Human Geography Models for Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, & 13 - Semester I Study Guide

1. Demographic Transition Model

Stage One: Pre-agricultural societies engaged in subsistence farming and transhumance, the seasonal migration for food and resources or owning livestock. Birth rates and death rates fluctuate due climate, warfare, disease, and environmental factors. There is little population growth. The NIR is generally low because of disease epidemics. Birth rates are high because children were an expression of a family's productivity and status and they were invaluable for helping with the work of gathering, herding, etc. Child mortality and infant mortality are very high due to lack of medical knowledge. Families were lucky if one or two children would make it to adulthood. Death rates are high. Overall population has a very low life expectancy. Limited medicine, sanitation, nutrition, hazards such as famine and war, all caused people to die easily. Hard physical labor and long migrations wore down the bodies and decreased life span.

Stage Two: Stage 2 countries are agricultural-based economies. Birth rates remain high while death rates decline over time. The NIR goes up significantly as birth rates and death rates diverge. As a country advances, population growth explodes. Rapid population growth has been a concern when looking at the quality of life in LDCs. Life is better due to the Industrial Revolution first and the medical revolution second. MDCs like Europe, USA, and Canada experienced the Industrial Revolution first. Then the Medical Revolution came 2nd. LDCs did not move into Stage 2 until MDCs brought medical inventions and medicine to Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Once LDCs received medical help, they could start surviving. Then the Industrial Revolution inventions began to spread to LDCs. Death rates began to plunge during Stage 2 due to the Industrial Revolution and medical revolution. During Stage 2, international migration resulted. Urbanization and shift from rural to urban centers for work also increased. Manufacturing is apparent and there is a focus away from agriculture toward the end of Stage 2.

Between Stage 2 and 3, is where birth and death rates are furthest apart, resulting in high NIR.

Stage 3: Stage 3 is where most "industrialized" or manufacturing-based countries were found in the transition. MDCs of Europe and USA shifted their economies to more service-based focus. Birth rates continue to decrease as the effects of urbanization (less space, time, and need factors). Increases in health care, education, and female employment bring about less fertility per woman. Women have a choice and contraceptives are more available. Women's education and employment also results in few children due to time constraints. Women are empowered to gain from their school and job experiences. There is access of health care, nutrition, sanitation, and education so life expectancy is greater. Also, death rates eventually bottom out. Everyone is going to die eventually. Life expectancies can go up even further in stage four, but the death rate stays the same. There is no way to stop people from dying.

Stage 4: Birth and death rages converge and there is a limited population growth -- even a decline. Tertiary service industries like finance, insurance, real estate, health care, and communications are what grow the economy. Manufacturing is dying. Women are not having as many babies -- zero population growth. When birth rates reach the same level of death rates, this is zero population growth. NIR equal 0.0 percent. Birth rates can decline and even be lower than death rates. This results in a negative NIR and a shrinking population. USA services are 80% of the GDP, and manufacturing is only 17% in Stage 4. USA is not ZPG due to the USA being a desirable place for immigration. In Western Europe and Anglo-North America, there is a large, over 65 dependency rate.

New term to remember: demographic momentum: the term that describes the concept that population will continue to grow even after fertility rates decline.

What is important about this? What does this model tell us about population? How does population change? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

KNOW EXAMPLES OF COUNTRIES THAT WOULD FALL UNDER EACH STAGE.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

What about Stage 5?

a.

b.

c.

d.

3. Epidemiological Transition Model

Stage 1: Plagues, pestilence, famine, Black Plague

Stage 2: Receding Pandemics (disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population) due to Industrial Revolution (improved sanitation, nutrition, medicine) - Cholera and Dr. John Snow

Stage 3: Stage of degenerative and human created diseases (heart attacks, cancer, cardiovascular)

Stage 4: Delayed degenerative diseases due to operations, medicine, reduce tobacco and alcohol, better info, more education multi-media, exercise

Stage 5: Reemergence of infectious and parasitic diseases. Evolution of microbes that cannot be destroyed by medicine. Poverty causes infectious diseases. Improved travel spreads microbes all over the world. AIDS. Societies could revert back to Stage 1.

4. Thomas Malthus Theory

Malthus claimed that the population was growing much more rapidly than Earth's food supply because population increased geometrically, whereas food supply increased arithmetically. National Increase Rate (NIR) declines for 2 reasons: (1). lower birth rates (2). higher death rates. Only hope is to reduce birth rates.

