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MORFOMETRIJSKE ZNAAJKE IREG PODRUJA DUVANJSKOGPOLJA, BOSNA I HERCEGOVINA

MORPHOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BROADER AREA

OF DUVANJSKO POLJE, BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA

DENIS RADO 1, SANJA LOZI1, ANTE ILJEG1

1Odjel za geograju, Sveuilite u Zadru / Department of Geography, University of Zadar

UDK: 910.3:551.4(23)(497.6Duvanjsko polje)=111=163.42Primljeno / Received: 2012-05-14 Izvorni znanstveni rad

Original scientic paper

Objekt ovoga istraivanja su padine uzvienja irega podruja Duvanjskog polja. Padine se mogu deniratikao reljefne plohe odreene geografskim poloajem, nagibom u odnosu na horizontalnu povrinu, izloenou(ekspozicijom) u odnosu na strane svijeta, te stupnjem zakrivljenosti (prolne i planarne). Recentni oblikpadina posljedica je utjecaja niza prirodnih i drutvenih faktora tijekom geneze i evolucije reljefa. Analizommorfometrijskih parametara mogue je dovesti u vezu znaajke padina s geolokom graom i sastavom, ali iostalim prirodno-geografskim imbenicima (npr. klima, pedologija, vegetacija itd.).

Ciljevi ovoga istraivanja su: a) analiza morfometrijskih pokazatelja reljefa, b) analiza odnosa izmeumorfometrijskih pokazatelja, strukturnih i litolokih znaajki i c) sinteza svih analiziranih pokazatelja dabi se dobio detaljniji uvid u egzogeomorfoloke i morfostrukturne znaajke podruja i omoguila procjenaopsega i intenziteta dominantnih geomorfolokih procesa. Pri tome, posebna panja posveena je detaljnojgeomorfometrijskoj analizi makromorfostruktura ireg podruja Duvanjskog polja u okruju GIS-a na temeljudigitalnog modela reljefa (DMR). Geomorfometrijska analiza reljefa primijenjena u ovom radu ukljuila je

koritenje razliitih metoda za precizno raunanje numerikih parametara reljefa istraivanog podruja, toje omoguilo meusobnu usporedbu navedenih parametara, ali i usporedbu s kartom tektonskih jedinica igeolokom kartom. Cilj ovakvog pristupa je egzaktnija interpretacija morfometrijskih parametara reljefa kaoindikatora znaajki endogenih i egzogenih procesa na istraivanom podruju.

Kljune rijei:geomorfometrijska analiza, morfometrijski parametri, padine, ire podruje Duvanjskog polja

The objects of this study are the hillslopes in the broader area of Duvanjsko polje (Bosnia and Herzegovina).Slopes can be dened as relief surfaces determined by geographical position, slope inclination (related withhorizontal surface), aspect, and degree of curvature (prole and planar).Recent slope shapes can be denedas results of series of natural and anthropogenic factors during relief genesis and evolution. It is possible tocorrelate slope characteristics with geological structure and other natural geographic features (climate, soils,vegetation etc.) using geomorphometrical analysis.

The main aims of this study are: a) analysis of morphometric relief indicators, b) analysis of relationships

between morphometric indicators, structural and lithological features, and c) synthesis of all analyzed indicatorsin order to better understand exogeomorphological and morphostructural features of the investigated area. Thenal intention is to assess the extent and intensity of the dominant geomorphologic processes. Special attentionwas given to the detailed geomorphometrical analysis of morphostructures in the broader area of Duvanjskopolje in GIS environment based on DMR. The applied geomorphometrical relief analysis included the use ofdifferent methods for precise calculation of the investigated area's numerical relief parameters, which enabled amutual comparison of specied parameters and comparison with tectonic units and lithology maps. The aim ofthis approach is a more exact analysis and interpretation of morphometric relief parameters as indicators of theinvestigated area's endogenous and exogenous processes' characteristics.

Key Words: geomorphometrical analysis, morphometric parameters, hillslopes, broader area ofDuvanjsko polje

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D. Rado, S. Lozi, A. iljeg Geoadria 17/2 (2012) 177-207

Uvod

U ovom radu provedena je geomorfometrijskaanaliza temeljnih parametara reljefa ireg podrujaDuvanjskog polja (nagiba, ekspozicija, prolne

i planarne zakrivljenosti) i njihova znaaja kaoindikatora endogenih i egzogenih geomorfolokihprocesa. Analiza je u najveoj mjeri usmjerena napadine nagiba > 2 na podruju irega planinskogokvira Duvanjskog polja. Dan je i osvrt napovrine koji pripadaju kategoriji < 2, to se prijesvega odnosi na podruje samog polja, ali i naostale manje reljefne oblike s ovom kategorijomnagiba izvan Duvanjskog polja.

Geomorfometrija je znanost o kvantitativnimobiljejima Zemljine povrine (Pike i dr., 2009.).Ona predstavlja analitiko-kartografski pristup uprouavanju topografskih obiljeja Zemlje kao iinterdisciplinarno podruje proizalo veinom izmatematike, prirodnih znanosti i informatike.S obzirom na objekt geomorfometrije,prouavanjem manjih reljefnih oblika bavi sespecina, dok se reljefom kao cjelinom bavi opageomorfometrija. Opa geomorfometrija osnovaje za kvantitativnu usporedbu veih reljefnihoblika, a ukljuuje metode koje u osnovi nisugeomorfoloke (MacMillan, Shary, 2009.). Uovom radu primijenjena su naela i metode opegeomorfometrije, koja se odnosi na raunalnu

analizu GIS-a ireg podruja Duvanjskog polja upromatranim granicama.

Suvremena geomorfometrijska analiza,temeljena na metodama GIS-a, odnosi se uprvom redu na analizu digitalnog modela reljefa(Franklin, 1987.; Jordan, Csillag, 2001.;Ganas et al, 2005.; Smith, Clark, 2005.).Digitalni model reljefa matematiki je prikazZemljine povrine u rasterskom ili vektorskomobliku koji sadri nizove vrijednosti visina. Sobzirom na prostornu rezoluciju postoje razliitirasterski modeli reljefa, a o njoj izravno ovisikvaliteta i preciznost izlaznih rezultata. Za potrebeovoga rada izraen je rasterski digitalni modelreljefa Duvanjskog polja i rubnih padina uzvienjakoja ga okruuju automatskom vektorizacijomizohipsa s topografskih karata mjerila 1 : 25 000.

Geomorfometrijski parametri mogu seizvesti izravno iz DMR-a. Oni se nazivajuosnovni reljefni parametri i dijele se nalokalne i regionalne (Olaya, 2009.). Evans(1972., 1980.), uz hipsometriju, navedeneparametre smatra temeljnim pretpostavkama

geomorfometrijske analize.

Introduction

This paper focuses on geomorphometricalanalysis of certain basic parameters of the broaderDuvanjsko polje relief (slopes, aspects, prole

and planar curvature) and their importance asendogenous and exogenous geomorphologicprocesses indicators. The analysis is mostly aimed athillslopes of inclination > 2 located in the broaderarea of Duvanjsko polje mountainous rim, but alsoprovides an insight into areas which correspond tothe category of slopes with inclinations < 2, whichprimarily refers to the Polje itself but also to somelesser terrain shapes outside the Polje.

Geomorphometry is the science of quantitativefeatures of the Earth's surface (Pike et al., 2009).It represents an analytical and cartographicapproach in the research of topographical featuresof Earth as well as an interdisciplinary eld thatmostly emerged from mathematics, naturalsciences and informatics. Considering the objectof geomorphometrical research, smaller terrainshapes are the object of specic geomorphometrywhile the terrain as a whole is the object of generalgeomorphometry. General geomorphometry isthe basis for quantitative comparison of largerterrain shapes and includes methods that are notnecessarily geomorphologic (MacMillan, Shary,2009). This paper employs the principles and

methods of general geomorphometry, which appliesto computer-based GIS analysis of the broader areaof Duvanjsko polje within its observed limits.

Contemporary geomorphometrical analysis,based on GIS methods, refers primarily to theanalysis of a digital terrain model (Franklin, 1987;

Jordan, Csillag, 2001; Ganas et al., 2005;Smith, Clark, 2005). A digital terrain model is amathematical representation of the Earth's surfacein either raster or vector shape, which also containsvarious strings of height values. Considering thespatial resolution, there are various raster terrainmodels, which directly inuences the output results'quality and precision. For the purposes of thispaper, a digital raster terrain model of Duvanjskopolje and its bordering hillslopes has been createdby vectorization of contour lines from topographicmaps scaled 1:25,000.

Geomorphometrical parameters can be directlydrawn from DMR. They are called basic terrainparameters and are further divided into localand regional (Olaya, 2009). Evans (1972, 1980)considers these parameters, along with hypsometry,

the basic premises of geomorphometrical analysis.

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Objekt ovoga istraivanja su padineuzvienja ireg podruja Duvanjskog polja.Padine se mogu denirati kao reljefne ploheodreene geografskim poloajem, nagibom uodnosu na horizontalnu povrinu, izloenou

(ekspozicijom) u odnosu na strane svijeta, testupnjem zakrivljenosti (prolne i planarne).Recentni oblik padina posljedica je utjecaja nizaprirodnih i drutvenih faktora tijekom genezei evolucije reljefa. Analizom morfometrijskihparametara mogue je dovesti u vezu znaajkepadina s geolokom graom i sastavom, ali iostalim prirodno-geografskim imbenicima (npr.klimatskim, pedolokim, vegetacijskim itd.).Numeriki iskazani podaci morfometrijskihparametara, promatrani u lokalnom okviru,upuuju na posljedice djelovanja egzogenih

geomorfolokih procesa, dok u regionalnomokviru upuuju na djelovanje endogenih (uprvom redu neotektonskih) morfostrukturnihprocesa (Markovi, 1983.).

Ciljevi ovoga istraivanja su: a) analizamorfometrijskih pokazatelja reljefa, b) analizaodnosa izmeu morfometrijskih pokazatelja,strukturnih i litolokih znaajki i c) sinteza svihanaliziranih pokazatelja da bi se dobio detaljnijiuvid u egzogeomorfoloke i morfostrukturneznaajke podruja i omoguila procjena opsega iintenziteta dominantnih geomorfolokih procesa.

Pri tome, posebna panja posveena je detaljnojgeomorfometrijskoj analizi makromorfostrukturaireg podruja Duvanjskog polja u okruju GIS-ana temelju digitalnog modela reljefa (DMR).

Istraivano podruje

Duvanjsko polje jedno je od krkih polja tzv.zone visokog kra Bosne i Hercegovine (ii,2002.). Teritorij Bosne i Hercegovine nalazi se usredinjem dijelu Dinarida i zahvaa oko 25%

ukupnog teritorija Dinarida. Do sada je, kakonavode ii (2002.) i Lepirica (2009.), izvrenovie regionalizacija Bosne i Hercegovine premarazliitim kriterijima. Prema geotektonskomkriteriju, podruje Bosne i Hercegovine moese podijeliti na tri pojasa: Vanjske Dinaride,Sredinje Dinaride i Unutarnje Dinaride. Takvageotektonska podjela Dinarida BiH zasnovana jeprvenstveno na geografskom poloaju i razlikamau litofacijalnim i tektonskim odlikama izdvojenihzona, zatim na slinim globalnim uvjetimageoloke evolucije i orogeneze, te specinostimau njihovom geotektonskom sklopu (ii, 2002.).

