Latin American Wars of Independence

Revolution From Below (Haiti)

Background – Originally “discovered” by Columbus, Spain initially settled the island known as Hispaniola, however after increasing involvement with pirates, in 1606 the Spanish government ordered all citizens to move inward in the island.  The result was the French, English and Dutch pirates began to establish their own bases on the north and west of the coast.  In 1665 France officially recognized it as a colony named “Saint-Domingue”. The western third of the island was officially ceded to France in 1697. Over the next hundred years, St. Dominque would become a wealthy colony due to its geographic location and ability to grow valuable crops.

A. Social Order by late 18th century – 40,000 whites, 30,000 free coloreds, 500,000 African slaves

- Produced 60% of world’s coffee, 40% of sugar. Most profitable possession in French empire.- These 30,000 free colored were known as gens de couleur 

wealthy whites and lesser whites became divided by late 18th century- declining opportunities for advancement in owning property- free coloreds preferred over lesser whites for many skilled jobs

Two divisions developed → the grans blanc and the petits blanc                                -Grans blanc were sugar planters that were minor aristocrats                               -Petits blancs were the artisans, merchants, etc.

by late 18th century free coloreds angry because restrictions placed on what they could do for a living. They were forced to dress in a manner identifying them and were told where they could live.

1780s antislavery groups came together to protest conditions on plantations

B. Revolts

1. Free Colored news of July 1789 Paris revolution (and publication of Declaration of the Rights of Man,

declaring all men free and equal) solidified division of whites- lesser whites celebrated by rioting in support while in both north & south rival Assemblies

were formed by planters. The wealthy whites saw it as an opportunity to gain independence from France

- assembly in south declared for independence while north aligned with French authorities and royalists appealed to free coloreds for help. The north was the economic center, housing most of the major ports and therefore the wealth.

- both wanted to preserve social order, plantation economy and slavery Free colored saw opportunity to gain social equality (Declaration of the Rights of Man which

declared all men free and equal) but whites in France and colony backed away from universality of the Declaration

1790 free colored leader named Vincent Ogé returned from France unsatisfied; raised an army of 300- demanded end to racial discrimination, right to vote- did not recruit slaves but white planters worried- when he and followers captured they were executed in brutal manner - He was then

beheaded.  2. Slaves

In May of 1791, the French Revolutionary government extended citizenship to free blacks. However the colonial authorities refused to acknowledge the decision, angering and frustrating free blacks.- August 1791 slave revolt of 12,000 began with intent of ridding colony of slavery & whites- within month destroyed 1000 plantations & brutally killed 4,000 whites

Whites, being fearful of an uprising, were well armed.  They responded with indiscriminate killing and retook 2/3 of the island.

1792 6,000 French forces with new governor arrived along with decree recognizing free persons as citizens, which gave them political and civil rights, in an effort to stop the revolt.- by early 1793 forced thousands of slaves to surrender

August 1793 Toussaint L’Ouverture assumed leadership when he proclaimed his desire to bring Liberty and Equality to Saint Dominque. L’Ouverture began working with the Spanish army to end slavery in St. Dominque although he would switch allegiances back to France after emancipation.- no longer a slave; former slaveholder; moved easily among free coloreds and whites

             - fought guerilla war and claimed cause he led was cause of France (liberty and equality) Familiar with enlightenment ideals, but disagreed with the division of enlightened leaders and

ignorant masses being the only two sections of society. Namely, the freeing of slaves, ending slavery which was incongruent with enlightenment ideals.- seized abandoned plantations & granted ownership to slaves

C. Revolution L’Ouverture had been siding with the Spanish while in conflict with the French authorities,

however after the French proclaimed abolition in 1794, L’ouverture proclaimed his French allegiance and defeated the British forces within St. Dominque

Toussaint signed commercial treaties with U.S. and G.B.; promised not to propagandize slave rebellion- did not benefit mulatto held territories

1799 mulattoes commenced War of the Knives, indiscriminately killing whites and blacks. The leader of the rebellion Andre Rigaud said L’Ouverture sought to restore slavery using British power.  This was a political fight though as both Rigaud hoped to replace L’Ouverture as leader of St. Dominque.- war ended when mulatto leader (Rigaud) fled to France

• 1801 L’Ouverture controlled entire colony after brutal retaliation against mulattoes- Napoleon had declared that a new constitution would be drawn up for the colonies, all signs

pointed to the fact slavery would be reinstated.- To preempt a French constitution, L’Ouverture appointed his own constitutional assembly

who wrote and declared their own constitution valid on July 7, 1801.- new const. made him governor-general for life (could choose own successor)- Catholicism became state religion, males 14-55 required to join militia, slavery abolished- to avoid economic collapse revived plantation ag. to point of coercing blacks to work in fields

and invited white planters to return The constitution was not a declaration of independence because Toussaint understood it to be a