OPPOSITE: Esther Boserup: A Danish agriculturist, she provided a hopeful alternative to Malthus. Should population growth out number food supply, humans must upgrade the productivity of the food supply. This is done by human ingenuity and technology. Humans will find ways to provide enough food to handle the population growth. Innovations in soil production, cultivation, and technological advances to enhance food production.

5. Nomadic Warrior Theory by Marija Gimbutas - Kurgan People from steppes near the border between present-day Russia and Kazakhstan spread Indo-European Language -- origin. Spread the language with horses.

*****New term to remember***** consequent: cultural defined political boundaries such as those determined by the spatial patterns of religion or language.

6. Sedentary Farmer Theory by Colin Renfrew - Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European Language by Farmers who may have originated 2,000 years in Turkey/Anatolia before Kurgans.

7. Gravity Model of Migration

When applied to migration, larger places attract more emigrants than do smaller places. Additionally, destinations that are more distance have a weaker pull (distance decay) than do closer opportunities of the same caliber.

8. Gravity Model of Population

The gravity model takes into account the population size of two places and their distance. Since larger places attract people, ideas, and products more than smaller places and places closer together have a greater attraction, the gravity model incorporates these 2 features.

9. Zelinsky's Migration Transition Model

Stage One: Hunters and gatherers move from one place to another for survival. High CBR and CDR and low NIR. Search for local food rather than permanent migration to a new place.

Stage Two: High NIR because of rapidly declining CDR. Point when international migration becomes especially important. Interregional migration from one's country's rural areas to its cities. Improvement in agricultural practices reduces the number of people needed in rural areas, and jobs in factories attract migrants to the cities in another region of the same country or in another country.

Stage Three and Stage Four: Internal migration is more important. Moderating NIR because of rapidly declining CBR. The principal destinations of the international migrants leaving the stage 2 countries in search of economic opportunities. The principal form of internal migration within countries in stages 3 and 3 is intraregional, from cities to surrounding suburbs.

10. Lee's Push and Pull Model

Push Factors Pull Factors

*Political (wars, persecution) *Political (lure of freedom, democracy)

*Economic (lack of jobs) *Economic (perceived opportunities for jobs)

*Physical (flooding, drought, *Physical (lure of attractive climate, land

natural disasters) form regions)

11. Language Families

Language: A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.

Language Family: A collection of languages related to each other through a common ancestor long before recorded history.

Language Branch: A collection of languages related through a common ancestor that existed several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families, and archaeological evidence can confirm that branches derived from the same family.

Language Group: A collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary.

English: Language family is Indo-European; Language branches: West Germanic, Romance, Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian. Language Group: West Germanic: German, English, Dutch, Norwegian, Swedish, Afrikaans, Danish. Romance : Spanish, French, Portuguese, Romanian, Italian, Venetian, Haitian Creole, Catalan, Sicicilian, Neapolitan. Balto-Slavic: Belarusan, Russian, Czech, Polish, Slovak Slavic, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Ukrainian, Czech. Indo-Iranian: Hindi, Bengali, Urdu, Sinhalis, Nepali, Kurdish, Farsi, Bengali, Punjabi, Balochi, Kashmiri

Indo-European language family includes major languages of Europe and those dominant in Russia, Northern India, Iran, and Eastern and Southern Australia.

12. D.W. Meinig's Core Domain Sphere Model

13. Global Positioning System vs. Geographic Information System

14. Robinson Projection: useful for displaying information across the oceans. Due to allocating space to the oceans, the land areas are much smaller.

15. Mercator projection; shape is distorted very little, direction is consistent, and the map is rectangular. Its greatest disadvantage is that area is grossly distorted toward the poles, making high latitude places look much larger than they actually are.

16. E.G. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration

a. The majority of migrants travel short distancesb. Migrants who are traveling a long way tend to move to larger cities than smaller

cities.c. Rural residents are more likely to migrate than are urban residents.

d. Every migration stream creates a counterstream. Therefore, net migration is the number of people in the original flow minus the number of people in the opposite flow (or counterstream).

e. Families are less likely to make international moves than young adults.

17. Concentric Model of Urban Development by Burgess

Ernest Burgess Represents the Anglo-American city of the USA and Canada during the height of

industrialization This is a theoretical model and no city is perfectly laid out in even rings. All cities have a CBD (central business district) CBD contains the highest density of commercial land use. Most expensive land is in the CBD. Buildings built vertically to maximize the use of one parcel of urban land. CBD is surrounded by an area of low-density commercial land that has factories,

warehouses, rail yards, and port facilities. In the era of deindustrialization, many American and Canadian cities have rebuilt

former industrial areas into festival landscapes: convention centers, outdoor concert venues: Inner Harbor of Baltimore, Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta

High-density housing surrounds both the CBD and industrial zones: poor tenements, public housing, small apartments, row houses. Some of these

Areas have been replaced or renovated through a process of gentrification.