The objects of this research are hillslopes ofthe broader Duvanjsko polje area. Hillslopes canbe dened as terrain levels dened by geographicallocation, inclination in relation to horizontalsurface, aspect in relation to cardinal directions and

the degree of curvature (prole or planar). Recenthillslopes' shapes are the result of various naturaland anthropogenic factors that have occurredduring genesis and evolution of the terrain. Bymeans of morphometric parameters analysis it ispossible to establish a relation between hillslopefeatures and geologic characteristics, as well asother natural and geographical factors (suchas climate, soil, vegetation, etc.). Numericallyexpressed morphometric parameters data observedin local context give insight into the effects ofexogenous geomorphologic processes while, in the

regional context, they give insight into the effects ofendogenous (primarily tectonic) morphostructuralprocesses (Markovi, 1983).

The aims of this research are: a) the analysis ofmorphometric terrain indicators, b) the analysisof the relation between morphometric indicators,structural and lithological features, and c) thesynthesis of all the analyzed indicators in order togain better insight into the exogeomorphologicaland morphostructural features of the observedarea, as well as enable an estimation of dominantgeomorphologic processes' size and intensity. Special

attention was given to a detailed geomorphometricalmacro-morphostructures analysis of the broaderDuvanjsko polje area in GIS environment by meansof digital terrain model (DMR).

The researched area

Duvanjsko polje is a karstpoljein the so-called"high karst zone" of Bosnia and Herzegovina(ii, 2002). Bosnia and Herzegovina is located inthe central Dinaric Alps, and includes some 25% of

the overall Dinaric Alps area. So far, as ii (2002)and Lepirica (2009) point out, a number of differentregionalizations of Bosnia and Herzegovinahave been conducted, based on different criteria.Concerning geotectonic criteria, the area of Bosniaand Herzegovina can be divided into three regions:Outer Dinaric, Middle Dinaric and Inner DinaricAlps. Such geotectonic regionalization is basedmostly on geographical location and differences inlithological and tectonic features of isolated zones,similar global conditions of geologic evolution andorogenesis, as well as on various specic features oftheir geotectonic context (ii, 2002).

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Prema ovoj podjeli, Duvanjsko polje sokolnim podrujem dio je Vanjskih Dinarida,a u neposrednoj okolici polja, izmeu planinaLjubue i Radue prolazi granica izmeu Vanjskihi Sredinjih Dinarida. Iako se kod odreivanja

tektonskih jedinica primjenjuju razliiti kriteriji,ono to je neosporno kod Duvanjskog polja jeda se ono u cijelosti nalazi u podruju VanjskihDinarida, odnosno u "zoni visokoga kra" (Sl. 1.).

U morfolokom smislu, istraivano podrujevrlo je raznoliko. Relativna visinska razlika iznosi839 metara najnie je podruje dna Duvanjskogpolja, na 855 mnv, a najvie podruje se nalazina visini od 1694 m na vrnom dijelu planineTunice. Reljefno se istiu dijelovi planinskihmasiva i zaravni koji okruuju Duvanjsko polje(Sl. 1.). Izmeu Duvanjskog polja i Bukog blata,

na JZ dijelu istraivanog podruja, nalazi seplanina Midena, koja predstavlja dio prostraneGrabovike zaravni sastavljene od brojnihkonkavnih (ponikve, uvale, japage) i konveksnihoblika (meuprostori izmeu konkavnih oblika),s istaknutim blago izduenim grebenom, kojise prua iz smjera SZ prema JI do Mesihovine(Pape, Rai, 1968.). JI od Duvanjskog poljanalazi se planina Vran, s karakteristinim smjerompruanja zapad istok, ije strme zapadne padinepredstavljaju kontaktno podruje s poljem.

Neto junije od navedenog podruja Vrana

nalazi se planina Lib. Izmeu Liba i Vrana, tj.od Kongore prema jezeru Blidinje, prua sevrlo duboka dolina preoblikovana tekuicamanastalim topljenjem leda i krkom korozijom.

Uz sjeverozapadni rub Duvanjskog poljanalazi se planina Tunica (s pruanjem I Z,slino kao i Vran). Uz izduenu sjeveroistonustranu polja nalazi se masiv Ljubue, ije JI padinepredstavljaju kontaktno podruje s poljem.Granice polja i okolnoga planinskog okvira nisusvuda izrazite. To se osobito odnosi na brdovitopodruje SZ od Tomislavgrada, blago poloeneSZ padine oblikovane u krednim naslagama napodruju kontakta Ljubue i krajnjeg zapadnogdijela Vrana te kontaktno podruje JI dijelaGrabovice i polja (Sl. 1.).

to se geotektonskog poloaja tie, situacijana istraivanom podruju vrlo je sloena. Pape(1985.) izdvaja devet velikih tektonskih jedinicana podruju "jugozapadne Bosne", od kojih sepet nalazi u neposrednom okruju Duvanjskogpolja. Budui da u obzir nije uzeto podruje junood Duvanjskog polja, tektonska regionalizacijaupotpunjena je iz Tumaa OGK (list Imotski,

According to this type of regionalization,Duvanjsko polje, together with its surrounding area,is a part of Outer Dinaric Alps, while the borderbetween Outer Dinarides and Middle Dinaridespasses between the Ljubua and Radua mountains

in the vicinity of Duvanjsko polje. Althoughdifferent sort of criteria are employed in tectonicunits determination, what is unquestionable in thecase of Duvanjsko polje is the fact that it is locatedcompletely within the region of Outer Dinaric Alps,that is to say within the "high karst zone" (Fig. 1).

Morphologically, the researched area is veryheterogeneous. The relative height difference is 839meters (the lowest point is the bottom of Duvanjskopolje at 855 meters, and the highest point is thePeak of Tunica Mountain at 1,694 meters). In thesurrounding terrain, the most evident formations

are the at and the parts of mountainous range (Fig.1). Between Duvanjsko polje and Buko blato at thesouthwestern part of the researched area Midenamountain is located. It represents a part of the wideGrabovica plateau, made up of various concave(dolines, uvalas and collapse dolines) and convexshapes (interspaces between concave forms) withprominent elongated ridges, stretching from thenorthwest to the southeast, to Mesihovina (Pape,Rai, 1968). Southeast from Duvanjsko polje theVran Mountain is located, with its characteristicwest - east orientation and its steep slopes, which

are a contact area with Duvanjsko polje.Located to the south of Vran is the Lib Mountain.

There is a very deep river shaped valley, formedafter the ice had melted and the karst terrain hadcorroded, located between the Lib and the VranMountain, or between Kongora and Blidinje Lake.

Tunica Mountain is located along thenorthwestern rim of Duvanjsko polje (stretchingfrom east to west, similar to Vran). The rangeof Ljubua is positioned along the elongatednortheastern side of the Polje, its slopes representingthe contact area with the Polje. Borders betweenthe Polje and its surrounding mountainous rimare not clearly dened at all points. This primarilyrefers to the hillside southwest from Tomislavgrad,southwestern slopes shaped by Cretaceoussediments at the contact point between Ljubuaand far western part of Vran, and the contact areabetween the southeastern part of Grabovica andthe Polje (Fig. 1).

As for the geotectonic location, the situation ismore complex. Pape (1985) notes nine differenttectonic units in the southwestern Bosnia area, veof which are located in the vicinity of Duvanjsko

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Pape, Rai, 1968.). Kriteriji za izdvajanjetektonskih jedinica bili su slijedei (ii, 2002.):rasjedni (navlani) kontakti, oblik bora i rasjeda,facijalni razvoj istodobnih stratigrafskih lanova,broj stratigrafskih lanova i njihov meusobniodnos (kontinuitet u taloenju ili diskordancija istratigrafske praznine).

Na temelju navedenih kriterija izdvojeno jeest tektonskih jedinica koje su od neposrednogznaaja za istraivano podruje: Dinarska,Glamoka, Cincarska, Malovanska, Ljubuka iZavelimska (Sl. 2.).

polje. Considering the fact that his regionalizationdid not include the southern part of the arearesearched in this paper, the regionalization hasbeen complemented with Tuma OGK(list Imotski,Pape, Rai, 1968). The criteria for tectonic units'selection are the following (ii, 2002): faultcontacts, the shape of folds and faults, facialdevelopment of stratigraphic units of the same age,the number of stratigraphic units and their relation(continuity or discordance of sedimentation andstratigraphic voids).

Slika 1. Duvanjsko polje s okolnim planinskim okvirom unutar geotektonskih cjelina Bosne i Hercegovine (prema:ii, 2002.)Figure 1 Duvanjsko polje and its surrounding mountain rim within geotectonic units of Bosnia and Herzegovina (forFig. 1A see ii, 2002)

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Duvanjsko polje graeno je od naslagamiocenske starosti (De Leeuwet al., 2011.)koje su uz rubne dijelove (npr. JI dio poljaoko Kongore) ili uz rijene tokove prekrivenekvartarnim nanosima. Rubni planinski okvirje sloenije grae: prevladavaju vapnenci idolomiti jurske i kredne starosti, s mjestiminoprisutnim manjim podrujima naslaga tercijarnestarosti Tunice na sjeveru, Ljubue i Vrana naSI, I i JI, Grabovike zaravni i Midene planine

na JZ, Liba na JI te Mesihovine na jugu (Sl. 3.).

Based on the aforementioned criteria six tectonicunits of prime importance for the researchedarea have been isolated: Dinara, Glamo, Cincar,Malovan, Ljubua and Zavelim (Fig. 2).

Duvanjsko polje is made from various sedimentsfrom Miocene, covered in Quaternary sediments atits rims (e.g. southeastern part of the Polje, nearKongora) and near riverbeds (De Leeuw et al.,2011). The mountainous rim is of more complex

structure: the main type of rock is limestone and

Slika 2. Karta tektonskih jedinica ireg podruja Duvanjskog polja (prema: Pape, Rai, 1968.; Pape, 1985.)Figure 2 Tectonic units of broader Duvanjsko polje area map (according to: Pape, Rai, 1968; Pape, 1985)

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JZ granica polja, uz Graboviku zaravan,protee se gotovo pravocrtno; uzdu nje na SZdijelu sputaju se prema SI slojevi vapnenaca;u sredinjem dijelu strmo dok se du JZdijela sputaju u obliku terasa. Zbog gotovo

pravocrtnog protezanja graninog podruja,kao i postojanja strmog odsjeka u njegovomsredinjem dijelu, moe se zakljuiti kako jerub polja nastao tektonski (sputanjem); novijidenudacijski procesi neznatno su ga promijenili(Rogli, 1940.).