French dominion When the French minister returned to France and showed Napoleon the constitution, Napoleon

was so infuriated he had the minister exiled to the island of Elba.  Despite naming L’Ouverture the captain-general of the colony himself, Napoleon prepared 20,000 men for invasion of St. Dominque

L’Ouverture faced growing troubles: his generals were greedy, U.S. and G.B. understandings gone because they made peace with France, exercise of power divided the country as former slaves forced to work on plantations and had little access to land

French forces under General Leclerc (married to Napoleon’s sister) landed in Jan. 1802 and became embroiled in guerrilla war with brutality on both sides

- L’Ouverture and his generals retreated into the mountains hoping that fever would decimate the French troops.  Although this would take place, L’Ouverture’s biggest failure was the ability to control internal communication within his military.  Fake French documents confused the rebel leaders and both sides were shocked by the violence.  Both sides desired a diplomatic solution.

May 1802 L’Ouverture and his main supporters (Henri Christophe, Jean Jacques Dessalines) surrendered with French promise of freedom for blacks

- French army decimated by disease and turned to Christophe and Dessalines to put down blacks

- July French arrested L’Ouverture and sent him to France where died in April 1803.- Toussaint warned them that even though they had tricked him into capture, the rebellion

would continue. After L’Ouverture’s removal in 1802 Leclerc died of yellow fever and was replaced by General

Rochambeau who employed brutal and racially divisive measures to restore order, including attempting to disarm blacks who had sided with the French, which seen as prelude to return of slavery which by Aug. Napoleon approved, whites return to claim properties from mulattoes

- Jean Jacques Dessalines, who had commanded 50% of French army (all black), emerged as new leader in Nov. 1802 at a conference which then declared for independence

- fall 1803 French army left, late Nov. last of white planters left.- January 1, 1804 Haiti became independent with Dessalines named governor-general for

life. Haiti became the first independent nation in Latin America, the first post-colonial independently

black-led nation in the world and the only nation whose independence was gained as a part of a successful slave rebellion.

Spanish Colonies

BackgroundThe Spanish colonization of the Americas began with Columbus and lasted 400 years.  Spain had two interests, economic – gathering resources, including gold, and opening markets, and religious – converting native people Catholicism.  The result of the conquest was a tremendous amount of wealth flowing into the Spanish monarchy and the destruction of the native people and culture.

The Spanish conquistadors began in present-day Mexico defeating the Aztecs and over the following decades would control territory in modern day United States down through Peru.  The conquistadors referred to this conquered land as New Spain in recognition of their sponsoring land.

The colonial administration the Spanish installed was called a Viceroyalty and placed in the larger cities that had been established (Mexico City, Lima, Bogota and Buenos Aires).  Collectively the Viceroyalty of New Spain would be the administrator of government for the next 300 years.  The Spanish crown still held control of New Spain, but the viceroyalty formed almost a new kingdom of their own with the Viceroy holding power in Mexico City.  The Viceroy, who was appointed by the Spanish monarch, held administrative power over all of the Viceroyalty territory which today would extend from modern day British Columbia, down through Wyoming, Nevada, Texas, Florida, all of Mexico, Central America and most of South America.Although the Viceroy held power over these areas, most issues were handled at the local level of government.  These regional governments were called Audiencas, mirroring the administrative and

governmental system set up in Spain.  More audiencias would be formed as Spanish control grew, totaling 12 by the time of Spanish American independence in the early 19th century.  The audiencias served the same purpose in the colonies as they served in Spain, to administer justice and check the excesses and abuse of officials, but most importantly the served to facilitate a greater degree of centralization, bringing about a unity in provincial and national judicial administration.

The Audiencia of the Spanish ColoniesSociety in New Spain was divided into a strict system of four social classes: peninsulares, creoles, mestizos and Indians.  Peninsulares were at the top of the social scale.  These were individuals who were born in Spain and held the highest jobs in government and the Church in New Spain. They also owned large tracts of land including gold and silver mines.  Below peninsulares were creoles, people born in the Americas to Spanish parents.  Many creoles were wealthy and well educated.  They owned farms and ranches, taught at universities and practiced law.  They could not, however, hold the jobs reserved for peninsulares.