18. Bid-Rent Curve

Space for downtown commercial rest estate is sold or leased by the square foot. By comparison, land in the suburbs is sold by the acre. Along the curve you could plot different land uses. Land for a suburban home or space for a suburban apartment building are not that much different in price. However, land for that apartment building and land for building downtown is vastly different in price.

The bid-rent curve represents the cost-to-distance relationship of real estate prices in the urban landscape. The closer one moves toward the peak land or CBD, the more expensive the price for CBD land.

19. Sector Model of Urban Development by Homer Hoyt

Homer Hoyt Concepts of the industrial corridor and neighborhood are combined for practical

purpose. Results in a more realistic representation compared to the concentric zone model. This model is also used to depict ethnic areas/variations in a city. CBD is at center. Outside of the CBD is the industrial space or corridor. There is a corridor of upper-class housing extending outward from the CBD. Middle class neighborhoods also radiate out from the CBD like a corridor/wedge.

20. Multiple Nuclei Model by Harris and Ullman

Harris and Ullman, authors The model attempts to practically represent the urban landscape with

neighborhoods and commercial corridors. Instead of all commerce being focused on the center of the city as in the sector

model, the term "multiple-nuclei" implies that there is more than one commercial center within the city landscape.

People with different social characteristics tend to live within an urban area. A city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which

activities revolve or a node (like functional). Nodes include a port, neighborhood business center, university airport, and park.

What do the 3 models explain? If the 3 models are combined, they help geographers:

help geographers explain where different types of people live in a city People tend to reside in certain locations depending on their particular personal

characteristics. Most people prefer to live near others who have similar characteristics One family owns its home and the other rents. The owner-occupant is much more

likely to live in an outer ring and the renter in an inner ring(concentric). If two families who own their homes, the family with the higher income will not live

in the same sector of the city as the family with the lower income (sector) People with the same ethnic or racial background are likely to live near each other

(multiple-nuclei)

21. Latin American City Model by Griffin and Ford

Ford and Griffin, authors - Applies to LDC cities of Latin America Based on Law of the Indies (1500s) Spain required colonies in Latin America to

build their cities to look like Madrid. Wealthy people push out from the center in a well-defined elite residential sector. The elite sector forms on either side of a narrow spine. The narrow spine contains offices, shops, and services attractive to wealth people;

restaurants, theaters, parks, zoos. Middle class would be section 3. Sector 4: zone of in situ accretion: Europeans who married natives. Disamenity are sectors which are poor land area: city dump, hillside, rocky, flood

plain, etc. When rural poor would move to big LDC cities for jobs, they would arrive with no money and sleep on the streets or in abandoned buildings of the disamenity. Then they would begin looking for scavenged items to build a shack in the "periferico" sectors.

Periferico are sectors that house squatter settlements. Families erect primitive shelters with scavenged cardboard, wood boxes, sack cloth, and crushed beverage cans. As they find new bits of material, they add them to their shacks. Perhaps later they can build a tin roof or partition space into rooms, and the structure acquires a more permanent appearance.

22. Christaller’s Central Place Theory – Walter Christaller from Germany

Helps to explain how the most profitable location for a shop can be identified. Central place: is a market center for the exchange of goods and services by people

attracted from the surrounding area. It is so called because it is central located to maximize accessibility.

Market area or hinterland: the area surrounding a service from which customers are attracted. The market area is an example of a nodal region – a region with a core where the characteristic is most intense.

Market area of every service varies. To determine the extent of a market areas, you need TWO pieces of information about a service: RANGE and THRESHHOLD

Range: is the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service. The range is the radius of a hexagon drawn to delineate a service’s market area. People are willing to only go a short distance for everyday consumer services like groceries. Buy they will travel a long distance for such services as a concert or a ball game. A median range for a Kroger supermarket in Dayton would be 1.2 miles.

Threshold: is the minimum number of people needed to support a service. A median threshold needed to support Kroger supermarket in Dayton is about 30,000 people.