Du SI ruba polja, na topografski jasnoizraenoj granici, prisutan je kontaktslatkovodnih slojeva graenih od lapora ivapnenaca miocenske starosti (Pape, 1967.)prekrivenih tankim povrinskim pedolokimslojem polja, s krednim vapnencima Ljubue.Samo oko Mokronoga vapnenac je pokrivenmlaim naslagama; u sredinjem dijelu napodruju potoka Sazlivoda kraj Vedaia,pojavljuju se svijetlosivi dolomiti donjokrednestarosti, u izmjeni s vapnencima iste starosti.

Rubovi polja na SZ i JI i po morfologijii tektonsko-petrografskim karakteristikamadaleko su zamrenije graeni, a planinski masivii breuljkasta podruja poput poluotoka ulazeu prostor polja (planina Lib na JI i breuljkastopodruje oko Tomislavgrada na SZ). Breuljkasto

podruje oko Tomislavgrada graeno je odslatkovodnog lapora, pjeenjaka, gline sneznatnim primjesama grubljeg pjeenjaka ikonglomerata miocenske starosti (Pape, 1967.).Ovaj sklop slojeva velike je debljine.

Planina Tunica predstavlja najmarkantnijidio SZ ruba polja. Uz tvrde sive vapnencegornjokredne starosti, u sastavu Tunice posebnose istiu svijetlocrveni vapnenci, lapori, valutice,konglomerati i bree, od kojih je graen njezinJZ i sredinji dio. Veliko raspadanje i komadanjevapnenakih blokova pokazuju da je Tunica

bila podruje snanih tektonskih kretanja. Ipoloaj slatkovodnih lapora miocenske starostiupuuje na intenzivnu neotektoniku na ovomepodruju: na obroncima Gromile slojevi padajupod kutom od 45. Izdizanje Tunice prethodiloje drugoj jezerskoj fazi na prijelazu iz srednjeg ugornji miocen (De Leuwet al., 2011.). Iz zonasvijetlocrvenih vapnenaca, brea i konglomerata,te zaostalog lapora, teku bujice koje velikomsnagom usijecaju jaruge i u podnoju taloe grubimaterijal u velikim koliinama. Iz navedenogproizlazi da je SZ dio Duvanjskog polja, posebno

u dijelovima koji su u blizini Tunice, podruje

dolomite of Jurassic and Cretaceous period, withsmaller local examples of Tertiary sediments nearTunica in the north, Ljubua and Vran in the east,southeast and northeast, Grabovica plateau andMidena Mountain in the southwest, Lib in the

southeast and Mesihovina in the south (Fig. 3).The southwestern border of the Polje, near

Grabovica plateau, is stretched almost linearly;along the border, in its southwestern part, layersof limestone descend towards southeast, steeply inthe middle section, and in the shape of terraces inthe southwestern section. Due to the near-lineardirection of the bordering area, as well as theexistence of a steep cutoff in the middle section,it can be concluded that the bordering area of thePolje was created tectonically (by sinking); morerecent denudation processes have only slightly

changed it (Rogli, 1940).

Along the southeastern rim of the Polje, at thetopographically clearly dened border, there is acontact between fresh-water limestone and marllayers from Miocene period (Pape, 1967) coveredby a thin layer of soil, along with Cretaceouslimestone of Ljubua. The limestone is covered inmore recent layers only near Morkonog; in themiddle section, at the Sazlivoda creek near Vedai,light-gray dolomite from Early Cretaceous periodappears along with limestone of the same age.

Borders of the polje at its northwestern andsoutheastern part are far more complex in terms ormorphology and tectonic or petrographic features,with mountainous ranges and surrounding hillsshaped like peninsulas protruding into the area (LibMountain in the southeast and the hillside nearTomislavgrad in the northwest). Tomislavgrad hillsare made up of fresh-water marl, sandstone, claywith coarse sandstone and Miocene conglomerates(Pape, 1967). These layers are fairly thick.

Tunica Mountain is the most prominent sectionof the northwestern part of the Polje. Along with

hard gray limestone of Late Cretaceous, Tunicacontains light-red limestone, marl, conglomeratesand breccias, which make up its southwesternpart. Signicant amount of decay and breakagein the rock formations indicate that Tunica hadbeen an area of strong tectonic movements. Theposition of fresh-water marl indicates intensivegeotectonic movements as well: the layers ofGromila slopes are inclined as much as 45. Theraising of Tunica Mountain occurred before thesecond lake-formation period during the transitionperiod between Late and Early Miocene (De Leuw

et al.,2011). Water torrents from the zones made

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novijega poprenog nabiranja i izdizanja koje je navee visine izdiglo slatkovodne nanose koji imajuveliki pad prema dolini polja (Rogli, 1940.).

JI rub polja mnogo je jednostavnije graenego SZ. Planina Lib poput poluotoka prodireu nizinu polja. Prema podacima OGK-a (Pape,Rai, 1968.), sastavljena je od vapnenaca krednei jurske starosti. Od posebne su vanosti zonelapora pliocenske starosti, kao hidroloke barijere,koje se nalaze na vrnim dijelovima SI padine,uz rasjednu liniju, iz kojih izviru vrela koja seluKongori daju vodu (Rogli, 1940.).

up of light-red limestone, breccias, conglomeratesand the remaining marl have formed ravines andaccumulated large amounts of rough material inthe basins. This all indicates that the northwesternareas of Duvanjsko polje, especially those closer toTunica, are the areas of recent transversal foldingand raising which elevated the fresh-water layers,which now fall steeply towards the base of the Polje(Rogli, 1940).

The southeastern part of the polje is of muchsimpler structure. Lib Mountain protrudes intothe polje like a peninsula. According to the data

Slika 3. Geoloka karta istraivanog podruja (prema: Pape, 1967.; Pape, Rai, 1968.)Figure 3 Geological map of the researched area (according to: Pape, 1967; Pape, Rai, 1968)

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Metodologija

Proces obrade podataka

Proces obrade podatakatemeljio se na analizi

digitalnog modela reljefa, koji je za potrebe ovogarada izraen metodom automatske vektorizacijeizohipsa s topografskih karata. Koriteno jedevet listova TK 25 Vojnogeografskog instituta izBeograda, od kojih su neki vektorizirani potpuno,a drugi djelomino, ovisno o obliku istraivanogpodruja. Dobiven je DMR rasterske GRIDstrukture, veliine piksela 25 metara. On se nalaziunutar etverokuta dimenzija 26 km u smjeruistok zapad i 26 km u smjeru sjever jug. Sobzirom na to da tijekom izrade modela dolazi dopogreaka, mogue su manje pogreke u izlaznim

rezultatima, jer dobiveni podaci nisu usporeivanis drugim digitalnim modelima reljefa. Obino seuzima da je visinska tonost jednaka 1/4 ili 1/5ekvidistance (Ackermann, 1994.), pa bi visinskatonost dobivenog DMR-a bila 2 2,5 m. PremaAckermann (1994.), razmak izmeu lomnihtoaka moe iznositi najvie 40 m.

Digitalni model reljefa ireg podrujaDuvanjskog polja

Za potrebe geomorfometrijske analizeistraivanog podruja pomou alata GIS-a biloje nuno izraditi digitalni model reljefa. Razloziizrade DMR-a su nedostupnost besplatnogdetaljnijeg DMR-a, bolja kvaliteta u odnosu nadostupne DMR-e1i precizniji izlazni podaci.

Openito, model je objekt ili koncept kojise koristi za predstavljanje neke pojave uprostoru, tj. umanjen prikaz stvarne situacijepretvoren u razumljiv oblik (Meyer, 1985.prema: Li et al., 2005.). Za prostorneanalize koriste se razliiti digitalni visinski

modeli Zemljine povrine (DEM). Iako postojineslaganje u terminologiji, openito se dijele nadigitalne modele reljefa (Digital terrain model)i digitalne modele povrina (Digital surface

from OGK (Pape, Rai, 1968), it is made up oflimestone from Cretaceous and Jurassic period.Especially signicant are the areas of Pliocene marl,which function as hydrological barriers located atthe peak sections of the northeastern slope, along

the fault line. They feature water wells that providethe village of Kongora with water (Rogli, 1940).

Methodology

Data processing

Data processing was based on the digital terrainmodel analysis, which, for the purposes of this paper,employed the method of topographic maps' contourlines automatic vectorization. Nine papers of TK-25

maps made by the Military-geographic institutionin Belgrade were used, some of which have beenvectorized completely and other partially, dependingon the shape of the researched area. A DMR of rasterGRID structure was made, with a 25 meters pixelsize. It is located within a square measuring 26 kmfrom east to west and 26 km from south to north.Considering that the process of model generationusually experiences errors, a smaller error mighthave occurred in the output data, especially sincethe data have not been compared to that of othersimilar models. It is usually assumed that the verticalprecision equals 1/4 or 1/5 of the equidistance(Ackermann, 1994), so the vertical precision of thecurrent DMR model is 2-2.5 meters. According toAckermann (1994), the distance between crucialpoints can amount to 40 meters at most.

Digital terrain model of the broader Duvanjskopolje area

For the purpose of the researched area'sgeomorphometrical analysis by means of GIStools, it was necessary to develop a digital terrain

model. The reasons for the DMR developmentare: unavailability of a more detailed DMR, betterquality level compared to the available DMR1, andmore precise output data.

1SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) digitalnivisinski model koji je proizvela NASA. Predstavljaprekretnicu u dostupnosti visinskih podataka za veinudijelova svijeta. Jedan list SRTM-a obuhvaa prostor 5 x 5stupnjeva na Zemljinoj povrini. SRTM 90 m ima rezoluciju90 metara na ekvatoru i visinsku pogreku do 16 metara.Dostupan je na stranicama CGIAR-CSI (ConsultativeGroup on International Agricultural Research Consortium

for Spatial Information).

1SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) a digitalheight model developed by NASA. It is a positive turnoverin the height data availability for the majority of the world.One SRTM paper includes the space of 5x5 degrees of theEarth's surface. SRTM 90m has a 90 meters resolution onthe Equator and the vertical error margin of 16 meters. It isavailable on the internet pages of CGIAR-CSI (ConsultativeGroup on International Agricultural Research - Consortium

for Spatial Information).

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model), ovisno o tome prikazuju li samo reljefili ukljuuju biotike i antropogene sadraje.

Proces izrade digitalnog modela reljefaukljuivao je sljedee korake:

1. Skeniranje analognih topografskih karata pretvaranje karata u digitalni oblik bezprostorne reference.

2. Georeferenciranje i transformaciju referentnetoke uzete su s topografskih karata, ime sukarte smjetene u geografski prostor. S obziromna to da se radilo o skeniranim kartamakoritena je ana transformacija polinomaprvog reda.

3. Vektorizaciju izohipsi i dodavanje atributa(podataka o visinama s topografskih karata)

automatska vektorizacija izohipsa ukljuivalaje odstranjivanje umova, skeletiranje(stanjivanje), poboljanje vorova, praenjelinija, spajanje segmenata i topolokurekonstrukciju.

4. Izradu TIN-a vektorskog modela reljefa,koji se sastoji od toaka, linija i trokuta, tepredstavlja temelj izrade rasterskog modelareljefa. Na osnovi lomnih toaka (sastavnidio izohipse) konstruirana je triangulacijskanepravilna mrea.