Below creoles were people of mixed Spanish and Indian background known as mestizos.  Mestizos worked on farms and ranches owned by peninsulares and creoles.  In the cities mestizos would have worked as carpenters, shoemakers, tailors and bakers.  The lowest class of people were the Indians who were treated as a conquered people.  The system was designed to keep Indians in poverty.

The system as a whole was referred to as the Casta system.  The casta system was more than just a classification system of races, it had real economic implications as lower sects in society were expected to pay higher taxes or tribute payments.  If a person’s background was unknown, they would often be categorized by their skin tone, the whiter a person looked the higher status they could claim, darker meant less opportunity.

By the early 1800s society was becoming ideologically divided and remained economically divided, ripe for revolution.

A. Who revolted?1- Indians (most to complain about but did not play major role in wars of independence)2- Mestizos               • no loyalty to European kings               • did not play major role in wars of independence3- Creoles               • bitter that peninsulares received preferential treatment               • began to see themselves as Americans               • played major role in wars of independence

* movements lacked coherence of ideology and leadership present in Am. Rev.

B. Causes1- Social/Economic - Creoles v. Peninsulares (controlled trade, gov’t, Church)2- Enlightenment – Social/Economic reform that emphasized reason and individualism rather than Tradition

• swing toward modern approaches to knowledge and emphasis on science and useful knowledge

               • periodicals provided informative articles on variety of sources               • all great works on philosophy, politics, economics known               • ideas also spread by travelers, sailors, merchants

Bourbon Reforms

Background -In 1700 Spanish King, Charles II died leaving no successor and effectively ending the Hapsburg line.  The result of his death and multiple claims to the throne was a series of war beginning with the War of Spanish Succession to decide who would take over the throne in Spain.  The result of the war decided that France’s Louis XIV’s grandson would take over, becoming the new Spanish king Philip V the first member of the House of Bourbon to rule in Spain.

Spain had to deal with another series of wars taking place in Europe and North America, known in America as the French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years War among Europeans.  The result of these wars was an overall decline in Spanish power (they had given up central European territories).

In 1759 Charles III, son of Philip V, took over the throne of Spain.  Charles was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and sought to stimulate manufacturing and technology to modernize and hopefully save Spain.  This was to be done by making the administration at home and in the colonies more efficient.  

Spain’s goals following Seven Years' War (1762) were to increase revenues, provide for colonial defense, satisfy complaints voiced by colonists that might lead to insurrection

During the fighting, creole militias had expanded & regular army units created to save money. This had increased the recognition and enhanced the status of the creoles.  The military had also become a source of upward socioeconomic mobility to the creoles that had previously been nonexistent.

The war had also liberalized trade within the empire contributing to creation of new creole merchants

Colonists desire to create a new economic policy of their own design

Reforms Intendancy system - replaced provincial governors and made authorities directly

responsible to the crown.  An intendente was a Spanish administrative unit that was directly appointed by the Crown and responsible for overseeing fiscal (money) matters, but came to have a say in most administrative, ecclesiastical and military matters. Intendentes were seen as a check on local officials who had grown corrupt in previous years.

given direct political control of cabildos (town councils) which led to conflicts withinfluential local residents, including many creoles

to finance wars Crown confiscated some of Church's wealth causing economic hardships for parish priests and meant economic troubles in many areas because Church leading credit institution

American and French Revolutions Am. Rev. showed how colonies could break away from mother country- Washington , Jefferson, examples of revolutionary leaders

French Revolution ideas of “liberty, equality & fraternity”

Napoleonic Wars

By the time Napoleon rose to power during the French Revolution, Spain was dealing with internal and external problems.  Charles IV had been forced to abdicate his throne to his son Ferdinand VII who turned to Napoleon in support.

In 1807, Spain and France invaded Portugal, a close ally to Britain, but Napoleon quickly betrayed the weak Spanish king, forcing him to abdicate his throne to his own brother Joseph Bonaparte.

With the royal families of Portugal and Spain forced to flee, the creoles located in the empire had the excuse of breaking with Spain under the claim of loyalty to Ferdinand.

1st Phase of Independence Movements A. Venezuela

Venezuelan creoles, the merchants and traders in society, had become angered by Spanish trading policies, especially given the change in British policies that had allowed freer trade in their Caribbean colonies.

When Napoleonic France invaded Spain and forced the monarchy to flee in 1808, most Venezuelans did not recognize Napoleon’s brother Joseph’s rule of Spain.  The result in Spanish colonies was a power vacuum.  Some remained loyal to their Spanish rulers, others to the new French rulers and others desired full independence.