Market-Area Analysis: The range and threshold together determine whether a good or service can be profitable in a particular location. This is how it is done:a. Compute the rangeb. Computer the thresholdc. Draw the market area

Gravity Model for Central Place Theory: Predicts that the optimal location of service is directly related to the # of people in an area and inversely (negative aspect) related to the distance people must travel to access it. According to the gravity model, consumer behavior reflects two patterns:a. The greater the # of people living in a particular place, the greater is the # of

potential customers for a service.b. The father people are from a particular service, the less likely they are to use it.

23. Louis Wirth Theory

Urban dwellers follow a different way of life than does a rural dweller. City is a permanent settlement that has 3 characteristics:

1. Large size – If you live in a rural settlement, you know most of the other inhabitants. In urban settlement, you can know only a small percentage of the other residents. Most of your relationships are contractual: your supervisor, your lawyer, your supermarket cashier, etc. Consequently, the large size of an urban settlement produces different social relationships than those formed in rural settlements.

2. High Density: High density produces social consequences for urban residents. The only way that a large # of people can be supported in a small area is through specialization. Each person in an urban settlement plays a special role or performs a specific task to allow the complex urban system to function smoothly. At the same time, high density also encourages people to compete for survival in limited space. Social groups compete to occupy the same territory, and the stronger group dominates. This behavior distinguishes an urban settlement from a rural one.

3. Social Heterogeneity: The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people. A person has greater freedom in an urban settlement than in a rural settlement to pursue an unusual profession, sexual orientation, or cultural interests. Residents of a crowded urban settlement often feel that they are surrounded by people who are indifferent and reserved; sense of loneliness. Urban areas in MDCs offer jobs, services, culture, and recreation.

24. Rank-Size Distribution of Settlements

Geographers observe that ranking settlements from largest to smaller population produces a regular pattern of hierarchy. This is the Rank-Size Rule. The country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement. In other words, the second-largest city is one-half the size of the largest, the fourth-largest city is one-fourth the size of the largest, and so on. The United States’ cities follow Rank-Size Rule. New York is largest, ½ of New York is Los Angeles, a 1/3 of New York is Chicago, a ¼ of New York is Philadelphia, etc. This is advantageous because goods and services are available throughout the USA rather than Americans looking only to New York City for the best of services and goods.

25. Primate City Distribution of Settlements

If the settlement hierarchy does not graphs as a straight line, then country does not have a rank-size distribution of settlements. Instead, it may follow the primate city rule. This is where the largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement. In this distribution, the country’s largest city is called the primate city.

Denmark: Copenhagen is the primate city with 1 million inhabitants. The second largest is Arhus with only 200,000.

United Kingdom/England: London has 8 million, whereas as Birmingham, the second-largest – has only 2 million.

26. 5 Types of Climates according to AP Human Geography

Tropical Dry climates Warm mid-latitude climates Cold-mild mid-latitude climates Polar climates

27. Possibilism versus Environmentalism

Possibilism: the physical environment may limit some human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to their environment. Please can choose a course of action from many alternatives in the physical environment. Humans endow the physical environment with cultural values by regarding it as a collection of resources which are substances that are useful to people, economically and technologically, and socially acceptable to use. AP human geographers support this view.

Environmental determinism: A 19th and 20th century approach to the study of geography which argued that the general laws sought by human geographers could be found in the physical sciences. The environment in which people are born determines their outcome and limits their potential. A person born in Africa is often limited by the LDC status and may not be able to rise to the prosperity of an MDC born person. AP Human Geography does not believe in this limitation.

28. Types of Diffusion

Diffusion: is the process by which a characteristic spreads across space from one place to another over time. This from which an innovation originates is called a hearth.

Two Types of Diffusion

a. Relocation – the spread of an idea through physical movement of people from one place to another.

b. Expansion – the spread of a feature from one place to another in a snowballing process.

Three Ways of Expansion Diffusion

1. Hierarchical – is the spread of an idea from person or nodes of author or power to other person or places. This may result from the spread of ideas from political leaders, socially elite people, or other important persons to others in the community. Innovations may also originate in a particular node or place of power, such as a large urban center, and diffuse later to isolated rural areas. Hip-hop or rap music is an example of an innovation that diffused from a group of people.

2. Contagious – is the rapid, widespread diffusion of a characteristic throughout the population: spread of influenza, AIDS. An idea placed on the World Wide Web spreads through contagious diffusion because Web surfers throughout the world have access to the same material simultaneously and quickly

3. Stimulus – is the spread of an underlying principle, even though a characteristic itself apparently fails to diffuse. Early desktop computer sales in the USA were evenly between Apple and IBM. By 1990s, Apple sales had fallen far behind IBM. Then Apple came up with the mouse at an icon. – new technologies.