5. Izradu DMR-a rasterskog modela reljefa.Digitalni model reljefa temeljni je akronim kojise danas koristi u literaturi koja se tie GIS-a,daljinskih istraivanja i srodnih podruja.Digitalni model reljefa predstavlja digitalniprikaz Zemljine povrine, ali bez vegetacije iliprodukata antropogenog djelovanja. Dakle,DMR prikazuje samo "temeljnu" ili "golu"povrinu Zemlje, odnosno reljef.

Koritenje alata GIS-a u analizi DMR-aomoguilo je stvaranje novih podataka i njihovu

analizu, a izlazni podaci u konanici su biliprecizniji.

Generally, a model is an object or a conceptused to represent various entities in the geographicspace, i.e. a smaller representation of the realsituation transformed into an understandable form(Meyer, 1985, cf. Li et al., 2005). Various height-

related digital terrain models are used for spatialanalyses (DEM). Although there is a certain degreeof misunderstanding in general terminology, theyare usually divided into digital terrain models(DMR) and digital surface models, depending onwhether they represent reliefs only or include bioticand anthropogenic elements as well.

The process of digital terrain model generationincluded the following steps:

1. Scanning of analogue topographic maps turning maps into a digital format without a

spatial reference.2. Georeferencing and transformation referential

points were taken from topographic maps,which means that the maps were transferredto geographic space. Since the maps werescanned, an afne transformation of rst-degreepolynomial was used.

3. Vectorization of contour lines and addition ofattributes (height data from topographic maps) automatic vectorization included removalof noises, thinning, nodes improvement, and

segment merging and topological reconstruction.4. TIN development a vector terrain model,

which is made up of points, lines and triangles,and represents a base for raster terrain modeldevelopment. Based on the crucial points (anintegral part of a contour line), an irregulartriangulation grid was constructed.

5. DMR development a raster terrain model.Digital terrain model is a basic acronym usedin literature that refers to GIS, remote researchand similar elds. DMR represents the shape

of the Earth's surface, but without vegetationor anthropogenic activity products. Therefore,DMR only shows the "basic" or "naked"Earth's surface, i.e. relief.

The usage of GIS tools in the DMR analysisenabled new data creation and analysis, while theoutput data turned out more precise.

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Vizualizacija dobivenih podataka

Svi kartografski prilozi predstavljaju vizualnerezultate analize digitalnog modela reljefa. U raduje koriteno vie vizualizacijskih tehnika za prikaz

dobivenih rezultata:1. odabir boja za pojedine klase

2. optimiziranje prikaza elija izlaznih rezultataunutar rastera pri emu je koritena metoda"cubic convolution"2

3. preklapanje dobivenih rezultata (uz prozirnostod 30%) s prikazom reljefa sjenanjem da bi sedobio dojam reljefnosti i uoili odnosi izmeukvantitativnih parametara i morfologije reljefa.

DiskusijaAnaliza morfometrijskih parametara

1. Analiza nagiba

Reljef se moe shvatiti kao zajednica padinarazliitih kategorija nagiba (bognar, 1990.).Veliki dijelovi Zemljine povrine sastoje se odrazliitih vrsta padina iji je nastanak posljedicadjelovanja endogenih i egzogenih procesa. U ovomistraivanju primijenjen je sveobuhvatni pristup,tj. panja nije usmjerena na morfometrijsku

analizu mikroreljefnih oblika nego na analizumakrogeomorfolokih odnosa unutar cjelokupnogreljefa u granicama promatranog podruja.Analiza prostornog rasporeda i obuhvatapojedinih kategorija nagiba padina vana je jersu oni znaajan indikator opsega i intenzitetamorfostrukturnih i egzogeomorfolokih(denudacijskih i akumulacijskih) procesa koji sutijekom paleogeomorfolokog razdoblja utjecalina morfogenezu padina, ali i kao indikatorbuduih utjecaja navedenih procesa na znaajke imeusobne odnose izdizanja i sputanja, odnosnodenudacije i akumulacije (Tab. 1.).

Za izraunavanje nagiba koritene su metodei algoritmi integrirani u program ArcInfo.Vrijednosti nagiba odreuju se na nain dasoftver za svaki piksel izraunava maksimalnustopu promjene vrijednosti od toga pikselaprema susjednim pikselima koji ga okruuju. Ukonceptualnom smislu, funkcija nagiba uklapa

Visualization of the calculated data

All the cartographic addendums represent visualresults of the digital terrain model analysis. In thispaper, a number of visualization techniques were

used to display the results:1. Color selection for individual classes

2. Optimization of the output data's cellrepresentation within the raster, which employedthe "cubic convolution" method2

3. The obtained results' overlap (at 30%transparency level) and terrain shading in orderto create a more plastic relief impression anddetermine relations between the quantitativeparameters and terrain morphology.

Discussion

Morphometric parameters analysis

1. Slope analysis

Relief can be dened as a combination ofhillslopes of various inclination categories(Bognar, 1990). Large parts of the Earth's surfaceare made of various types of slopes created byboth endogenous and exogenous processes. Thisresearch applied the comprehensive approach,

i.e. morphometric analysis of micro-relief shapeswas not as important as macro-geomorphologicrelations within the complete researched area were.Spatial distribution and specic slope categoriescoverage analysis is important since they representsignicant indicators of the size and intensityof morphostructural and exogeomorphologicalprocesses (denudation or accumulation). Theseprocesses have affected the slopes' morphogenesisduring the paleo-geomorphological period andtheir analysis indicates future effects of theaforementioned processes on relations betweenterrain raising and sinking, i.e. denudation and

accumulation and their characteristics (Tab. 1).

For the purpose of inclination calculation,ArcInfo methods and algorithms were used.Inclination values are determined by use of softwarethat calculates a maximal change rate of measuredvalues between neighboring pixels. Conceptually,the function of inclination ts the slope and z-value

2 Ova metoda koritena je samo prilikom vizualizacije,ne i kod izrauna prostornog obuhvata morfometrijskihparametara, jer njezinim koritenjem dolazi do izmjenevrijednosti unutar piksela.

2This method was used only during visualization, and notin calculating spatial extent of morphometric parameters,because it changes the value within a pixel.

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plohu i z-vrijednosti unutar podruja od 3 x 3piksela koje okruuje sredinji piksel, a vrijednostnagiba ove plohe izraunava se pomou tehnikeprosjenog maksimuma (Burrough, McDonell,1998.). Mrea koju ine elije jednakih dimenzija,

poravnana je uzdu geografskih osi x (zapad istok) i y (sjever jug).

Stopa promjene u smjeru x stranice npr. za "he"

izraunava se algoritmom:

hx(dz/dx) = ((h

c+ 2h

f+ h

i) - (h

a+ 2h

d+ h

g) / (8 * d)

Stopa promjene u smjeru y stranice za "he"

izraunava se algoritmom:

hy(dz/dy) = ((hg+ 2hh + hi) - (ha+ 2hb+ hc) / (8 * d)

Izraunom stopa promjene u x i y smjeru, nagib

za eliju "he" izraunava se primjenom sljedeegizraza:

N = hx+ hy

N() =ATAN (N)

Radi pojednostavljivanja analize i interpretacijepodataka, primijenjena je geomorfolokaklasikacija nagiba padina (Tab. 1.).

Nagibi manji od 2 karakteristini su zanajvei dio Duvanjskog polja zbog ega imaju inajvei prostorni obuhvat (s 35,2% udjela, Tab.

2.), meutim, manja podruja takvog nagibapojavljuju se i na okolnim planinama. Prijesvega karakteristini su za korozijsku zaravanPodine od Mokronoga do Lipe, a javljaju se ina pojedinim zaravnima planine Ljubue te naGrabovikoj zaravni (Sl. 5.).

Druga kategorija nagiba (2 5, 13,58%) upravilu se javlja na kontaktnim dijelovima poljai okolnog podruja, gdje postoji blagi prijelaz,prekriven naslagama koluvijalnog i deluvijalnogpodrijetla, iz zaravnjenog dijela polja u strmijiplaninski okvir (Tab. 2., Sl. 5.). Na rubovima

polja ovi nagibi najrasprostranjeniji su sjevernood Tomislavgrada, gdje polje postupno prelazi ubreuljkasto podruje, te na prijelaznom podrujuu blizini sela Bukovice gdje se slojevi stepenastouzdiu prema Midenoj planini. Takoer, velikapodruja planine Ljubue i Grabovike zaravnipripadaju ovoj kategoriji. Na Ljubui se ovi nagibijavljaju na podrujima uvala, koje su u prolostibile sezonski naseljene i agrarno vrednovaneu ljetnom dijelu godine. Unutar ove kategorijenagiba nalaze se i blago poloene SZ padineizgraene u stijenama kredne starosti na podruju

kontakta Ljubue i krajnjega zapadnog dijela

within the area of 3x3 pixels surrounding a centralpixel, and the value of this plane's inclination iscalculated using the average maximum technique(Burrough, McDonnell, 1998). The gridcomposed of equally sized neighboring cells is

leveled along geographical axes x(west - east) andy(north - south).

The change rate directed towards the x-axis fore.g. "h

e" is calculated using the following algorithm:

hx(dz/dx) = ((h

c+ 2h

f+ h

i) - (h

a+ 2h

d+ h

g) / (8 * d)

The rate of change towards the y-axis for e.g."h

e" is calculated using the following algorithm:

hy(dz/dy) = ((hg+ 2hh + hi) - (ha+ 2hb+ hc) / (8 * d)

By calculating the change rates in x- and

y-directions, the "he" cell inclination is thencalculated as follows:

N = hx+ hy

N() =ATAN (N)

Geomorphologic classication of slopeinclination has been used in order to simplify dataanalysis and display (Tab. 1).

Slopes with less than 2 inclination arepredominant in the largest part of Duvanjsko poljeand therefore have the largest spatial coverage

(35.2% of all the slopes, Tab. 2). However, smallerareas of identical slope inclination also appearin the bordering mountains. They are primarilypresent in the corrosion plateau of Podine, fromMokronoge to Lipa, at certain plateaus of LjubuaMountain, and on the Grabovica plateau (Fig. 5).

The second inclination category (2-5, 13.58%)is mostly present at contact sections between thePolje and surrounding areas, where there is a mildtransition from the Polje to steeper mountainousrim covered in colluvial and diluvial layers (Tab. 2,Fig. 5). At the edges of the Polje such inclinations

appear most frequently north of Tomislavgrad,where the Polje gradually shifts into hillside, andin the bordering area near the village of Bukovica,where layers gradually rise into Midena Mountain.In addition, great portions of Ljubua andGrabovica plateau belong to this category. Thesetypes of slopes are present in Ljubua basins, whichwere seasonally populated and agriculturally usedduring the summer period in the past. Areas thatalso belong to this inclination category are themildly inclined northwestern slopes composed ofCretaceous rocks near the contact area between

Ljubua and far western part of Vran Mountain,

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3 Geomorfoloka klasikacija nagiba padina, temeljenana dominantnim morfolokim procesima koji seaktiviraju ovisno o veliini nagiba, kao i odgovarajuimreljefnim oblicima, prihvaena je od IGU-a (International

Geographical Union, 1968.).