In 1810, the town council in Caracas, Venezuela created a junta (a localized autonomous government) that deposed the Spanish governor of power and operated in the name of the deposed Ferdinand VII.  Juntas were being set up all around Venezuela, some recognizing the Caracas Junta, others remaining loyal to Spain and its new King Joseph Bonaparte, others only recognizing their own autonomy.

- to help ensure independence sent delegation to England led by Simon Bolivar                           • born 1783 to wealthy Creole parents but schooled in Spain                           • met his wife in Spain but she died 10 months after coming to Venezuela                           • traveled in Europe, including France where did not approve of Napoleon becoming                             dictator but impressed by need for structure represented by Napoleonic law

- Amazed by the cult of personality surrounding Napoleon• Convinces Francisco Miranda to return to Venezuela where Miranda will eventually become Venezuela

Miranda was a revolutionary that had previously pushed for Venezuelan independence but had failed.  He had been on the run since and actually been present and a part of the American, French and soon the Spanish Wars of Independence.  Miranda had direct contact with Washington, Napoleon, Frederick II of Prussia, and was the inspiration for future revolutionary leader Simon Bolivar

Miranda desired to form a single empire consisting of all territories that had belonged to the Spanish and Portuguese empires.

With British support and republican political clubs formed throughout the country in a similar manner to the French Revolution, the Venezuelan congress declared independence on July 5, 1811 and establishing the First Republic of Venezuela

March 1812 Spanish forces attempt to retake Venezuela- They actually had strong support.  With trade to Spain cut off, Venezuela’s cocoa

market imploded, hurting the middle and lower classes, many of which remained royalists.

- On March 26, 1812 the tale takes a strange turn.  A major earthquake strikes Venezuela, and destroys a large number of buildings and killing many people specifically in Republican areas.  It also turned out that the earthquake took place on the second anniversary of the main junta being formed in Caracas.  People saw this as a sign from God and withdrew support.

- July 25th Miranda signs an armistice with the Spanish. Bolivar is outraged by this. Before Miranda can flee on a British ship, he has him arrested and hands him over to the

Spanish authorities who take him back to Spain where he dies in prison.  As for Bolivar and his army, they escape to New Granada where a republican government had formed.

Feb. 1813 Bolivar begins working way toward Venezuela through mountains toward Caracas with force of 600.  He is given the name El Libertador.  

June 15 he dictates his famous Decree of War to the Death which calls for a war of extermination in response to royalist atrocities.

Spaniards who did not join patriot army or directly support patriot cause would “face certain death, even if you are merely indifferent”

- by August held capital of Caracas and size of forces at 2000- Bolivar only held western part of Venezuela b/c General Santiago Marino who held east

refused to help. A struggle for leadership of Venezuela formed between Marino and Bolivar. Marino sought his own dictatorship and was ready to separate the eastern part for himself, Bolivar wanted to keep the country united.

However with both sections of Venezuela free from Spanish and royalist control, the Second Republic of Venezuela was formed with Simon Bolivar as dictator, as defined by the constitution.- Even though the royalist leadership was gone, not all of Venezuela was under their control.

In the South a group of llaneros who supported royalists, held the plains and rallied around José Tomás Boves. Boves and his llaneros were known for their violence, pillaging and executions.  He allowed his llanero soldiers who were of mixed races, to engage in a class and race war among the upper elite, the landed and urban classes of Venezuela.

June 1814 Bolivar defeated by llaneros. Venezuela would remain under royalist control until 1821. As for Bolivar, he was forced to flee first to New Granada, then self-imposed exile in Jamaica until an attempt was made on his life and he fled to the recently independent Haiti.

B. Chile September 1810 formed junta in the name of Ferdinand

- election of national Congress brought about regional political struggle between three groups, the extremists, the moderates and the royalists who were all in agreement that Chile should not become independent but disagreed on the amount of political authority their congress would hold

September 1811 Jose Miguel Carrera (had served in Spanish Army fighting against Napoleon in the Peninsular War; from wealthy & powerful family) and his brother aligned themselves with the extremists who wanted reforms past, just stopping short of independence, and seized control of Congress. This begins the Patria Vieja, the period that began with the formation of the first junta

March 1813 royalist forces from Peru land in Chile defeating Carrera April 6th royalist forces defeated by Bernardo O’Higgins (1778-1842); replaces Carrera as

commander 1814 royalist forces from Peru return & defeat O’Higgins in October 1814 at the battle of

Rancagua, a battle referred to by Chileans as the Disaster of Rancagua. becomes royalist colony from Oct. 1814 to Feb. 1817

