03 lucko acknowledgements

8/9/2019 03 Lucko Acknowledgements

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Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................................ii

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................................xii

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................................xv

LIST OF SYMBOLS ...............................................................................................................................................xvi

CHAPTER 1:ABOUT THIS STUDY ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 THESIS STATEMENT......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 I NTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................ 1

1.3 R ESEARCH OBJECTIVES................................................................................................................................... 3

1.4 R ESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................................. 4

1.5 R ESEARCH SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS............................................................................................................... 5

1.6 THESIS ORGANIZATION.................................................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................................. 7

2.1 HISTORY OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION .............................................................................................................. 7

2.1.1 Ancient Structures................................................................................................................................. 8

2.1.1.1 Ancient Structural Principles ............................................................................................................................ 8

2.1.1.2 Trial and Error................................................................................................................................................... 9

2.1.1.3 The Earliest Beginnings.................................................................................................................................... 9

2.1.1.4 Timber Bridges ............................................................................................................................................... 11

2.1.1.5 Stone Bridges.................................................................................................................................................. 12

2.1.1.6 Aqueducts and Viaducts.................................................................................................................................. 13

2.1.1.7 Religious Symbolism ......................................................................................................................................17

2.1.1.8 Vitruvius’ De Architectura.............................................................................................................................. 17

2.1.1.9 Contributions of Ancient Bridge Building...................................................................................................... 18

2.1.2 The Middle Ages ................................................................................................................................. 18

2.1.2.1 Preservation of Roman Knowledge.................................................................................................................19

2.1.2.2 Bridges in the Middle East and Asia............................................................................................................... 19

2.1.2.3 Revival of European Bridge Building............................................................................................................. 19

2.1.2.4 Construction and History of Old London Bridge............................................................................................ 20

2.1.2.5 The Pont d’Avignon........................................................................................................................................ 22

2.1.2.6 Further Notable Medieval Bridges.................................................................................................................. 23

2.1.2.7 Purpose of Medieval Bridges .......................................................................................................................... 27

2.1.2.8 Contributions of Medieval Bridge Building.................................................................................................... 28


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2.1.3 The Renaissance ................................................................................................................................. 29

2.1.3.1 Renaissance Trusses........................................................................................................................................ 29

2.1.3.2 Palladio’s I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura ..................................................................................................... 30

2.1.3.3 Veranzio’s Machinae Novae........................................................................................................................... 31

2.1.3.4 The Rialto Bridge............................................................................................................................................ 31

2.1.3.5 French Renaissance Bridge Building.............................................................................................................. 33

2.1.3.6 English Renaissance Bridge Building ............................................................................................................. 36

2.1.3.7 Contributions of Renaissance Bridge Building............................................................................................... 37

2.1.4 The Industrial Revolution ................................................................................................................... 38

2.1.4.1 The Ironbridge ................................................................................................................................................ 38

2.1.4.2 Early Iron Structures ....................................................................................................................................... 40

2.1.4.3 Early Suspension Bridges ............................................................................................................................... 42

2.1.4.4 The Menai Strait Bridge.................................................................................................................................. 43

2.1.4.5 The Britannia Bridge....................................................................................................................................... 44

2.1.4.6 Covered Bridges.............................................................................................................................................. 46

2.1.4.7 Railway Bridges.............................................................................................................................................. 47

2.1.4.8 Failure of the Tay Bridge ................................................................................................................................ 49

2.1.4.9 Contributions of Bridge Building during the Industrial Revolution ............................................................... 50

2.1.5 The Great Bridges............................................................................................................................... 52

2.1.5.1 The St. Louis Bridge ....................................................................................................................................... 52

2.1.5.2 The Brooklyn Bridge....................................................................................................................................... 53

2.1.5.3 The Forth Rail Bridge .....................................................................................................................................54

2.1.5.4 The George Washington Bridge......................................................................................................................56

2.1.5.5 Failure of the Quebec Bridge .......................................................................................................................... 56

2.1.5.6 Failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge........................................................................................................... 58

2.1.5.7 The Severn Bridge .......................................................................................................................................... 59

2.1.5.8 Contributions of Bridge Building between Nineteenth and Twentieth Century.............................................. 61

2.1.6 The Era of Concrete Bridges and Beyond .......................................................................................... 61

2.1.6.1 Concrete Characteristics..................................................................................................................................62

2.1.6.2 Early Concrete Structures ............................................................................................................................... 63

2.1.6.3 Concrete Arch Bridges.................................................................................................................................... 63

2.1.6.4 Prestressed Concrete Bridges .......................................................................................................................... 64

2.1.6.5 Concrete Bridges after the Second World War ............................................................................................... 65

2.1.6.6 Cable-Stayed Bridges...................................................................................................................................... 66

2.1.6.7 Recent Bridge Projects.................................................................................................................................... 73

2.1.6.8 Contributions of Modern Concrete Bridge Construction................................................................................ 74

2.2 FUTURE CHALLENGES IN BRIDGE E NGINEERING............................................................................................ 752.2.1 Improvements in Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Rehabilitation ........................................ 76