3 Geomorphologic classication of slopes, based ondominant morphological processes which are activated inrelation to inclination, as well as related terrain shapes,has been approved by IGU (International Geographical

Union, 1968).

Vrana, prijelazno podruje od JI dijela polja premaplanini Vran te nii dijelovi padina planine Lib nakontaktnom podruju s poljem (Sl. 5.).

Takoer, velika podruja planine Ljubue iGrabovike zaravni pripadaju ovoj kategoriji. NaLjubui se ovi nagibi javljaju na podrujima uvala,

koje su u prolosti bile sezonski naseljene i agrarnovrednovane u ljetnom dijelu godine. Unutar ovekategorije nagiba nalaze seiblago poloene SZpadine izgraene u stijenama kredne starosti napodruju kontakta Ljubue i krajnjeg zapadnogdijela Vrana, prijelazno podruje od JI dijela polja

the transitional area from southeast part of the poljetoward the Vran Mountain, and lower slopes of LibMountain at the contact area with the Polje (Fig. 5).

Most areas of Ljubua Mountain and Grabovicaplateau belong to this category as well. OnLjubua Mountain, these slopes appear in uvalas,

which in the past were seasonally populated andagriculturally used during the summer. Within thisslope category are the low-inclined northwesternslopes of Cretaceous period in the contact areabetween Ljubua Mountain and far western Vranas well as the contact area between southeasternpart of polje and Vran, and the lower parts of

Tablica 1. Geomorfoloka klasikacija nagibaTable 1 Geomorphologic classications of slopes

Nagib (0) Karakteristike geomorfolokih oblika i procesa

< 2Ravnica. Kretanja masa se ne zapaaju.Intenzitet spiranja minimalan

2 5 Blago nagnut teren. Spiranje slabo izraeno.Spiranje tala i pojave klienja mogu biti znaajne.

5 12 Nagnuti tereni. Pojaano spiranje i pojave kretanja masa. Do izraaja dolazi klienje i teenjematerijala. Teren ugroen padinskim procesima.

12 32 Znaajni nagibi. Spiranje je intenzivno. Veoma snani padinski procesi. Teren jako ugroenspiranjem i pojavom kretanja masa.

32 55 Vrlo strm teren. Dominira odnoenje materijala. Akumulacijski materijal se tek mjestiminozadrava (tanki pokriva). Padine su stjenovite i preteito ogoljene.

> 55 Strmci, litice (eskarpmani). Dominira osipanje i uruavanje

Inclination (0) Features of geomorphologic shapes and processes

< 2 Plain. Mass movements are not evident.Soil wash intensity is minimal.

2 5 Mildly inclined terrain. Soil wash is weak.Soil wash and creep can be signicant.

5 12 Inclined terrain. Relatively strong soil wash and mass movement. Accented soil creep anddownhill ow of material. Terrain is compromised by slope processes.

12 32 Signicant inclination. Soil wash is intensive. Very strong slope processes. Terrain signicantlycompromised by soil wash and mass movement.

32 55 Very steep terrain. Material removal is dominant.Material is accumulated only sporadically (a thin layer). Slopes are rocky and mostly barren.

> 55 Cliffs, escarpments. Dispersal and collapsing are dominant.

Izvor / Source: IGU, 1968.

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prema planini Vran te nii dijelovi padina planineLib na kontaktnom podruju s poljem (Sl. 5.)

Nagibi od 5 do 12, nakon kategorije < 2,zauzimaju najveu povrinu (26,39%, Tab. 2.,Sl. 5.). Gotovo ravnomjerno su rasporeenidu itavog planinskog oboda polja, uglavnomna niim dijelovima padina ili na vapnenakimzaravnima Grabovice, Ljubue i Liba (Sl. 4.).

Na viim dijelovima padina Tunice, Jelovae

i planine Lib, koje su zbog izraenog djelovanjaneotektonskih pokreta strmije, najvei udio imakategorija nagiba od 12 do 32 (23,79%), dok suvie kategorije nagiba slabije zastupljene (3255s 1,07% i > 55 s 0,003%). Osim spomenutihpodruja Tunice, Jelovae i Liba, nagibi od 12 do32 prisutni su i na relativno velikim povrinama(Tab. 2.) viih podruja padinskih strana uzgrebene ostalih uzvienja, na niim dijelovimapadina na kojima je izraeno intenzivno djelovanjerasjedne tektonike, uz bone strane dubljih jarugai ponikava te na podrujima naglog prijelaza izzaravnjenog u obodni planinski dio polja (Sl.

slopes of Lib Mountain at the contact area withthe Polje (Fig. 5).

Inclinations between 5 and 12 are the secondmost frequent, following the < 2 category andmaking up for 26.39% of the total surface (Tab.2, Fig. 5). They are almost evenly distributed alongthe entire mountainous rim of the Polje, mostly atlower parts of the slopes or at limestone plateausof Grabovica, Ljubua and Lib Mountains (Fig. 4).

On higher slopes of Tunica, Jelovaa and LibMountains, which are steeper due to neo-tectonicmovements, the most frequent category of slopesis 12-32 (23.79%), while higher inclinationcategories appear less frequently (32-55 with1.07%, and > 55 with 0.003%). Apart from theaforementioned areas of Tunica, Jelovaa andLib, slopes inclined 12-32 appear on relativelylarge areas (Tab. 2). They can be found on steepsides' higher parts near cliffs, on lower parts ofslopes with signicant fault tectonic activities, nearthe sides of deeper ravines and karst sinkholes and,nally, in transitional areas between the at parts of

Slika 4. Podruje Kosovca uz vrni dio Liba (dominiraju nagibi od 5 do 12)Figure 4 The area of Kosovac, near the peak of Lib Mountain (slopes of 5-12 inclination are dominant here)

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5.). Ova kategorija nagiba dominantna je duvelikog dijela jugozapadnog kontaktnog dijelaGrabovike zaravni i polja, od prijevoja Privala dosela Bukovice, gdje prelazi u tektonski i reljefnorazdrobljeno valovito podruje Grabovikezaravni, koje se od jugozapada stepenasto sputaprema sjeveroistoku i nestaje uz rub polja. Granicasjeveroistonog dijela polja i planine Ljubuetakoer je dobro denirana ovom kategorijomnagiba, osobito od sela Kuka do Letke, gdje ovajstrmi rub lokalno stanovnitvo naziva "Greda".Na kanjonskim stranama ujice izmjenjuju senagibi od 12 do 32 i od 32 do 55 (Sl. 5.).

the Polje and bordering mountainous (Fig. 5). Thiscategory is very dominant along a great section ofsouthwestern contact area between the Grabovicaplateau and the Polje, from the Privala notch to thevillage of Bukovica, where it shifts into a tectonicallyand geologically fragmented Grabovica plateau,which progressively lowers from the northwest tothe northeast and gradually disappears near theedge of the Polje. The northeastern border betweenthe Polje and the Ljubua Mountain is also welldened within this inclination category, especiallyconcerning the villages of Kuk and Letka, wherethe locals have named this steep edge "Greda"

Slika 5. Karta nagibaFigure 5 The map of slope inclinations

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to se najviih vrijednosti nagiba tie,

nagibi od 32 do 55 prevladavaju uglavnom naviim dijelovima padina uz hrptove planinskihuzvienja (izuzetak su podruja s izraenomrasjednom tektonikom na podrujima Tunice iJelovae, gdje je ova kategorija zastupljena i naniim dijelovima padina) te uz kanjonske straneujice. Prilikom terenskog izlaska nagibi najviekategorije (> 55) uoeni su na litici planineLib iznad Borana (Sl. 5., Sl. 6.), te mjestiminona vrlo strmim stranama urunih ponikava napodruju Grabovike zaravni (Sl. 5.).

2. Analiza ekspozicijaEkspozicija se moe shvatiti kao orijentacija

padine s obzirom na strane svijeta. Pri tome se kutorijentacije odreuje najee od smjera sjeverau smjeru kazaljke na satu. U konceptualnomsmislu, funkcija ekspozicije odnosi se na izraunvrijednosti ekspozicije sredinjeg piksela uodnosu na osam susjednih (mrea piksela 3 x 3).Smjer prema kojem je ploha okrenuta predstavljaekspoziciju za sredinji piksel (Burrough,McDonell, 1998.).

(The Wall). In ujica canyon 12-32 and 32-55

inclination categories interchange (Fig. 5).Regarding the highest inclination values, 32-

55 inclinations most often prevail in higher partsof slopes near mountain crests (with the exceptionof areas with signicant fault tectonics nearTunica and Jelovaa, where this category appearsin lower parts of slopes as well) and near thecanyon sides of ujica. During the eld research,highest category inclinations (> 55) were recordedon a Lib Mountain cliff near Borane (Fig. 5, Fig.6) and, in places, on very steep sides of collapseddolines on Grabovica plateau (Fig. 5).

2. Aspect analysis

Aspect can be dened as slope orientationin relation to cardinal directions. Orientationangle is usually measured clockwise from thenorth. Conceptually, the function of aspect isthe calculated aspect value of a central pixel inrelation to its eight neighboring pixels within a3x3-pixel grid. The direction to which a surface isorientated represents the aspect of the central pixel(Burrough, McDonnell, 1998).

Tablica 2. Kategorije i prostorni obuhvat nagibaTable 2 Categories and spatial dimensions of slopes

Nagib () Povrina (m2) Udio (%)

< 2 129494800,0 35,160

2-5 50021200,0 13,582

5-12 97188800,0 26,389

12-32 87633200,0 23,794

32-55 3948000,0 1,072

>55 11600,0 0,003

Ukupno 368297600,0 100,000

Inclination () Area (m2) Portion (%)

< 2 129,494,800.0 35.160

2-5 50,021,200.0 13.582

5-12 97,188,800.0 26.389

12-32 87,633,200.0 23.794

32-55 3,948,000.0 1.072

>55 11,600.0 0.003

Total 368,297,600.0 100.000

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Stopa promjene u x smjeru za eliju "he"

izraunava se sljedeim algoritmom:

hx(dz/dx) = ((hc+ 2hf + hi) - (ha+ 2hd+ hg) / 8

Stopa promjene u y smjeru za eliju "he"izraunava se sljedeim algoritmom:

hy(dz/dy) = ((hg+ 2hh + hi) - (ha+ 2hb+ hc) / 8

Uzimajui stopu promjene u x i y smjeru zaeliju "h

e" ,ekspozicija se izraunava pomou

algoritma:

E=57.29578 * ATAN (hy,- hx)

Nakon toga vrijednost ekspozicije konvertirase u stupnjeve (0 360).

U skladu s prividnim kretanjem Sunca prekoobzora tijekom dana ili razliitih godinjih doba,mijenja se i intenzitet kratkovalnog Sunevazraenja na padinama. Na sjevernoj hemisferinajvie Suneva zraenja primaju june padine, asjeverne najmanje. Istono i zapadno eksponiranepadine ozraene su u manjoj mjeri od junih, a uveoj od sjevernih; istone najvie zraenja primeujutro, a zapadne u predveerje (egota, Filipi,1996.). Utjecaj ekspozicija na geomorfolokeprocese vrlo je znaajan jer razliito eksponiranepadine primaju razliitu koliinu kratkovalnogzraenja, to utjee na karakteristike klimatskihelemenata kao egzogeno-geomorfolokih agensa.