C. Mexico

Father Miguel Hidalgo  (1753-1811) well-read & believed all people should be free. Asked which is better, obey or revolt against a tyrannical government?- had been investigated by the Inquisition in 1800 but while no charges filed evidence

gathered against him and was removed as priest from his parish- 1803 became parish priest at Dolores

- member of Queretaro Literary Club which planned rebellion for Dec. 1810 but plans discovered

                           • others saw rebellion of creoles but Hidalgo wanted rebellion for the masses                           • with plans known decided for mass movement

Sept. 16, 1810 he rang bell in parish church and called for Indians, mestizos, & people of color to fight in name of Ferdinand for gov’t that would treat them equitably (El Grito de Dolores, or Cry of Dolores – becomes battle cry of the war of independence)

- authorized sacking of houses & haciendas of Peninsulares; allowed followers to kill and satisfy instincts for revenge (class war)

- movement was regional but massive- centered agricultural area around Dolores- many leading creoles initially joined until turned too violent- began with 1000, in a week had 25,000, eventually 75,000-80,000

Oct. Hidalgo articulated somewhat of a platform calling for the end of slavery, end to forced payment of tribute by Indians, denounced system of castas (classification by raceAnd social status at birth), restitution of lands to Indian communities

- after 5 weeks led 80,000 ill-trained troops to Mexico City but decided not to take city- January 1811 defeated by royalists but escapes- March 1811 captured by royalists- July 1811 tried, convicted, executed with heads of leaders displayed on pikes

2nd Phase of Independence Movements (Ferdinand back on throne in 1815)

Events in EuropeNapoleon’s Peninsular War would last until a multinational force of British, Portuguese and Spanish forces put down the French army and ousted Joseph I in the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Napoleon himself would only rule another two years until being ousted and exiled (twice), dying in 1815.  

During the Peninsular War, Spain’s first national sovereign assembly had met in refuge and passed the Constitution of 1812 which called for universal male suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy, freedom of the press and supported land reform and free enterprise – very liberal ideas that would become the basis for many constitutions throughout Europe in the following years. Of particular importance was how the constitution handled the colonies. Under the Constitution of 1812 territories would be converted to provinces and thus any taxes raised would go straight to the state administrative apparatus rather than the royal treasury. In addition to the revenue, the constitution benefited the class of creoles over the hereditary aristocracy of the peninsulares.

Ferdinand VII was restored to power in March of 1814 and he made the promise to uphold the constitution.  Within two months he went back on his word, abolishing the constitution and arresting those involved in making it.  The following years would see a division within the country between those wanting a constitution and those desiring the absolutism of monarchy.

The Wars of Independence happening throughout Latin America had severely interrupted the ability of the Spanish to collect taxes from their colonies meaning that the gold simply was not coming from the Americas anymore.  Spain was going bankrupt. Ferdinand needed the money from the territories to continue ruling.

A. Jose de San Martin

Biography

- born in Argentina in 1778- moved with family to Spain in about 1784 - described as meticulous, careful, & modest- father in Spanish Army so he joins and fights for Spain in the Peninsular War constantly

earning high marks                Met many Creoles, including Bernardo O’Higgins while reading Locke, etc. which sparked his

desire for more than defeat and division in Spain. Last we saw O’Higgins he had just lost the Disaster of Rancagua, which allowed royalists to retake Chile. O’Higgins was living in exile in Spain.

 Liberation of Chile By 1808 made contact with and became involved in organizing military forces in Buenos Aires,

Argentina- believed only way for Argentine independence through liberation of whole continent

1814 left position in army to become governor of Andean province of Cuyo. To liberate Argentina, he first had to neutralize the support for royalist forces, namely Peru who

was under control of royalist Spanish forces. The only way to get to Peru was through Chile and through the tough terrain of the Andes mountains.

To cross this terrain and liberate Chile, San Martin established the Army of the Andes with O’Higgins as brigadier general.

- January 1817 mobilized force of 5000 troops- surprised royalists by moving entire army over high Andean passes, a 25 day journey

which saw the 5000 man army divide into two single columns reaching heights of 12,000 feet above sea level. (Machu Picchu is at 8,000 for perspective)

                                       • took Santiago, the capital of Chile, quite easily Feb. 1817 interim gov’t twice named San Martin governor of Chile, but he refused

- finally named O’Higgins as supreme dictator               April 1818 independence secured with royalist defeat

- O’Higgins ruled for 5 years                           • committed to independence, reform agenda promoting education & ending privilege                                       • distrusted democracy, thus failed to build stable political base Peru

August 1820 San Martin led expedition made of several thousand Chileans and Argentines, the so-called “United Army” although they were heavily outnumbered by Peruvian forces, 4 to 1. San Martin avoided major battles due to the disparity.  Instead he tried to divide the royalist forces, promote rebellions and insurrection, promised emancipation of slaves.  In addition to these promised reforms, word had come from Spain that a mutiny had formed in the Spanish army, forcing Ferdinand to reinstate the Constitution in March 1820.

