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Discourse Markers, Hedges and Vague Expressions

Discourse markers (so, right, okay)from English Grammar Today

Discourse markers are words or phrases like anyway, right, okay, as I say, to begin with. We use them to connect, organise and manage what we say or write or to express attitude:

[friends are talking]

A:So, I’ve decided I’m going to go to the bank and ask for a car loan.

B:That sounds like a good idea.

C:Well, you need a car.

B:Right.

A:Anyway, I was wondering if either of you would teach me how to drive.

The discourse markers in this extract have a number of uses:so marks the beginning of a new part of the conversation.

well marks a change in the focus (from getting a car loan to needing a car).

right marks a response (B is agreeing with C).

anyway marks a shift in topic (from buying a new car to having driving lessons).

We use different discourse markers in speaking and writing. In speaking, the following discourse markers are very common:

anyway like right you know

fine now so I mean

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good oh well as I say

great okay mind you for a start

In writing, the following discourse markers are common:

firstly in addition moreover on the other hand

secondly in conclusion on the one hand to begin with

thirdly in sum

Discourse markers do not always have meanings that you will find in your dictionary. However, they do have certain functions, and some discourse markers, such as well, can have a number of functions.

See also: Actual and actually Like Look Mind Okay , OK Well

Discourse markers that organise what we say

Some discourse markers are used to start and to end conversations. Some are used to start new topics or to change topics.

Starting a conversation or talk

A:Right, let’s get started. We need to get the suitcases into the car.

B:Okay. I’ll do that. Katie, will you help me?

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[at the start of a radio interview]

Now, we have with us in the studio today someone you will all know from television. John Rice, welcome to the show.

See also: Okay , OK

Ending a conversation

[A mother (A) and daughter (B) on the telephone]

A:So we’ll see you Sunday, Liz.

B:Right, okay Mum.

A:Okay, see you then, love.

B:Bye, Mum. Thanks for calling.

A:Bye, Liz.

[At the end of a meeting]

A:Anyway, is that it? Has anyone got any questions?

B:No. I think we’re done.

A:Right, fine, thanks everyone for coming. We’ll circulate the documents tomorrow and make some follow-up calls about the project.

See also: So Okay , OK

Changing or managing a topic

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A:We went to town to buy wallpaper to match the carpet.

B:Did you try Keanes? They have a sale.

A:We looked there, but Jim said he thought it was too expensive and he didn’t like any of their designs.

B:What does he like?

A:He likes geometric shapes. He hates flowers. Anyway, we eventually found some that we both liked and when we went to pay for it, we realised that neither of us had brought any money. (Anyway marks a return to the main topic of buying wallpaper.)

Ordering what we say

We also use discourse markers to order or sequence what we say. Some of the common words and phrases which we use for this are:

and in general second to sum up

and then in the end *secondly what’s more

first (of all) last of all so well

*firstly next lastly a … b

for a start on top of that third(ly)

firstly and secondly are more formal than first and second.

A:I think Sheila might be having some financial problems at the moment.

B:

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I don’t think so, Caroline. For a start, she has all the money that her aunt gave her. What’s more, she has a good job and she seems to have a good lifestyle.

Firstly, we are going to look at how to write an essay. Secondly we are going to look at what makes a good essay and what makes a bad one. Lastly, we’re going to do some writing activities.

We can use the letters of the alphabet (a, b and c), to list reasons or arguments for something:

There are two reasons why I think it’s a bad idea, a because it’ll cost too much money, and b because it’ll take such a long time.

See also: Numbers: first , second , third

Discourse markers that monitor what we say

As we talk, we monitor (or listen to) what we are saying and how our listener is responding to what they hear. We often rephrase or change what we say depending on how our listener is responding. We use words and phrases such as well, I mean, in other words, the thing is, you know, you know what I mean, you see, what I mean is .

Saying something in another way

Sometimes, as we talk, we add phrases to show our listener that we are going to rephrase, repeat or change what we are saying. These discourse markers help to make what we say clearer for the listener:

I just had to leave early. What I mean is I hated the show. It just wasn’t funny.

You exercise regularly, you have a good diet and you don’t have too much stress. In other words, I think you have nothing to worry about. Your health seems very good.

I think I’ve found a house I’d like to buy. Well it’s an apartment actually. It’s ideal for me.