Na istraivanom podruju ekspozicijeindirektno utjeu na promjene vezane uzdenudaciju, koroziju i sedimentaciju padinskihtroina, kao i hidroloke procese na padinama.Primjerice, poveano kratkovalno zraenjena padinama eksponiranim prema junomkvadrantu (JZ, J i JI) posredno utjee napoveanje evapotranspiracije, to u sunijemdijelu godine rezultira brom nestaicomvode (osobito na mjestima gdje je u podlozi

vapnenac), a posljedica je smanjenje obuhvata ibroja biljnih vrsta na padinama, odnosno rjeavegetacija. Rjea vegetacija pogoduje bremisuivanju tla i veem povrinskom otjecanjute na taj nain utjee na intenziviranje procesadenudacije. Na sjevernim osojnim padinamavlaga u tlu zadrava se dulje vrijeme nakonoborina to pogoduje razvoju vegetacije iomoguuje povoljnije uvjete za stvaranje iouvanje tala. Dugorono, spiranje tala, uzostale denudacijske procese, moe uzrokovatipoveanje nagiba na viim dijelovima padina

(pojaana denudacija) i smanjenje u niim

The change rate in the xdirection for a "he" cell

is calculated using the following algorithm:

hx(dz/dx) = ((hc+ 2hf + hi) - (ha+ 2hd+ hg) / 8

The change rate in theydirection for a "

he" cell

is calculated using the following algorithm:

hy(dz/dy) = ((hg+ 2hh + hi) - (ha+ 2hb+ hc) / 8

Considering the rate of change in x and ydirections for a "h

e" cell, its aspect is calculated

using the following algorithm:

E=57.29578 * ATAN (hy,- hx)

Afterwards, the value of the aspect is convertedinto degrees (0-360).

In accordance with the apparent motion of the Sunacross the horizon during the day or different seasons,the intensity of shortwave radiation on hillslopeschanges as well. On the northern hemisphere, mostof the radiation is received by southern hillslopes andthe least by northern. Generally, eastern and westernslopes are less exposed than southern slopes butmore than northern; eastern slopes receive mostof the radiation in the morning and the westernslopes in the dusk (egota, Filipi, 1996). Theinuence of aspect on geomorphologic processesis very important since differently exposed slopesreceive different shortwave radiation, whichaffects the climate elements as exogenous andgeomorphologic agents.

In the researched area, aspects indirectlyinuence the changes in denudation, corrosionand sedimentation of slope material, as well ashydrological processes on the slopes. For example,an increased amount of shortwave radiation on theslopes exposed to the southern quadrant (southwest,south and southeast) directly inuences evaporationand transpiration increase, which leads to watershortage during the dry season (especially on

limestone-based areas), and the result is a decrease inthe plants' number and size on the slopes, i.e. muchscarcer vegetation. Scarce vegetation enables morerapid loss of water from the soil and greater surfacedrainage, which intensies the denudation process.On northern slopes, the moist is contained in thesoil for longer periods of time, which positivelyaffects vegetation development and provides moreacceptable conditions for creation and developmentof soils. Long term processes of soil wash, amongstother denudation processes, can result in increasedinclinations in higher parts of slopes (more intense

denudation) and decreased inclinations in lower

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dijelovima (pojaana sedimentacija) (Kirkby,2004.), to se moe uoiti na primjeru zapadnoeksponirane padine na planini Lib iznadBorana, uz JZ dio Duvanjskog polja (Sl. 6.).

Iz karte ekspozicija (Sl. 8.) mogue je uoitida najvei dio Duvanjskog polja nema izraeneekspozicije, odnosno da je gotovo ravan (prisutanje vrlo blagi pad iz smjera SZ prema JI, gdje senalazi i najnia toka polja, ponor ujice).

Najveu rasprostranjenost na promatranom

podruju, s 20,54%, imaju jugozapadnoeksponirane padine (Tab. 3.), to je u skladu sgeneralnim dinarskim smjerom pruanja reljefnihmorfostruktura. U irem kontekstu, prema opojpogodnosti5, padine junog kvadranta s toplom i

parts (more intense sedimentation) (Kirkby, 2004),which is noticeable on western-exposed slope of Libmountain, near Borane, along the southwesternpart of Duvanjsko polje (Fig. 6).

On the aspect map (Fig. 8) it is noticeable thatmost of the Duvanjsko polje area does not featureany signicant aspect, meaning it is almost at (witha very small downward slope from the northwest tothe southeast, where the lowest point of the Polje,the ujica river ponor, is located).

The most frequent slopes (20.54%) are thosewith southwest aspect, which is consistent withthe general direction of Dinaric Alps' terrainmorphostructures (Tab. 3). In a broader context, inaccordance with general aspect aptitude5, the slopes

4Poveanje nagiba na viim dijelovima padina i sedimentacijana niim, zbog dugotrajnih procesa spiranja, osipanja iuruavanja, pospjeenih litolokim sastavom i izraenijomdnevnom i sezonskom temperaturnom amplitudom.5Opa pogodnost ekspozicija: N = hladna ekspozicija; NEi NW = umjereno hladne ekspozicije; E i W = neutralneekspozicije; SE i SW = tople ekspozicije; S = vrlo toplaekspozicija.

4Increased inclination is evident in higher mountain areasand sedimentation in the lower areas. This is combined withprolonged processes of soil wash, creep and collapsing,enhanced by lithological features and signicant daily andseasonal temperature amplitudes.5General aspect aptitude: N = cold aspect; NE and NW =moderately cold aspect; E and W = neutral aspect; SE and

SW = warm aspect; S = very warm aspect.

Slika 6. Zapadno eksponirana padina na planini Lib iznad Borana4

Figure 6 A hillslope on the Lib Mountain near the village of Borane, exposed to the west4

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6

Moe se uoiti luno izvijanje morfostrukture.

vrlo toplom orijentacijom (JI, J i JZ) u ukupnojpovrini sudjeluju s 46,22%. Radi se o podrujimaveeg dijela Ljubue, junim i jugozapadnimpadinama Vrana nasuprotnim SI i I padinamaLiba, JZ i J padinama Liba, Mesihovine, velikogdijela Grabovike zaravni te junim padinamaTunice i Jelovae (Sl. 8.).

S neto manjim udjelom (31,90%, Tab. 3., Sl.8.) zastupljene su padine s umjereno hladnim ihladnim ekspozicijama (NW, N i NE). Radi se opodrujima krajnje sjeveroistone izduene padineGrabovike zaravni koja se veim dijelom strmosputa prema Duvanjskom polju. Takoer, velikapovrina ovih ekspozicija prisutna je na padiniVrana nasuprotnoj Ljubui, padinama Mesihovinenasuprotnim Libu te mjestimino na dijelovimaTomislavgradskog pobra, Tunice i sredinjegdijela Ljubue (Sl. 8.).

of the southern quadrant with warm and very warmorientation (southeast, south and southwest) makeup for 46.22% of the total area. Those are the areasof Ljubua Mountain, south and southwest slopesof Vran opposite to southeast and east slopes of Lib,southwest and south slopes of Lib, Mesihovina,large parts of Grabovica plateau, and southernslopes of Tunica and Jelovaa (Fig. 8).

A smaller portion (31.90%, Tab. 3, Fig. 8) refersto slopes with moderately cold and cold aspects(northwest, north and northeast), such as the farnortheastern slope of Grabovica plateau, whichmostly descends steeply toward the Duvanjskopolje. In addition, large areas with such aspect arepresent on the slopes of Vran, opposite to Ljubua,the slopes of Mesihovina opposite to Lib and insome parts of Tomislavgrad hills, and Tunica andthe central part of Ljubua (Fig. 8).

6

A bend in the morphostructure is also visible.

Slika 7. Zapadna i SI padina Liba, odvojene vrnim grebenom6Figure 7 West and southeast hillslopes of Lib Mountain separated by a peak ridge6

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Udio neutralnih ekspozicija (W i E) uistraivanom podruju iznosi 21,88% (Tab.3., Sl. 8.). Ove ekspozicije posljedica su

mjestiminih promjena dinarskog smjera pruanjamorfostruktura u smjer S J uzrokovanihizvijanjem tektonskih struktura. To se osobitoodnosi na zapadnu i SI padinu Liba (Sl. 7., Sl. 8.)i istone padine Tomislavgradskog pobra (Sl. 8.).

The portion of the aspects that fall into theneutral category (western and eastern) in theresearched area amounts to 21.88% (Tab. 3, Fig.

8). Such aspects are a consequence of local changesin Dinaric Alps morphostructures' extension fromtheir general north-south direction, caused bybending of tectonic structures. This is primarilyevident on western and southeastern slopes ofLib Mountain (Fig. 7, Fig. 8) and the easternTomislavgrad hills slopes (Fig. 8).

Slika 8. Karta ekspozicijaFigure 8 The aspect map

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3. Analiza zakrivljenosti padina

Pojam zakrivljenosti padine odnosi sena njezin geometrijski oblik. Oblik padinerezultat je denudacijskih i akumulacijskihprocesa, uzrokovanih endogenim i egzogenimgeomorfolokim agensima.

Konveksne padine (ili dijelovi padina) indikatorsu pozitivnih tektonskih pokreta (izdizanje)povezanih s dominacijom denudacijskih procesaiji intenzitet raste s porastom duine padine.Pravocrtne padine ili dijelovi padina upuujuna prostorno uravnoteene denudacijske uvjete,npr. padina se povlai paralelno ili se materijaljednolino kree po padini. Konkavne padine(ili njihovi dijelovi) indikator su negativnihtektonskih pokreta (sputanje) povezanih spojaanom akumulacijom padinskog materijala(Dikau et al.,2004.).

S matematikog aspekta, zakrivljenost sedenira kao odstupanje geometrijskog objekta

3. Slope curvature analysis

The notion of slope curvature refers to itsgeometric shape. The shape of a slope is a result ofdenudation and accumulation processes caused byendogenous and exogenous geomorphologic factors.

Convex slopes (or their parts) are indicatorsof positive tectonic movements (rising), related todomination of denudation, the intensity of whichincreases with increase in slope length. Linear slopesor their parts indicate spatially balanced conditionsfor denudation, e.g. the slope retracts in a parallelway, or the material shifts evenly across the slope.Concave slopes (or their parts) are indicators ofnegative tectonic movements (sinking) related toincreased amount of accumulated slope material(Dikau et al.,2004).