By 1821 captured or blockaded several port cities, but still lacked a general uprising in support of liberation.

A coup took place within the Peruvian government.  The new leader of Peru offered negotiations with San Martin that ultimately failed. The Peruvian leader offered to reinstall the Constitution of 1812, but San Martin only wanted independence. For unknown reasons, the Peruvian leader abandoned the capital allowing San Martin to enter not as a conqueror, but as a liberator.

July 1821 entered capital of Lima to cheering crowds and proclaimed independence- did not control all of Peru- Lacking local leaders who had fought for independence like O’Higgins in Chile, San

Martin named chief of state with title of Protector of Peru

- did not make transition to statesman easily as San Martin desired liberal reforms in a very conservative area.  Although he did not push for major liberal changes quickly, he become frustrated with the problems within the Peruvian government

 San Martin Meets with Bolivar

Even though Peru was independent from Spain, royalist forces still roamed the countryside looking to retake the country.

July 1822 Bolivar met San Martin in Ecuador to discuss liberation of rest of Peru- had political differences.

                               • San Martin favored some form of monarchy; social conservative                                       • thought of perhaps importing European princes                                       • after experiences in Peru and Chile, could not point to any example of stable

gov’t, unsure whether republican form of government was even possible- Bolivar favored autocratic republicanism - stated in 1819 that repeated elections necessary, best system produces greatest

happiness, greatest degree of social safety, and greatest political stability Bolivar had larger, better trained army & stronger economic base San Martin, frustrated by difficulties including the declining military discipline in the Army of

the Andes and the rivalry between now independent countries of Peru, Chile (where O’Higgins was most likely going to be deposed soon), and the recently freed Columbia, frustrated and resolved that only a strong, dictator would be able to unify South America and refusing to take that role, San Martin withdrew from Peru and sailed for exile in Europe (died in 1850)

B. BolivarThis picks up before San Martin has even begun his invasion over the Andes. Bolivar had been defeated in Venezuela by the llaneros and has been forced to flee first to New Granada, then Jamaica, then Haiti.

1. Colombia January 1816 arrived in Haiti to ask for help in liberating Venezuela

- for the help had to promise to free slaves in countries liberated May 1816 reached Venezuela but unsuccessful in capturing Caracas, fled back to Haiti

- Bolivar’s failure was primarily due to the return of Spanish troops under Ferdinand VII who had sent the largest fighting force we have seen yet (10,000 men and 60 ships)

Dec. 1816 sailed for Venezuela with help from Haitian president, receiving money, volunteers and weapons.

- decides to capture hinterland then capital- more successful because gets help from other leaders in Venezuela including llaneros- also liberates part of New Granada

Feb. 1819 creates Republic of Colombia from liberated parts of Venezuela & New Granada- Bolivar elected president and named a general and commander-in-chief

2. New Granada May 1819 began campaign into New Granada that resulted in liberation of area that becomes 5

nations took army of 2000 across the Andes

- many soldiers got sick & some died while most of the horses & beef cattle died fought main battle in Aug. 1819 in Battle of Boyaca

- The result was the surrender of the royalist army to Bolivar. Guaranteed Columbia’s independence

- Entered capital of Bogota on August 10th. New Granada remained independent.- formed provisional government

- confiscated Peninsular property and property of crown supporters

3. Gran Colombia Dec. 1819 announced plan for uniting Venezuela, New Granada & unconquered Ecuador into

single state of Gran Colombia- faced several problems:

                           1- Venezuela and New Granada gave no indication of wanting to unite                           2- Ecuador had no idea of the plan                           3- Countries separated by jungles, mountains, little in common culturally/economically

by mid-1821 had assured independence in Venezuela by defeating royalists in the Battle of Carabobo

Called congress representing Venezuela & New Granada to create const. for Gran Colombia, Constitution of 1821

- inadequate representation showed up- Bolivar dictated const. - strong centralized power (more power to executive than

legislative or judicial.), capital in Bogota, bicameral congress with reps. from each country

Bolivar reluctantly made president b/c really wanted to fight rather than rule, so left VP to rule when off fighting

Bolivar went off to fight in Ecuador to bring them in- defeated royalists in May 1822 & able to convince to join Gran Colombia but uneasy

alliance 4. Dissension

By end of 1821 plan worked out on paper, but pleased no one- Some wanted a centralized government with strong executive (president), others desired

a federal but decentralized form of government.  Others disagreed on the constitution that was written saying that the nations should break apart, some going the other way and suggesting an even stronger presidency.

