or summarizing), and by estimating future trends (predicting estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects). These learning consequences or effects). These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material and represent the remembering of material and represent the lowest level of understanding. lowest level of understanding.


• ApplicationApplication: Application refers to the : Application refers to the ability to use learned material an new ability to use learned material an new and concrete situations. This may and concrete situations. This may include the application of such things include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Learning outcomes laws, and theories. Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of in this area require a higher level of understanding that those under understanding that those under comprehension. comprehension.


• AnalysisAnalysis: Analysis refers to the ability to : Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. This may include the may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved. of the organizational principles involved. Learning outcomes here represent a higher Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and intellectual level than comprehension and application because they require an application because they require an understanding of both the content and the understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material. structural form of the material.


• SynthesisSynthesis: Synthesis refers to the ability to : Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes in this area information). Learning outcomes in this area stress creative behaviors, with major stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or structures. patterns or structures.


• EvaluationEvaluation: evaluation is concerned with the : evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgments are to be based on purpose. The judgments are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance to (organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may be determine the purpose) and the student may be determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain element of all of the other because they contain element of all of the other categories plus value judgments based on clearly categories plus value judgments based on clearly defined criteria. defined criteria.

Descriptions of the Major Categories in Descriptions of the Major Categories in the the Affective Domain Affective Domain (1)(1)

• ReceivingReceiving: Receiving refers to the : Receiving refers to the student’s willingness to attend to particular student’s willingness to attend to particular phenomena or stimuli (classroom activities, phenomena or stimuli (classroom activities, textbook, music, etc.). From the teaching textbook, music, etc.). From the teaching standpoint, it is concerned with getting, standpoint, it is concerned with getting, holding, and directing the student’s holding, and directing the student’s attention. Learning outcomes in this area attention. Learning outcomes in this area range from the simple awareness that a range from the simple awareness that a thing exists to selective attention on the thing exists to selective attention on the part of the learner. Receiving represents part of the learner. Receiving represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the the lowest level of learning outcomes in the affective domain.affective domain.


• RespondingResponding: Responding refers to active : Responding refers to active participation on the part of the student. At this participation on the part of the student. At this level he not only attends to a particular level he not only attends to a particular phenomenon but also reacts to it in some way. phenomenon but also reacts to it in some way. Learning outcomes in this area may emphasize Learning outcomes in this area may emphasize acquiescence in responding (reads assigned acquiescence in responding (reads assigned material), willingness to respond (voluntarily reads material), willingness to respond (voluntarily reads beyond assignment), or satisfaction in responding beyond assignment), or satisfaction in responding (reads for pleasure or enjoyment). The higher (reads for pleasure or enjoyment). The higher levels of this category include those instructional levels of this category include those instructional objectives that are commonly classified under objectives that are commonly classified under interest; that is, those that stress the seeking out interest; that is, those that stress the seeking out and enjoyment of particular activities.and enjoyment of particular activities.


• ValuingValuing: Valuing is concerned with the worth or : Valuing is concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular object, value a student attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges in degree phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges in degree from the more simple acceptance of a value (desires from the more simple acceptance of a value (desires to improve group skills) to the more complex level to improve group skills) to the more complex level of commitment (assumes responsibility for the of commitment (assumes responsibility for the effective functioning of the group), Valuing is based effective functioning of the group), Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, on the internalization of a set of specified values, but clues to these values are expressed in the but clues to these values are expressed in the student’s overt behavior. Learning outcomes in this student’s overt behavior. Learning outcomes in this area are concerned with behavior that is consistent area are concerned with behavior that is consistent and stable enough to make the value clearly and stable enough to make the value clearly identifiable. Instructional objectives that are identifiable. Instructional objectives that are commonly classified under attitudes and commonly classified under attitudes and appreciation would fall into this category.appreciation would fall into this category.


• OrganizationOrganization: Organization is concerned with : Organization is concerned with bringing together different values, resolving bringing together different values, resolving conflicts between them, and beginning the building conflicts between them, and beginning the building of an internally consistent value system. Thus, the of an internally consistent value system. Thus, the emphasis is on comparing, relating, and emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. Learning outcomes may be synthesizing values. Learning outcomes may be concerned with the conceptualization of a value concerned with the conceptualization of a value (recognizes the responsibility of each individual for (recognizes the responsibility of each individual for improving human relations) or with the improving human relations) or with the organization of a value system (develops a organization of a value system (develops a vocational plan that satisfies his need for both vocational plan that satisfies his need for both economic security and social service). Instructional economic security and social service). Instructional objectives relating to the development of a objectives relating to the development of a philosophy of life would fall into this category.philosophy of life would fall into this category.