Mathematically, a curvature is dened as ageometrical object's divergence from a plane.Curvature is inverted to circle radius and is expressedwith the following formula: k=1/R. As the radius

Tablica 3. Kategorije i prostorni obuhvat ekspozicijaTable 3 Aspect categories and their spatial coverage

Ekspozicija padina Povrina (m2) Udio (%)

N 25022400,0 10,48

NE 28698800,0 12,02

E 20590800,0 8,62

SE 23802000,0 9,97

S 37536000,0 15,72

SW 49043600,0 20,54

W 31651200,0 13,25

NW 22458000,0 9,40

Ukupno 238802800,0 100,00

Slope aspect Area (m2) Portion (%)

N 25,022,400.0 10.48

NE 28,698,800.0 12.02

E 20,590,800.0 8.62

SE 23,802,000.0 9.97

S 37,536,000.0 15.72

SW 49,043,600.0 20.54

W 31,651,200.0 13.25

NW 22,458,000.0 9.40

Total 238,802,800.0 100.00

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od ravnine. Zakrivljenost je inverzna radijusukrunice, odnosno izraava se izrazom k = 1/R.S porastom radijusa krunice, zakrivljenost sesmanjuje i obratno. Zakrivljenost predstavljakoecijent odstupanja krivulje od pravca. Za toku

u trodimenzionalnom prostoru mogue je izvestibeskonaan broj zakrivljenosti (Ohlmacher,2007). Koritenjem metode 3 x 3 kvadrata,zakrivljenost se rauna kao druga derivacijavisinskih vrijednosti DMR-a, prema izrazu: Z =Axy + Bxy + Cxy + Dx + Ey + Fxy + Gx + Hy+ I. Postoji vie vrsta zakrivljenosti, a u ovom raduse razmatraju prolna i planarna (Mooreet al.,1993.; Ayalew, Yamagishi, 2004.).

Analizom DMR-a dobiven je niz vrijednostizakrivljenosti iz kojeg su izdvojena tri tipa padina:konkavne, konveksne i pravocrtne. Veliki problem

predstavljao je odabir metode za odreivanjetipa zakrivljenosti. Dikau (1989.) zakrivljenostpadina radijusa veeg od 600 m (k > 0,001666)na modelu rezolucije 20 m, smatra zanemarivom itakve padine ubraja u pravocrtne. Analogno tome,za koriteni model rezolucije 25 m, pravocrtnimpadinama smatraju se padine radijusa veeg od750 metara.

Granine vrijednosti odreene su na sljedei nain:

1. granina vrijednost: vrijednost zakrivljenosti 0 0,001333;

2. granina vrijednost: vrijednost zakrivljenosti 0+ 0,001333;

3. granina vrijednost: maksimalna vrijednost niza.

Analize zakrivljenosti upuuju na karakter iintenzitet procesa koji djeluju na promjene u izgledupadina (ili njihovih dijelova). Ovakve analize,pogotovo specine analize prolne i planarnezakrivljenosti, upuuju na podruja na kojimadolazi do relativno brzih promjena vrijednostinagiba padina. U geomorfolokim istraivanjimaove analize mogu se primijeniti za izraunavanje i

procjenu trendova endogenih (izdizanje ili sputanjestruktura) i egzogenih geomorfolokih procesa,npr. otjecanja i sedimentacije (pomou planarnezakrivljenosti) pojaane denudacije i identiciranjaotpornijih stijenskih kompleksa (pomou prolnezakrivljenosti) (Kennelly, 2009.).

Proflna zakrivljenostodnosi se na zakrivljenostpadina (ili njihovih dijelova) du linija okomitihna izohipse, a njome se odreuje stopa promjenenagiba za svaki piksel. Negativna vrijednost upuujena konveksni uzduni prol padine, a pozitivna nakonkavni, dok vrijednost nula oznaava linearnu

increases, the curvature decreases, and vice versa.Curvature represents a coefcient of a curve'sdivergence from a line. It is possible to make anunlimited number of curvatures for a certain pointin a three-dimensional space (Ohlmacher, 2007).

By using the method of 3x3 squares, curvature iscalculated as the second derivative of DMR heightvalues, using the following formula: Z = Axy +Bxy + Cxy + Dx + Ey + Fxy + Gx + Hy + I. Thereare several different types of curvature, and thispaper discusses prole and planar ones (Moore etal., 1993; Ayalew, Yamagishi, 2004).

During DMR analysis a number of curvatures'values was calculated, from which three typesof slopes were determined: concave, convexand linear. The choice of a method for deningcurvatures represented a signicant problem. Dikau

(1989) considers slope curvatures of radius greaterthan 600 meters (k > 0.001666) on a 20 meterresolution model negligible and categorizes themas linear. Analogously, in models with resolutiongreater than 25 meters, slopes with radius greaterthan 750 meters are considered linear.

Limiting values are dened as follows:

1stlimiting value: curvature value of 0 0.001333;

2ndlimiting value: curvature value of 0 + 0.001333;

3rdlimiting value: maximum curvature value.

Curvature analysis points to characteristicsand intensity of processes that cause changes inslopes' (or their parts) appearances. Such analyses,especially prole and planar curvatures analyses,indicate the areas in which changes in inclinationvalues occur relatively fast. In geomorphologicresearch, these types of analyses can be employedto calculate and evaluate endogenous (raising orsinking) and exogenous geomorphologic processes'trends, such as soil wash and sedimentation (viaplanar curvature), enhanced denudation, and moreresilient rock formations identication (via prole

curvature) (Kennelly, 2009).

Profle curvature refers to slope (or parts ofslope) curvature along the lines perpendicular tocontours and it is used to dene the inclinationchange rate for each pixel. Negative values pointto a convex longitudinal slope prole, whilepositive values indicate concave prole. The zerovalue points to a linear slope (Fig. 9). Prolecurvature inuences the speed of water ow andthe speed of detritus movement down the slope.

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(pravocrtnu) padinu (Sl. 9.). Prolna zakrivljenostutjee na brzinu otjecanja vode, odnosno na brzinukretanja detritusa niz padinu.

Iz podataka o strukturi prolne zakrivljenosti(Tab. 4.) uoljiva je dominacija konveksnih ikonkavnih padina na razini cijelog podruja,meutim, bez velike razlike u udjelu (konveksne suneto dominantnije, s 49,78%, dok udio konkavnihiznosi 47,89%). Pravocrtne padine zastupljene s vrlomalim udjelom (od samo 2,34%), to upuuje napriblinu ujednaenost smjerova tektonskih pokreta,i s njima povezanih egzogeomorfolokih procesa.

Iz prostornog prikaza tipova prolnezakrivljenosti (Sl. 10.) uoljivo je da konveksnepadine prevladavaju na viim dijelovima uzvienja,

osobito uz grebene planinskih masiva i dijelovepobra (Lib, Mesihovina, zapadni dio planine Vran,Tunica i Tomislavgradsko tercijarno pobre), uzvrni dio strmog odsjeka na sjeveroistonom rubuGrabovike zaravni uz jugozapadni dio Duvanjskogpolja, kao i na cijeloj Grabovikoj zaravni. U sluajuTunice, korelacija s geolokim podacima upuuje

Prole curvature data (Tab. 4) shows anevident domination of convex and concaveslopes in the entire area. However, there is no

signicant difference in their ratio (convex slopesare somewhat dominant, making up for 49.78%,while concave make up for 47.89%). Linearslopes are represented by a very small portion(only 2.34%), which indicates approximatebalance between different tectonic movements'directions and exogeomorphological processesthat usually follow.

On the prole curvatures map (Fig. 10) it isnoticeable that convex slopes dominate higherparts of mountains, especially near the ridges andsome parts of hillsides (Lib, Mesihovina, western

part of Vran Mountain, Tunica and tertiaryTomislavgrad hills), near the steep cliff peaksof the Grabovica plateau at the southwesternpart of the Polje, and on the entire Grabovicaplateau. In the case of Tunica, correlation withgeological data indicates intensive positive neo-tectonic movement, which is supported by fresh-

Slika 9. Prolna zakrivljenost (URL 1)Figure 9 Prole curvatures (URL 1)

Tablica 4. Tipovi i prostorni obuhvat prolne zakrivljenosti

Table 4 Different types and spatial coverage of prole curvaturePadine Povrina (m2) Udio (%)

Konveksne 118866400,0 49,78

Pravocrtne 5580400,0 2,34

Konkavne 114355600,0 47,89

Ukupno 238802400,0 100,00

Slopes Area (m2) Coverage (%)

Convex 118,866,400.0 49.78

Linear 5,580,400.0 2.34

Concave 114,355,600.0 47.89

Total 238,802,400.0 100.00

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na intenzivno djelovanje neotektonskih pokretapozitivnog predznaka, to potvruje i poloajslatkovodnih lapora miocenske starosti na veimvisinama. U skladu s time su i znaajke morfolokihprocesa, oblici i nagibi padina. Takoer, veliki areali

konveksnih padina nalaze se na JI dijelu planineLjubue, pratei skretanje tektonskih strukturaiz smjera SZ JI u Z I. Osobito izraena zonakonveksnih padina protee se uz vii dio linearnoizduene "grede" du cijelog SI dijela Duvanjskogpolja te uz vie dijelove kanjonskih strana ujicena sjevernom dijelu istraivanog podruja (Sl. 10.).

Za razliku od konveksnih, konkavne padinedominiraju na niim dijelovima padina, uzrasjedne linije na cijelom istraivanom podruju,te uz nie dijelove bonih strana jaruga planinskihmasiva (Sl. 10.). To se moe uoiti na niim

dijelovima uz kanjon ujice, uz rasjednu liniju

water Miocene marl position in higher areas.Morphological processes' characteristics, shapesand inclinations of slopes are in accordance withthe aforementioned. In addition, relatively largeareas of convex slopes are located in southeastern

parts of Ljubua Mountain, following the tectonicstructures curve from northwest - southeast to west- east direction. An especially prominent zone ofconvex slopes stretches along higher parts of thelinearly elongated "Greda" (The Wall) along thesoutheastern part of Duvanjsko polje, and alonghigher parts of ujica canyon sides in the northernpart of the researched area (Fig. 10).

Unlike convex slopes, concave ones mostlydominate lower parts of slopes, along the fault linesin the entire researched area and in lower partsof mountain valleys lateral sides (Fig. 10). This

is particularly noticeable in lower parts of ujica

Slika 10. Karta prolne zakrivljenosti padinaFigure 10 The map of prole slope curvature

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koja razdvaja Tunicu i Jelovau, uz rasjed izmeusjevernih dijelova zapadnih padina Vran planinei Ljubue i uz rasjed koji se luno protee cijelimsredinjim podrujem Liba u smjeru SZ JI.

Prolne pravocrtne padine najzastupljenijesu na dijelovima mladog tercijarnogTomislavgradskog pobra bliim Duvanjskompolju, na svim hipsometrijskim nivoima, tj. nepokazuju pravilnost u vertikalnom rasporedu(Sl. 10.). Takoer, mogu se nai u krajnjem JIdijelu Grabovike zaravni koji se stepenastosputa prema polju, na niim dijelovima zapadnihpadina Liba te na blago poloenim (nagib 25)SZ padinama oblikovanim u stijenama krednestarosti na podruju kontakta Ljubue i krajnjegazapadnog dijela Vrana.