29. Types of Regions

a. Formal: The selected characteristic is present in an entire region. Laws of Montana. North American wheat belt is a formal region.

b. Functional: also called a nodal region is an area organized around a node or a focal point. Examples: television station’s viewing area. Circulation area of a newspaper. A Department Store like Nordstrom’s threshold area.

c. Vernacular: is a perceptual region or a place that people believe exists as a part of their cultural identity. “Dixie” = Southern States of the USA. “Retirement State” – Florida or AZ “Coffee Drinkers’ Region” – Pacific Northwest. “Rust Belt” – Midwest States of the Auto Industry due to heavy snows and salt placed on roads that cause cars to rust.

29. Population Pyramids:

Stage 4

Stage 4 Zero Population Growth

Stage 3

Stage 3

Stage 2

Stage 2

30. Population Statistics

The BIRTH RATE: CBR is an annual statistic. The total # of infants born living is counted for one calendar year and then calculated. The figures is then divided by the populat6ion divided by one thousand, or 'every thousand members of the population.

Live Births_____

Population + 1,000

What does this mean? High bird rates (18 to 50) are found in mostly rural agricultural LDC countries and that low birth rates (8 to 17) are more likely to be found in urbanized industrial and service based countries (MDCs).

The DEATH RATE: The crude death rate or CDR, or what is called the death rate is an annual statistic calculated in the same. The number of deaths are counted for the calendar year in a country and divided by every thousand members of the population (or population/1,000).

Deaths______

Population = 1,000

What does this mean? High death rates usually indicate a country that is experiencing war, disease, or famine. Higher death rates (20 to 5) were recorded in the poor of LDCs where the combination of poverty, poor nutrition, epidemic disease, and a lack of medical care resulted in low life expectancy. HOWEVER, conditions have improved in LDCs through the Green Revolution (increased food and nutrition) and access to sanitation, education and health care have increased, life expectancies have gone up, and death rate has gone down.

The NATURAL INCREASE RATE (NIR): By comparing the birth rate and death rate for a country, we can calculate the rate of natural increase (RNI as stated by Princeton Review or NIR as stated by Rubenstein textbook). If you subtract the death rate from the birth rate, the difference is the amount of population change per thousand members of the population for that year. Then divide the result by 10 and then you will have the NIR or RNI. The NIR or RNI is also the annual percentage of population growth of that country for that one-year period. Put a % sign after you get the answer to the equation.

Birth Rate - Death Rate

10

Is a negative NIR/RNI possible? It is possible. Mathematically, the death rate can larger than the birth rate, resulting in a negative number that is divided by 10 to get the negative NIR/RNI. When the NIR/RNI is negative, it means the population has shrunk during the year the data was collected. One current possibility would be in a LDC location where disease, warfare, or famine has decimated the population -- Swaziland: affected by the AIDS epidemic has currently an NIR/RNI of -0.1 %.

Why "Natural" Increase? Important to keep in mind regarding the rate of natural increase is that it does not account for immigration or emigration. A country with a high rate of natural increase can have an unexpectedly low long-term population prediction if there is a large amount of emigration. Oppositely, a country with a low rate of natural increase can still grow significantly over time if the amount of immigrants is high. Data shows that migrant population also have much higher fertility rates. In the USA population growth is not necessary from the immigrants cross the border, but the fact that they will have a large number of children once they have settled.

DOUBLING TIME: This is an estimate regarding how long it would take a country to double in size by this formula.

70_________

Rate of Natural Increase

Using Peru as an example, an RNI of 2.1 percent would result in a doubling time of 33.3 years. This is fast but demographers expect the 8 million people to grow to 16 million by 2050.

This won't happen according to demographers because people are leaving Peru for work. There is a negative net migration. Out-migration to other countries reduces the long-term prediction to around 12-13 million by 2015.

The TOTAL FERTILITY RATE: The TFR is the estimated # of children born to each female of birthing age (15 to 45).

Number of Children Born

Women Ages 15 to 45

Remember: THE TFR is not an annual statistic -- it is more an estimate, a picture of fertility for both over the prior 30 years.

The REPLACEMENT RATE: The replacement rate is a TFR of 2.1. We must think about this in a basic biological terms. If a couple has two offspring, they have replaced themselves. What about the remaining 0.1? This is what would be referred to as an error factor. We have to estimate that some small portion of the population will die before they reach adulthood -- disease and accidents do happen. Thus, to replace itself, a large population must have 2.1 children per female of birthing age.