Venezuela plotting to separate from Gran Colombia In New Granada people resentful of Bolivar’s absence and drain on manpower and funds July 1822, Bolivar meets with San Martin in the Guayaquil Conference. Bolivar agreed to the

importance of Peruvian independence.- Peru gov’t disintegrated as San Martin left- Bolivar marched into Peru in Sept. 1823 to try and stabilize and get rid of Spanish near

Lima- entered Lima with much pomp and given title by Peruvian congress of “Man of Liberty”

by the Peruvian congress                                       • found corruption and a lack of money

- 1825 against Bolivar’s wishes Peru split into Peru and Upper Peru                           • Upper Peru became Republica Bolivar (Bolivia)

- Bolivar failed to establish stable, responsible gov’t in Peru End of 1827 went to New Granada and by June 1828 elected dictator

- unable to impose his will to save his plan Sept. 1830 Gran Colombia fell apart as Venezuela and Ecuador withdrew May 8, 1830, near death from tuberculosis, left Bogota to sail to Europe in exile (died Dec. 17th).

Died before he could leave. He instructed his second in command to burn his letters and writings, but he disobeyed the order, allowing us to know much more about Bolivar’s philosophy and desires.  He was 47 years old.

C. Mexico

Jose Maria Morelos, a priest, continued Hidalgo’s crusade- mestizo as ancestors included Africans, Indians, Spaniards- became priest at 30 and studied under Hidalgo at one time- had joined Hidalgo’s revolution in Oct. 1810 and sent south to lead revolution- proved to be natural leader & soldier (movement more organized than Hidalgo’s)

                                       • did not permit looting and wanton killing as Hidalgo By Nov. 1813 controlled most of southern Mexico

                           • Along with junta of creole politicians declared Mexico independent                           • 1814 had a constitution allowing universal male suffrage, popular sovereignty,                             Catholicism as official religion, abolished slavery and the castas system, emphasized                             economic liberty and private property, but no agrarian reform                           • Not fighting class war, but wanted harmony between all Mexicans excluding Peninsulars  

Spanish forces too strong to maintain independence- executed (shot) Dec. 22, 1815

After Morelos revolution continued but with less force until 1820 1820 liberals in Spain rose up and forced Ferdinand to restore the liberal Const. of 1812

- persuaded many Mexican conservatives could no longer trust the mother country which seemed to be falling into hands of dangerous liberals

- many wealthy Mexican creoles joined independence movement because believed would take control of mines, banks, and other businesses

Agustin de Iturbide, born Sept. 1783 into wealth (born same city as Morelos and where Hidalgo had once taught)

- had joined the Spanish Army and fought against Hidalgo and Morelos- felt he did not receive recognition due military leader of his talents and being a creole

faced little hope of advancement in gov’t Feb. 1821 unveiled the Plan of Iguala, also known as the Plan of the Three Guarantees, which

seemed to have something for every Mexican- united creole forces with remaining Insurgents from Hidalgo/Morelos

movements  Called his army “The Army of the Three Guarantees” after 3 provisions of the Plan of Iguala1. Religion – Establishes Roman Catholicism as Mexico’s official religion. Roman Catholic religion

should be supported, rights & property of clergy to be preserved and secured;2. Independence – Establishes a constitutional monarchy. Preferably under monarchy - crown to be

offered to King of Spain, if refused then to other princes in family if person accepting resided in Mexico & followed const. fixed by Congress;

3. Unity – Full social equality for all. Abolishes legal distinctions based on race and caste. Appealed to wealthy creoles considering the author was a creole and it abolished special privileges for peninsulars, equality for those born in Am. or Europe

Sept. 1821 enters Mexico City in triumph. In less than a year of fighting, Iturbide had taken control of Mexico City, something 11 years of fighting under Hidalgo and Morales had not been able to achieve.

- new gov’t under junta with members of wealthy creoles in control. Very limited rep. of underclass

- when Congress began to restrict his power as head of military crowns himself Agustin I, the Emperor of Mexico.