See also: Actual and actually I mean

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Well Shared knowledge

When we talk, we think about how much knowledge we share with our listener. We often mark what we think is old, shared or expected knowledge with you know and we mark new knowledge that we see as not shared with the listener with phrases like see, you see, the thing is:

You know, hiring a car was a great idea. (The speaker and the listener know about hiring the car.)

A:Why don’t you come and stay with me when you’re in Lisbon?

B:It’d be difficult. I have to be back in Dublin by Friday. You see, my sister is getting married on Saturday so I won’t have time to visit. (B assumes that A doesn’t know about her sister’s wedding. This is new information)

Actual and actuallyfrom English Grammar Today Actual

Actual is an adjective meaning ‘true’, ‘real’ and ‘the thing in itself’. It does not refer to time. Actual always comes immediately before the noun it is describing:

We didn’t go to the actual match but we watched it on TV.

People think she is over thirty but her actual age is eighteen.

Spoken English:

Actual is often used in speaking in the expression ‘in actual fact’. It has a similar meaning to ‘in fact’, but it gives more emphasis to what the speaker is saying:

In actual fact, her health a year ago was much worse.

See also: In fact

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Actually as a discourse marker

Spoken English:

Actually is often used in speaking as a discourse marker. We use it to indicate a new topic of conversation or a change or contrast in what is being talked about. We also use actually to give more detail about a topic. We do not use it to refer to time:

A:I suppose you’re going away this weekend?

B:Actually, I am going to stay at home. I’ve got a lot of work to do on the computer.

[a customer (A) in a large bookshop is asking about books about travel.]

A:Could you tell me where your books on Austria are kept?

B:What kind of books?

A:Well, actually I’m looking for a book on skiing in Austria.

B:Er, yes, they’re in that corner over there.

See also: Discourse markers ( so, right, okay )

Actually as contrast

Spoken English:

We can use actually to emphasise a contrast with what is expected to be true or real:

He actually admitted that he enjoyed it. (He was not expected to enjoy it)

A:Where are they now?

B:

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They’re very near to your apartment actually. (They were not expected to be so near)

We can also use actually to correct someone politely:

I think ten people, not eight, came to the meeting, actually.

Actual and actually: typical errors

In some languages actual has the meaning of ‘current’ and ‘at the present time’. This is not correct in English:

The current population of the Russian Federation is 230 million.

Not: The actual population of the Russian Federation …

At the present time she is working in London.

Not: Actually she is working in London .

(“Actual and actually” from English Grammar Today © Cambridge University Press.)

Like in spoken English

In informal speaking, you will hear like used very commonly. It has a number of functions. It is important not to use these forms in formal writing such as academic essays.

Filler

We can use like to fill in the silence when we need time to think about what to say next or how to rephrase what we have just said:

I want to … like … I think we need to think carefully about it. It’s … like … it’s a very difficult decision for us to make.

Focusing attention

We can use like to bring attention to what we are going to say next. We do this especially when talking about quantities and times:

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There were like five hundred guests at the wedding. (like brings focus to the large number of guests)

It wasn’t till like 12:00 that I actually got to start on the project. (like brings focus to how late it was)

Asking for an example (Like what?)

In speaking, we often use like what? to ask for an example:

A:

Some really funny things happened on the last day of school.

B:

Funny things? Like what?

It can also be used to ask a question, meaning ‘similar to what?’:

[talking about a new restaurant]

A:

There was kangaroo steak on the menu. I decided to try it.

B:

Really?

A:

Yeah. It actually tasted good.

B:

Like what?

A:

I don’t know. Like steak but softer.

Softening what has just been said

We can use like at the end of what we say to modify or soften what we have just said especially if we are not sure if it was the right thing to say:

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[A and B are talking about B’s holiday]

A:

So did you buy anything there?

B:

No. It was too expensive, like.

I hated the film. It was very violent, like.

Reported speech

It has become common in very informal speaking to use like as a reporting verb. It can be used to report what someone said or what someone thought. It is used especially by young people, and it makes what is reported sound more dramatic:

Jason was like ‘I’m not going to Alma’s party because Chris is going to be there’ and I’m like ‘he’s so afraid of Chris’. (in the first use of like, it means ‘he said’, but in the second use it means ‘I thought’)

Look as a discourse marker

We sometimes use look as a discourse marker but it needs to be used carefully as it is very strong. We use it when we are explaining something or making a point, especially when we are annoyed or speaking very forcefully:

[in a political debate]

Look, too many people have died in this war.