Planarna zakrivljenost odnosi se nazakrivljenost padine u sekanti izohipse okomitojna smjer najveeg nagiba. Pozitivna vrijednostukazuje na konveksni oblik padine, a negativnana konkavni, dok nulta vrijednost oznaavalinearnu (pravocrtnu) padinu (Sl. 11.). Kada jezadani smjer okomit na smjer najveeg nagiba(horizontalna sekanta izohipse), tada se modelomzakrivljenosti padina mogu procjenjivatidivergencija (konveksne, izboene padine)odnosno konvergencija (konkavne, udubljene

padine) hipotetskog otjecanja (a time i lokalneocjeditosti ili vlanosti tla na padini) (Antoni,1996.). Konvergentno otjecanje povezano je sprocesima akumulacije vode, tla ili detritusa,a divergentno otjecanje uz derazijske procesespiranja, puzanja, jaruenja i bujienja.

Iz podataka o strukturi planarne zakrivljenosti(Tab. 5.) uoljiva je dominacija konveksnih ikonkavnih padina u odnosu na pravocrtne,na razini cijelog podruja, s dominacijomkonveksnih (52,10%) u odnosu na konkavnepadine (44,04%). Pravocrtne padine imaju mali

udio, od samo 3,86%. To znai da je na razini

canyon, along the fault line separating Tunica andJelovaa, along the fault between north section ofVran and Ljubua Mountain western slopes, andalong the fault that curves northwest-southeastalong the central Lib Mountain area.

Prole linear slopes are most frequent nearthe geologically new, Tertiary Tomislavgrad hillscloser to the Polje at all the observed height levelsi.e. they do not show a specic pattern of verticaloccurrence (Fig. 10). They can also be found in thefar southeast part of the Grabovica plateau, whichgradually descends towards the Polje, on lowerlevels of Lib Mountain western slopes and the low-inclined (2-5) northwestern slopes of Cretaceousperiod at the contact between Ljubua and far westend of Vran Mountain.

Planar curvature denotes a slope's curvatureon the secant line perpendicular to direction of thegreatest inclination. A positive value indicates aconvex shape of the slope, while negative indicates aconcave shape. A zero value indicates a linear slope(Fig. 11). If the given direction is perpendicularto the direction of the greatest inclination (thehorizontal secant line of a contour line), then,using the slope curvature model, it is possible toevaluate divergence (convex slopes) or convergence(concave slopes) of a hypothetical water ow

(and, by extension, local water ow features andsoil humidity) (Antoni, 1996). Convergent owis related to water, soil and detritus accumulationprocesses, while divergent ow is related to theprocesses of soil wash, creep, sinking and gullyerosion.

From the data that refer to the planar curvature(Tab. 5) it is evident that convex and concaveslopes dominate, when compared to linear ones,in all of the researched area. Convex slopes arepredominant (52.10%), even compared to concaveslopes (44.04%). Linear slopes make up a very

small portion of only 3.86%. This means that

Slika 11. Planarna zakrivljenost (URL 2)Figure 11 Planar curvatures (URL 2)

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cijelog podruja prisutna dominacija divergentnogu odnosu na konvergentno otjecanje povrinskevode odnosno denudacijskih procesa u odnosu naakumulacijske.

Podruja izraenog divergentnog otjecanja moguse uoiti na karti planarne zakrivljenosti padina(Sl. 12.). Radi se uglavnom o vrnim dijelovima ipodrujima hrptova izmeu jaruga na padinamaplaninskih masiva, na svim hipsometrijskimnivoima. Prostranije zone planarne konveksnezakrivljenosti osobito su istaknute na podrujuTomislavgradskog mladog tercijarnog pobrai junih padina Tunice, to se moe dovesti uvezu s njihovim litolokim sastavom. Naime radise o konglomeratima, pjeenjacima i laporima,laporima s konglomeratima i laporovitimvapnencima paleogenske i neogenske starosti,podlonijim denudacijskim procesima. Takoer,prostranije zone ovoga tipa planarne zakrivljenostinalaze se na podruju zapadnog dijela planineLib, uz vie dijelove padina krajnjeg SI dijela

Grabovike zaravni okrenutih prema Duvanjskompolju (na kojima prevladava kategorija nagiba od32 do 55), te na podruju Vran planine.

Na velikim dijelovima istraivanog podrujazone konveksne i konkavne planarne zakrivljenostinalaze se u izmjeni na malim udaljenostima,s priblino jednakim omjerima. Osobito je toizraeno na podrujima Grabovike zaravni idijelova Ljubue bliih Duvanjskom polju (Sl. 12.).

Dominacija konkavne planarne zakrivljenostikarakteristina je za podruje vapnenake zaravniizmeu centralnog grebena Liba i njegove SI padine

the whole area is characterized by domination ofdivergent water ow and denudation processes.

Areas of pronounced divergent ow arenoticeable on the planar curvature map (Fig.12). This primarily refers to peaks and ridgesbetween gullies on mountains slopes on all theobserved height levels. Wider areas of planarconvex curvature are especially pronouncedaround Tomislavgrad hills dating from Tertiaryand southern slopes of Tunica, which can berelated to their lithological structure. In fact, intheir base these areas consist of conglomerates,sandstone and marl, marl with conglomerates,and marl limestone from Paleogene and Neogene,which are more susceptible to denudation. Also,wider areas of this planar curvature type are foundin western areas of Lib Mountain, in higher partsof far southeast slopes of the Grabovica plateauoriented towards the Duvanjsko polje (in which32-55 inclination category prevails), and on VranMountain.

Interchanging zones of convex and concaveplanar curvature can be found in great portion ofthe researched area, with approximately the sameratios. This is especially evident on the Grabovicaplateau and in parts of Ljubua Mountain closer toDuvanjsko polje (Fig. 12).

Domination of concave slope curvature ischaracteristic for limestone plateau area betweenthe Lib Mountain central ridge and its northeasternslope, and for the limestone plateau area in theeastern part of Ljubua Mountain located fartheraway from Duvanjsko polje. The reason for this

Tablica 5. Tipovi i prostorni obuhvat planarne zakrivljenostiTable 5 Different types and spatial coverage of planar curvature

Padine Povrina (m2) Udio (%)

Konveksne 124412800,0 52,10

Pravocrtne 9210400,0 3,86

Konkavne 105179600,0 44,04

Ukupno 238802800,0 100,000

Slopes Area (m2) Coverage (%)

Convex 124,412,800.0 52.10

Linear 9,210,400.0 3.86

Concave 105,179,600.0 44.04

Total 238,802,800.0 100.00

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te za podruje vapnenake zaravni u istonom dijeluLjubue, udaljenijem od Duvanjskog polja. Razlogtome vjerojatno je vea gustoa ponikava i malazastupljenost uvala na tim podrujima (za razlikuod Grabovike zaravni, gdje se, uz ponikve, nalazi

i vei broj prostranijih uvala), to za posljedicuima manje povrine konveksnih meuprostoradivergentnog otjecanja izmeu ponikava (Sl. 12.).

Planarne pravocrtne padine imaju slianprostorni raspored kao i prolne, tj. nalaze se napodruju mladog tercijarnog Tomislavgradskogpobra, i to na dijelovima bliim Duvanjskompolju, na krajnjem JI stepenastom dijelu Grabovikezaravni, na niim dijelovima zapadnih padina Libate na sjevernim padinama zapadnog dijela Vranplanine, uz kontakt s Ljubuom (Sl. 12.).

probably lies in greater density of dolines andlesser number of uvalas in such areas (as opposedto the Grabovica plateau, which features a greaternumber of spacious uvalas as well as dolines),which results in a smaller number of convex

surfaces with divergent water ow in betweendolines (Fig. 12).

Planar linear curvatures show similar spatialdistribution as prole curvatures, i.e. they canbe found in Tertiary areas of Tomislavgrad hills(primarily near the areas closer to Duvanjskopolje), in far southeast parts of Grabovica plateau,on lower levels of western Lib Mountain, and onnorthern slopes of western Vran Mountain, nearthe contact zone with Ljubua (Fig. 12).

Slika 12. Karta planarne zakrivljenosti padina

Figure 12 The planar slope curvature map

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Diskusija

Morfometrijska analiza reljefa primijenjena uovom radu ukljuila je koritenje razliitih metodaza precizno raunanje numerikih parametara

reljefa istraivanog podruja, to je omoguilomeusobnu korelaciju navedenih parametara, ali ikorelaciju s kartom tektonskih jedinica i geolokomkartom. Cilj ovakvog pristupa je egzaktnijainterpretacija morfometrijskih parametara reljefakao indikatora znaajki endogenih i egzogenihprocesa na istraivanom podruju.

Na istraivanom podruju dominiraju nagibipadina manji od 2 kao posljedica dominacijepreteito zaravnjenog reljefa Duvanjskog polja.Manja izolirana podruja ove kategorije javljajuse unutar rubnog planinskog okvira polja,

na korozijskim terasama, zaravnima, vrnimdijelovima planinskih hrptova i masiva, teponikvama. Znaajan je i udio kategorija nagibaod 5 do 12 i od 12 do 32, koje se javljajuuglavnom na padinama planinskih masiva (osobitouz kontaktne dijelove s poljem). S porastom visinedolazi do sve veeg udjela kategorija od 12 do32 i > 55. Mjestimino, uz dominantne aktivnerasjedne linije, kategorija nagiba > 55 zapaase na dijelovima padinskih strana uz kanjonskasuenja (kanjon ujice i podruje JI od Kongore),bone strane ponikava, uvala ili japaga (podruje

Grabovike zaravni).Dominacija ekspozicija padina prema junom

kvadrantu (JZ, J i JI), zbog veih dnevnih i sezonskihtemperaturnih amplituda, upuuje na povoljneuvjete za nastanak i razvoj egzogeomorfolokihdestrukcijskih procesa na velikom dijelu podruja.Osim toga, dugotrajnije kratkovalno Sunevozraenje na padinama eksponiranima premajunom kvadrantu posredno utjee i na poveanjeevapotranspiracije i nestaicu vode (osobitona podrujima gdje je u podlozi vapnenac), aposljedica je smanjenje obuhvata i broja biljnih

vrsta na padinama, odnosno rjea vegetacija.Znaajke prolne zakrivljenosti padina s neto

veim udjelom konveksnih u odnosu na konkavnepadine upuuje na donekle izraeniju komponentuizdizanja terena. S obzirom na to da razlike nisuvelike, moe se zakljuiti da unutar podrujau cjelini postoji priblino ujednaeno izdizanjei sputanje tektonskih struktura. Sputanje jeosobito izraeno na kontaktnim podrujimapolja i okolnog planinskog okvira na to upuujedominacija prolnih konkavnih padina i veevrijednosti nagiba. To je potvrdila i usporedba

Discussion

The morphometric terrain analysis used inthis research included a number of differentmethods for precise calculation of the researched

area's numeric relief parameters, which enabledrelative correlation of those parameters as wellas correlation with the map of tectonic unitsand geological map. The aim of this approachis a more exact interpretation of morphometricterrain parameters as endogenous and exogenousprocesses indicators in the researched area.

The researched area is dominated by slopeswith < 2 inclination, which are the result of mostlyattened terrain of Duvanjsko polje. Smaller, isolatedareas belonging to this category are found withinthe mountainous rim of the Polje, on corrosion

terraces, plateaus, higher parts of mountainsand mountain ridges, and, nally, dolines. Theportion of 5-12 and 12-32 categories, which canprimarily be found at mountain slopes (especiallynear the contact zones with the polje), is rathersignicant. As the height increases, ca

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