By end of 1822 people rebel against him. Particularly upset were the republicans that were angry with his authoritarian rule and the support he received from the Catholic Church. He even disbanded Congress in Oct 1822 after discovering a plot to kidnap him and his family, installing a junta that answered directly to him in its stead.  Economic ties severed with Europe (no one

would recognize Mexico as independent), he decreased taxes to ease burden, but insisted on large military which he ultimately couldn’t pay.  

March 1823 resigned after pressure from Santa Anna & republican form of gov’t established May 1823 went into exile in Italy with pension of Mexican gov’t

- Attempted to return in 1824, but was captured and executed

Interests of the United States

A. Introduction Commercial interests turned US eyes toward Latin America

- by 1821 accounted for 13% of all exports Gulf of Mexico ports important economic centers America seriously doubted the ability of Central/South America to break away and have a

successful revolution.  Most thought it would descend into the anarchy, terror and despotism similar to what had taken place in the French Revolution.

B. Policies Sec. of State Monroe, in 1811, stated destiny of LATAM countries dependent upon themselves President Madison secretly got Congress to agree U.S. only take up arms for LATAM if

attempted transfer of territories from Spain to another imperial power Sec. of State J.Q. Adams said greatest danger U.S. offending Spanish gov’t because advantages to

be gained were acquisition of Florida, definition of boundary between LA Purchase & Mexico, assumption of Spain’s claims in Pacific NW         

By the early 1820s Latin America was a different story.  A Republican government was in place in Mexico by 1823, although a stable government was not in place in some areas, the Spanish for the most part had been expelled.

1823 Monroe Doctrine – US foreign policy that stated any European attempts to colonize land or interfere with any states in North or South America would be viewed as an act of aggression and would require US intervention. It also noted that the US would stay out of European affairs.

- View 1 : America immediately becomes largest power, gains economic benefit of trading partners in Western Hemisphere.

- View 2 : Free Latin America from European intervention, avoid situations that make the New World a battleground for Old World powers.

- Response : Largely ignored, US was not world power, lacked navy.  Britain agreed, they saw advantages in Spain/Portugal losing colonies.  Latin America loved it, but realized the US lacked the power to intervene if necessary.

               

Post-Revolution Latin AmericaResults

A. Economy Wars had devastated economies

               • mines, plantations and other peninsular-dominated industries abandoned               • agricultural production decreased as people fled to the cities               • Peninsulars fled, taking the much needed capital for development of industry               • national debts had been accumulated in fight for independence

- forced to take on foreign loans truly needed for needed capital investment Raise revenue by taxing exports

               • result was cheaper, better European (British) products on the market

- caused loss of jobs in LATAM- antiquated technology unable to compete

Lack of skilled labor within countries b/c many peninsulars fled, many other young men killed in battle

No general redistribution of land to the poor Lack of roads and topography limited the range of potential markets

B. Social Order Topography hindered national unity as travel was difficult Large Indian population relegated to poverty and illiteracy with end of colonial legislative

protections- lands owned by Indians were taken

Church began to lose influence- Education and other services (hospitals, orphanages, etc.) suffered

best of young men sacrificed to the revolution Worn out troops created hordes of poor, homeless men

 C. PoliticsProblems

Lack of qualified gov’t personnel               1- killed, left for Spain or exiled               2- many had financial or family problems and could not be away from home               3- lack of money in treasuries led to low salaries

- many left or never entered profession, others took bribes Bureaucracies filled with patriots and other personal favorites Lack of political maturity caused oversimplification of many issues

Constitutional Structures Influenced by British and U.S. systems (republican constitutions with representative gov’t) 2 types of constitutions developed (federalist & centralist)

- federalist const. more innovative, better attuned to needs of new nations- reflection of aspirations of regional power groups- unable to satisfy desires of controlling blocs in new nations- eventually failed everywhere

Centralist constitution proved more durable- stunted local & regional institutions and inhibited provincial economic growth

Factions Conservatives

o believed in strong central gov’to believed in privileges for the clergy and militaryo wanted to keep colonial social ordero supported by: high clergy, generals, haciendados (large landowners)

Liberalso believed in federal gov’t with individual rightso wanted to weaken the church & take its propertyo wanted to break old hierarchical social ordero supported by: low clergy, small landowners, lawyers, shopkeepers, artisans

                           

Caudillos Local bosses whose leadership skills & power made them local, regional, even national leaders

- often large landowners- during wars of independence were military officers- controlled local resources- acquired a personal following- used or threatened to use physical force- pursued agendas that served needs of constituents

If strong enough caudillos believed in centralism- manipulated elections- dictator caudillos considered public treasury as private purse- regulated activities of the citizens

If minor caudillo, fought for federalism to justify his rule in his state or province