[a boss talking to an employee]

Look, Mark, you have been late for work every day this week. Is there a reason?

Mind you

Spoken English:

We use the phrase mind you in speaking to mean ‘but we should also remember or take into account’:

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We had such terrible weather on our holiday. Mind you, it was winter in Tasmania when we went there.

We also use mind you when we are joking:

[A is reading a newspaper headline]

A:

Lotto winner John builds golf-course in back yard.

B:

Oh yeah. That is one way of spending your money.

A:

Yeah.

B:

Yeah. Must have a big back yard, mind you, to have ten holes of golf.

Okay, OKfrom English Grammar Today

We use okay (also spelt OK) in informal language. We use it in different ways, as a discourse marker, adjective or adverb.

Okay as a discourse markerAgreeing

We use okay as a response token to show that we understand, accept, or agree with what someone is saying:

A:

I’ll see you at 5 in front of the library.

B:

OK. See you later.

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http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/english-grammar-today/


A:

Why don’t you get a lift with Raviv?

B:

Oh, okay.

Changing topic or closing a conversation

We often use okay to show that we are moving on to a new topic or phase of conversation. This is common in situations where we are giving instructions:

Okay, let’s get into groups of four now.

[piano teacher to pupil]

OK, right, let’s see. Now, keep that hand ready, so it’s there when you want it.

We also use okay to mark the end of a conversation:

Right, okay, take care of yourself. Bye.

Checking understanding

We often use okay? to check understanding. We usually put it in end position:

I know it’s difficult to talk … just nod or shake your head. OK?

Tie it the opposite way … just like tying a shoelace really, okay?

Wellfrom English Grammar Today

Well is a discourse marker, adverb or adjective.

Well as a discourse marker

Spoken English:

In speaking, we often use well at the start of what we say. Its main function is to show that we are thinking about the question that we have been asked:

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A:

How was your meeting?

B:

Well, it’s difficult to say. I think they liked our presentation but I am not sure .

A:

How long would it take to drive from Dundee to here?

B:

Well, let me see. I’d say it would take at least three hours, if not more.

Spoken English:

We can use well to show a slight change in topic, or when what we are about to say is not quite what is expected:

A:

Have you found a house yet?

B:

Well, we’ve stopped looking actually. Nadia’s company has offered her another contract and we’ve decided to stay in Edinburgh for another year.

A:

Did you like that book?

B:

Well, it was interesting, but war stories are not really my favourite.

We can use well when we want to change what we have said slightly, or say something in another way:

I’m not going on a hiking holiday. I hate walking. Well, I hate being out in the cold weather.

Fiona is feeling better. Well, she’s much better than she was. She’ll be back to work on Monday.

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We can use well when we admit or acknowledge that something is correct or true:

A:

It’ll take four hours to get to Glasgow.

B:

It’ll take more than that. We’ll have to stop for a break somewhere.

A:

Well, that’s true.

Warning:

We can use well with a rising intonation as a type of question when we want someone to tell us something. In this case, it means tell me or tell us. Be careful when you use this, as it can sound very direct:

A:

There’s something I have to tell you.

B:

What is it?

A:

[silence]

B:

Well?

Well? What did you say to her?

So with reporting verbs

Spoken English:

Especially in speaking, we sometimes use so in front position in short responses with reporting verbs such as believe, say, tell, hear, read:

She’s the most popular singer. So everybody says, anyway.

A:

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Janet got the job.

B:

So I heard. (I heard that Janet got the job.)

A:

The Council has given planning permission for another shopping centre in the city .

B:

So I read in the paper. (I read that the Council has given planning permission for another shopping centre.)

I mean

Spoken English:

We use I mean very commonly in speaking as a discourse marker. We use it when we want to add to what we have just said, to make a point clearer or to correct what we have just said:

The law is not fair. I mean, it’s just not right that he didn’t go to prison. (adding)

It cost over £200. I mean, that’s more than most of us can afford. (making something clearer)

We need to ask Helen, I mean Harriet. (correcting)

We often use I mean when hesitating, to make something negative less strong or to soften a disagreement:

A:What do you think of Ben?

B:Well, I mean, he’s not very confident and not always sure what he’s supposed to be doing.