• Characterization by a Value or Value ComplexCharacterization by a Value or Value Complex: : At this level of the affective domain, the individual At this level of the affective domain, the individual has a value system that has controlled his behavior has a value system that has controlled his behavior for a sufficiently long time for him to have developed for a sufficiently long time for him to have developed a characteristic lifestyle. Thus, the behavior is a characteristic lifestyle. Thus, the behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable. Learning pervasive, consistent, predictable. Learning outcomes at this level cover a broad range of outcomes at this level cover a broad range of activities, but the major emphasis is on the fact that activities, but the major emphasis is on the fact that the behavior is typical or characteristic of the the behavior is typical or characteristic of the student. Instructional objectives that are concerned student. Instructional objectives that are concerned with the student’s general patterns of adjustment with the student’s general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional) would be appropriate (personal, social, emotional) would be appropriate here. here.

Descriptions of the Major Categories in Descriptions of the Major Categories in the the Psychomotor Domain Psychomotor Domain (1)(1)

• PerceptionPerception: The first level is concerned : The first level is concerned with the use of the sense organs to with the use of the sense organs to obtain cues that guide motor activity. obtain cues that guide motor activity. This category ranges from sensory This category ranges from sensory stimulation (awareness of a stimulus), stimulation (awareness of a stimulus), through cue selection (selecting task-through cue selection (selecting task-relevant cues), to translation (relating relevant cues), to translation (relating cue perception to action in a cue perception to action in a performance). performance).


• SetSet: Set refers to readiness to take a : Set refers to readiness to take a particular type of action. This particular type of action. This category includes mental set (mental category includes mental set (mental readiness to act), physical set readiness to act), physical set (physical readiness to act), and (physical readiness to act), and emotional set (willingness to act). emotional set (willingness to act). Perception of cues serves as an Perception of cues serves as an important prerequisite for this level.important prerequisite for this level.


• Guided ResponseGuided Response: Guided response is : Guided response is concerned with the early stages in concerned with the early stages in learning a complex skill. It includes learning a complex skill. It includes imitation (repeating an act imitation (repeating an act demonstrated by the instructor) and trial demonstrated by the instructor) and trial and error (using a multiple-response and error (using a multiple-response approach to identify an appropriate approach to identify an appropriate response). Adequacy of performance is response). Adequacy of performance is judged by an instructor or by a suitable judged by an instructor or by a suitable set of criteria. set of criteria.


• MechanismMechanism: Mechanism is concerned : Mechanism is concerned with performance acts where the with performance acts where the learned response have become habitual learned response have become habitual and the movements can be performed and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. with some confidence and proficiency. Learning outcomes at this level are Learning outcomes at this level are concerned with performance skills of concerned with performance skills of various types, but the movement various types, but the movement patterns are less complex than at the patterns are less complex than at the next higher level. next higher level.


• Complex Overt ResponseComplex Overt Response: Complex overt : Complex overt response is concerned with the skillful response is concerned with the skillful performance of motor acts that involve performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, smooth, accurate indicated by a quick, smooth, accurate performance, requiring a minimum of performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes resolution of energy. This category includes resolution of uncertainty (performs without hesitation) uncertainty (performs without hesitation) and automatic performance (movements and automatic performance (movements are made with ease and good muscle are made with ease and good muscle control). Learning outcomes at this level control). Learning outcomes at this level include highly coordinated motor activities.include highly coordinated motor activities.


• AdaptationAdaptation: Adaptation is : Adaptation is concerned with skills that are so well concerned with skills that are so well developed that the individual can developed that the individual can modify movement patterns to fit modify movement patterns to fit special requirements or to meet a special requirements or to meet a problem situation. problem situation.


• OriginationOrigination: Origination refers to : Origination refers to the creating of new movement the creating of new movement patterns to fit a particular situation patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning or specific problem. Learning outcomes at this level emphasize outcomes at this level emphasize creativity based upon highly creativity based upon highly developed skills.developed skills.

Chapter 3Chapter 3Educational Goals and Educational Goals and

ObjectivesObjectives

SummarySummary

SummarySummary

• Instructional goals and objectives provide the Instructional goals and objectives provide the foundation for both instruction and assessment of foundation for both instruction and assessment of student learning. To achieve this purpose, they student learning. To achieve this purpose, they should not be so specific that they fractionalize should not be so specific that they fractionalize learning and emphasize relatively simple learning and emphasize relatively simple knowledge and skill outcomes. Nor should they be knowledge and skill outcomes. Nor should they be as broad and general as the goals described for as broad and general as the goals described for state and national programs. For both instruction state and national programs. For both instruction and assessment purposes, an intermediate and assessment purposes, an intermediate framework is needed. We are describing one that framework is needed. We are describing one that is readily adaptable to the complex learning is readily adaptable to the complex learning outcomes suggested by cognitive research.outcomes suggested by cognitive research.