I think Peter probably has a strong view about that. It’s interesting … I mean I … what I said earlier and I mean Peter might disagree with me.

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When we are not sure what to say, we sometimes use I mean. We often pause before or after it:

She’s not coming back, er I mean, erm … she and I have broken up.

Warning:

We don’t use I mean to introduce opinions. It is not the same as I think:

I think we should stay at the Lakeside Inn.

Not: I mean we should stay at the Lakeside Inn .

You know what I mean

Spoken English:

We often use the phrase you know what I mean (or if you know what I mean or do you know what I mean?) in speaking, to check that our listener understands what we are saying or to show that we assume the listener has the same opinion about something:

A:I just can’t go to Norah’s house.

B:Why’s that?

A:I just don’t like all the cats. You know what I mean? They’re everywhere even in the beds.

B:Yeah, I have to say I’m not a fan of cats either. (A is checking that B understands that she doesn’t like all the cats in Norah’s house and she assumes that B is going to understand)

Ken isn’t very helpful, if you know what I mean.

We’ve got white on the walls in the back room now, but I think he feels as though, pink is not the right colour for the front room, do you know what I mean?

See also:

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Discourse markers ( so, right, okay ) Mean: typical errors

We use auxiliary do in questions with mean:

What does ‘rosehip’ mean?

Not: What means ‘rosehip’?

We don’t use I mean to introduce opinions:

I think people shouldn’t start university until they are 20.

Not: I mean people shouldn’t …

Means is a singular noun. We use a singular verb with it:

A very relaxing means of transport is the train.

Not: … very relaxing mean of transport are the train .

Spoken English:

When we see something as we are speaking, we usually say can see rather than the simple (I see) or continuous form (I’m seeing):

I can see you in the photo. Look, there you are at the very back.

We use see to mean ‘understand, know or be aware of something’. We don’t usually use this in continuous form:

[one person is explaining how to use a computer software program]

A:… All that appears on the screen is what you put in the value.

B:I see. Right.

Not: I’m seeing .

We can use you see when we are explaining something.

They had no children. They married late, you see.

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We also use see to mean ‘meet or come into contact with someone’, or ‘visit a place’:

We went to see my mother at the weekend.

Have you seen Jerry lately?

We can use the continuous form of see when it refers to an arrangement to meet someone:

I’m seeing Harry at ten o’clock tomorrow. What shall I tell him?

We can also use the continuous form of see to mean ‘meeting someone as part of a romantic relationship’:

I asked her to go out on a date with me but she told me she was already seeing someone.

You knowfrom English Grammar Today

We use you know very commonly in speaking. It is used to check with our listeners that we share the same knowledge. When we use you know, we assume that the listener or listeners do have the knowledge that we want them to have:

Well, what can I say, you know, I want my career to go far.

A:

How was the match?

B:

Well, they played OK but the defence was, you know, the same as always.

You know is also sometimes used to allow us time to think when we are speaking:

A:

Did you like the play?

B:

Well, I’m not sure, it was, you know, it was interesting.

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You seefrom English Grammar Today

We commonly use you see in speaking when we want to share knowledge with our listener or listeners. When we use you see, we assume that the listener or listeners do not have the knowledge that we want them to have:

OK, we’ll try to be there but, you see, since my accident, I’m a bit nervous about driving on the motorway.

You see, I don’t think she likes folk music so I think she’ll say no.

Adverbs as discourse markers (anyway, finally)from English Grammar Today

Discourse markers organise longer pieces of conversation or text. They can mark the openings or closings of conversations, changes in topics, and other functions connected with organising a conversation or text. Most discourse markers belong to the class of adverbs.

Anyway, I’ve got to go and pick up the children. (signals that the conversation is finishing)

Finally, we need to consider the broader economic issues. (signals the last item in a list of points or arguments)

Right, now, sorry to keep you waiting. (signals something new)

So you want to go to Spain, do you? (focuses on a topic)

Hedges (just)from English Grammar Today

We use hedges to soften what we say or write. Hedges are an important part of polite conversation. They make what we say less direct. The most common forms of hedging

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involve tense and aspect, modal expressions including modal verbs and adverbs, vague language such as sort of and kind of, and some verbs.

Tense and aspect

I wondered if I could have a word with you? (less direct and more polite than Could I have a word with you?)

Modal expressions

The answer could be that the trees have some sort of disease. (less direct than The answer is that …)

Maybe we should have a word with him about it? (less direct than We should or we must have a word with him about it.)

This is possibly the best performance in the Olympics.

Vague language

It’s sort of difficult to say. (less direct than It’s difficult to say)

Could you just post this letter for me?

Verbs (feel)

Some verbs (such as feel, suppose, reckon) can be used to hedge personal statements, that is, to make personal statements less direct:

We feel he should let them decide whether to buy the flat. (less direct than He should let them decide …)

I reckon that’s the best answer to the problem. (less direct than That’s the best answer to the problem.)

Hedges in academic writing

We use certain types of hedging in writing, especially in academic writing, so that statements don’t seem to rely simply on personal opinion.

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We often use structures with it in the passive such as it is argued that and it has been agreed that:

It has been generally agreed that these new video phone technologies will transform everyday life. (a more cautious and less personal statement than I agree that …)

Kind of and sort offrom English Grammar Today

Kind of and sort of are very common expressions in speaking. They soften other words and phrases so that they do not appear too direct or exact. Kind of is more common in American English. Sort of is more common in British English:

He’s kind of jealous that they have become such good friends.

I’m sorry but she’s just kind of lost interest in buying the car.

They said it was a chalet but it was more like a sort of wooden hut.

She’s spent the whole year sort of travelling around the world.

Vague expressionsfrom English Grammar Today

Vague language is very common, especially in speaking. We often add words and phrases such as about, kind of, sort of, and that kind of thing to make what we say less factual and direct:

There were about twenty people at the meeting.

It’s kind of cold in here.

Did you see lions and giraffes and that kind of thing when you were in South Africa?

We generally use vague language when we don’t know the name of something, or to make things sound less factual, or to talk about groups and categories.

When we don’t know the name of something

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We can use vague expressions when we are not sure of the name of something. These expressions include: what do you call it?, what’s it called?, it’s a kind of X, it’s a sort of X, it’s a type of X, or something, thing, stuff:

A:Val’s been in hospital for tests. Did you know that?

B:No. What’s wrong?

A:Well, they’re not sure. She’s had to have that test, er, what do you call it? Where you have to go into a type of X-ray machine.

B:A CAT scan?

A:Yeah. She’s had that done but they still don’t know what’s causing her headaches .

She’s got a small dog, a kind of poodle, or something.

What’s that stuff you use when your lips get dry?

Where’s the thing for cleaning the window?

Spoken English:

In very informal speaking, we sometimes say /ˈwɒtʃjəməkɔ:lɪt/, /ˈwɒtʃjəməkɔ:lɪm/, /ˈθɪŋəmi/, /ˈθɪŋəmədʒɪg/. These are informal versions of what do you call it/him/her, etc. We never write these words:

A:Andrew’s just moved in with whatyamacallhim /ˈwɒtʃjəməkɔ:lɪm/?

B:Barry?

A:No, his friend from Manchester.

Making things sound less factual

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Being very factual can sometimes sound too direct in speaking, and so we add vague expressions. These are called hedges: about, kind of, sort of, -ish (suffix), stuff, things:

There’s sort of something I don’t like about her. (more direct: There’s something I don’t like about her.)

It’s kind of bright in here. (more direct: It’s too bright in here.)

I can’t meet up later. I have too much stuff to do.

I forget so many things these days.

We especially use vague expressions before numbers, quantities and times to make them sound less factual:

I’ll see you at about 8 tomorrow morning for breakfast. Is that okay? (more direct: I’ll see you at 8 tomorrow morning for breakfast.)

We expect to take in or around two years to complete the project. (more direct: We expect to take two years and four months to complete the project.)

We’re meeting Veronica at four-ish. (more direct: We’re meeting Veronica at four.)

We’ve been living here for more or less five years. (more direct: We’ve been living here for five years and three months.)

See also: Hedges ( just ) Kind of and sort of Sort , type and kind Thing and stuff

Talking about groups and categories

We use certain vague expressions to make groups or categories. We usually give examples of members of the group or category (underlined below) and then add a vague expression, e.g. necklaces, bracelets and things like that.

Common vague expressions include:

1. and that kind of thing and stuff like that

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2. and that sort of thing and stuff

3. and that type of thing and so on

4. and things like that and this, that and the other

5. and the like

Where are all the knives and forks and that kind of thing?