SummarySummary

• Instructional objectives make clear what learning Instructional objectives make clear what learning outcomes we expect from our teaching. They outcomes we expect from our teaching. They describe our instructional intent in terms of the describe our instructional intent in terms of the types of performance students are expected to types of performance students are expected to demonstrate as a result of instruction. A demonstrate as a result of instruction. A convenient means of preparing instructional convenient means of preparing instructional objectives is to follow a two-step process: First, objectives is to follow a two-step process: First, state the general instructional objectives as state the general instructional objectives as intended learning outcomes. Second, define each intended learning outcomes. Second, define each general objective with a list of specific learning general objective with a list of specific learning outcomes that describe the observable responses outcomes that describe the observable responses that the learners will be able to make when they that the learners will be able to make when they have achieved the general objective.have achieved the general objective.

SummarySummary

• When instructional objectives are viewed as learning When instructional objectives are viewed as learning outcomes and are defined in performance terms, numerous outcomes and are defined in performance terms, numerous types of intended outcomes might be included. In addition to types of intended outcomes might be included. In addition to the more obvious knowledge outcomes, those in the areas of the more obvious knowledge outcomes, those in the areas of understanding, application, thinking skills, performance skills, understanding, application, thinking skills, performance skills, attitudes, interests, appreciation, and adjustment should also attitudes, interests, appreciation, and adjustment should also be considered. Suggestions for objectives in these and other be considered. Suggestions for objectives in these and other areas may be obtained from Appendix G, “Taxonomy of areas may be obtained from Appendix G, “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,” from content standards of Educational Objectives,” from content standards of professional associations, from state and district content professional associations, from state and district content standards, from various published sources, and from standards, from various published sources, and from objectives banks that have been prepared for national objectives banks that have been prepared for national distribution. External sources should be used as aids only. distribution. External sources should be used as aids only. Instructional objectives usually are most relevant when Instructional objectives usually are most relevant when teachers develop their own lists, because these take into teachers develop their own lists, because these take into account the unique features of the local school and account the unique features of the local school and community.community.

SummarySummary

• The adequacy of the list of objectives for a The adequacy of the list of objectives for a particular course can be judged by the particular course can be judged by the extent to which it (1) includes all important extent to which it (1) includes all important outcomes of the course, (2) is in harmony outcomes of the course, (2) is in harmony with state or district content standards, (3) with state or district content standards, (3) is consistent with the school’s general goals, is consistent with the school’s general goals, (4) is in harmony with sound principles of (4) is in harmony with sound principles of learning, and (5) is realistic in terms of the learning, and (5) is realistic in terms of the students’ abilities and the time and facilities students’ abilities and the time and facilities available.available.

SummarySummary

• No matter how comprehensive a set of No matter how comprehensive a set of instructional objectives may be, there instructional objectives may be, there are likely to be some unanticipated are likely to be some unanticipated outcomes of instruction. Thus, teachers outcomes of instruction. Thus, teachers should be alert to this possibility during should be alert to this possibility during instruction and should take these instruction and should take these unplanned effects into account when unplanned effects into account when assessing the learning outcomes of a assessing the learning outcomes of a course.course.

SummarySummary

• The task of stating instructional The task of stating instructional objectives is simplified if we keep in objectives is simplified if we keep in mind that we are making a list of mind that we are making a list of intended outcomes of instruction, stated intended outcomes of instruction, stated in terms of the types of performance the in terms of the types of performance the students are expected to demonstrate at students are expected to demonstrate at the end of the teaching-learning the end of the teaching-learning experience. The procedure for stating experience. The procedure for stating the objectives for a particular course the objectives for a particular course includes the following steps: includes the following steps:

SummarySummary

• 1.State each general instructional objectives a1.State each general instructional objectives as an intended learning outcomes that encomps an intended learning outcomes that encompasses a readily definable domain of student reasses a readily definable domain of student responses. Each general objective should beging sponses. Each general objective should beging with a verb (e.g., with a verb (e.g., Knows, understands, appliesKnows, understands, applies),), contain only one general learning outcome, a contain only one general learning outcome, and be relatively content-free. Typically, eight tnd be relatively content-free. Typically, eight to twelve general objectives will suffice.o twelve general objectives will suffice.

SummarySummary

• 2.List beneath each general 2.List beneath each general instructional objective a representative instructional objective a representative sample of specific learning outcomes sample of specific learning outcomes stated in terms of student performance. stated in terms of student performance. Each should being with an action verb Each should being with an action verb (e.g., (e.g., identifies, describesidentifies, describes), be relevant ), be relevant to the general objective, and be to the general objective, and be relatively free of course content so that relatively free of course content so that it can be used with various units of it can be used with various units of study.study.

SummarySummary

• Instructional objectives will require Instructional objectives will require the least rewriting and function most the least rewriting and function most effectively if the conditions and effectively if the conditions and standards of performance are stated standards of performance are stated separately.separately.