I need to buy cards and wrapping paper and stuff like that.

A:Where’s Emma?

B:She’s gone to the doctor. She’s been getting pains in her stomach and feeling tired and things like that.

He never eats chocolate, sweets and that type of thing.

There are so many lorries and trucks and that sort of thing passing by our house, even during the night.

We sometimes find vague category expressions in formal speaking, but we usually use different expressions, such as: and so forth, et cetera, and so on, and so on and so forth:

[from a university lecture on literature]

The book has often been looked at from a feminist perspective and so forth but I want to look at it from a political perspective today.

[from a university lecture on communication]

If you use an advertisement in the newspaper, a thirty-second ad on television et cetera et cetera, it will receive quite a wide audience but there’s relatively little you can say in it. (ad = advertisement)

What are your views on the new government and the changes they have made and so forth?

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We sometimes use vague category expressions in writing. The most common ones are: and so on and et cetera (which is shortened to etc.)

The new theatre will be used for big events such as opera, ballet, drama and so on.

The house is equipped with a cooker, washing machine, television, etc.

When can vague expressions be impolite?

Expressions such as stuff and whatever, whoever, whenever, whichever are sometimes used to be vague in an impolite way. These are especially impolite when they are used in a reply to a direct question asked by someone who is senior to us:

[a father to his son]

A:

What did you do at school today?

B:

Stuff. (This is not a polite reply. It can mean ‘I don’t want to talk to you’.)

[parent to teenage daughter]

A:

You spend too long on the phone.

B:

Whatever. (This is a very impolite response and means ‘I don’t care’.)

[two friends talking]

A:

We’re meeting around seven at Mel’s place.

B:

No, it’s at six thirty.

A:

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Well, whenever. (This is not as impolite, because it is between friends. A uses whenever to show that she is annoyed that she has been contradicted about the time and that it doesn’t really matter whether it’s six thirty or seven.)

Thing and stufffrom English Grammar Today Thing

We use the general noun thing more commonly in speaking than in writing.

It is most commonly used to refer to physical objects, but we also use thing to refer to ideas, actions and events:

What’s that thing over there in the car park?

She always says that she hasn’t a thing to wear.

Can you put your things in the upstairs room? (things here = personal belongings)

Anger is a very dangerous thing in a young man.

So don’t rush him. These things take time and we certainly don’t want to upset him.

A holiday? That’s just the thing for you.

A:Hi Geoff. How’s things? (How’s things is a common informal greeting.)

B:Fine, thanks. How are you?

We often use thing in a similar way to wh-cleft constructions (What we need to do is …). It is also often used with to and with that-clauses (underlined):

The thing we need to know is why they missed the train.

The thing they said that we shouldn’t forget was to take a boat trip on the lake.

The best thing to do is to phone the doctor at once.

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The thing that worries me most is the cost of the holiday.

In speaking, we commonly use the phrase the thing is. We use it when we want to focus on something, or to indicate that there is a problem:

The thing is … erm … we don’t have time to visit New York as well as Washington.

Yeah, that’s OK, but the thing is, he still hasn’t apologised for being late.

Thing is an example of vague language. It allows speakers not to sound too direct. We often use thing in phrases such as things like that, that kind of thing:

They’re cooking lots of different Italian and Spanish dishes and things like that.

When I worked in a newspaper office, there wasn’t time for eating lunch or that kind of thing, you know.

We also use thing to show both positive (usually affectionate) and negative attitudes, mainly when accompanied by appropriate adjectives:

Our cat is too old now to leave the house, poor thing.

You lucky thing! I wish I had the chance to visit New Zealand.

A:You’re going to get paint on that dress. Why don’t you get changed?

B:It doesn’t matter. It’s just an old thing.

See also: Cleft sentences ( It was in June we got married .) Vague expressions

Stuff

Stuff is one of the most common nouns in speaking. It is more informal than thing. It is not at all common in writing.

Stuff is an uncountable noun. We use stuff in similar ways to thing, especially in vague language phrases such as stuff like that:

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Where can we put our stuff? (our belongings) (very similar to, but more informal than, Where can we put our things?)

She didn’t have much advice to offer. She just told us to learn lots of new English vocabulary and stuff like that.

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btupdu.weebly.com€¦ · web viewdiscourse markers organise longer pieces of conversation or...

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