2.2.1.1 Improvements in Design ................................................................................................................................. 76

2.2.1.2 Improvements in Construction........................................................................................................................ 77


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2.2.1.3 Improvements in Maintenance and Rehabilitation.......................................................................................... 78

2.2.1.4 Smart Bridges.................................................................................................................................................. 79

2.2.2 High-Performance Materials.............................................................................................................. 80

2.2.2.1 Strength and Other Mechanical Properties......................................................................................................81

2.2.2.2 Workability..................................................................................................................................................... 81

2.2.2.3 Durability........................................................................................................................................................ 82

2.2.2.4 Composites...................................................................................................................................................... 82

2.2.3 Innovative Structural Concepts........................................................................................................... 83

2.2.3.1 Enhancing Existing Structural Concepts......................................................................................................... 84

2.2.3.2 Combination of Existing Structural Concepts................................................................................................. 86

2.2.3.3 Development of New Structural Concepts...................................................................................................... 88

2.2.3.3.1 Kinetic Structures ................................................................................................................................. 88

2.2.3.3.2 Underwater Bridges.............................................................................................................................. 89

2.2.3.3.3 Stress Ribbon Bridges .......................................................................................................................... 89

2.2.3.3.4 Multiuse Bridges .................................................................................................................................. 90

2.2.3.3.5 High-Art Bridges .................................................................................................................................. 90

2.2.3.3.6 Spatial Structures.................................................................................................................................. 91

2.2.3.3.7 Concrete Trusswork.............................................................................................................................. 92

2.2.3.3.8 Bioengineering .....................................................................................................................................93

2.2.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 94

CHAPTER 3: THE DESIGN PROCESS OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES ........................... ................................ . 95

3.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY ..................................................................................................................................... 95

3.1.1 The Nature of Engineering.................................................................................................................. 96

3.1.2 Current Issues in Engineering Education........................................................................................... 97

3.1.3 Functional Requirements for Structures and Interdependencies........................................................ 98

3.1.4 Design against Failure ..................................................................................................................... 101

3.1.5 The Design Process........................................................................................................................... 102

3.1.5.1 Creativity at Work......................................................................................................................................... 102

3.1.5.2 Conceptual Design ........................................................................................................................................ 103

3.1.5.3 Analysis and Dimensioning .......................................................................................................................... 104

3.1.5.4 Design Process According to Leonhardt....................................................................................................... 104

3.2 CONSTRUCTION PROJECT CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................................................. 106

3.2.1 Project Life-Cycle ............................................................................................................................. 107

3.2.2 Resource Utilization....................... ................................ ............................... ............................... ..... 108

3.2.2.1 Economy ....................................................................................................................................................... 109

3.2.2.2 Ecology ......................................................................................................................................................... 110


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3.2.2.3 The Linn Cove Viaduct................................................................................................................................. 110

3.3 AESTHETICS AND E NGINEERING .................................................................................................................. 111

3.3.1 Aesthetic Values................................................................................................................................ 111

3.3.2 Character and Function.................................................................................................................... 112

3.3.3 Proportions and Harmony................................................................................................................ 113

3.3.4 Complexity and Order....................................................................................................................... 115

3.3.5 Color and Texture............................................................................................................................. 116

3.3.6 Environmental Scale ......................................................................................................................... 119

3.4 FACTORS I NFLUENCING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................. 119

3.4.1 Environmental Factors ..................................................................................................................... 120

3.4.1.1 Soil Conditions ............................................................................................................................................. 121

3.4.1.2 Topography................................................................................................................................................... 121

3.4.1.3 River Crossing .............................................................................................................................................. 121

3.4.1.4 Protection of the Environment ...................................................................................................................... 122

3.4.1.5 Climate..........................................................................................................................................................122

3.4.2 Technical Factors ............................................................................................................................. 123

3.4.2.1 Structural Type and Erection Method........................................................................................................... 123

3.4.2.2 Construction Details...................................................................................................................................... 124

3.4.3 Labor Factors ................................................................................................................................... 124

3.4.4 Owner Needs..................................................................................................................................... 125

3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURAL E NGINEERING ..................................................................................... 125

3.5.1 Modeling Reality............................................................................................................................... 126

3.5.2 Factor of Safety................................................................................................................................. 128

3.5.3 Structural Analysis............................................................................................................................ 131

3.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF CAST-I N-PLACE SEGMENTAL CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION ..................................... 133

3.6.1 Segmental Construction.................................................................................................................... 133

3.6.2 Cantilevering Method ....................................................................................................................... 134

3.6.2.1 Cantilevering Defined................................................................................................................................... 138

3.6.2.2 Low Strength of Young Concrete .................................................................................................................139

3.6.2.3 Prestress Losses Through Elastic Shortening................................................................................................ 141

3.6.2.4 Prestress Losses Through Time-Dependent Effects...................................................................................... 142

3.6.2.5 Redistribution of Internal Forces .................................................................................................................. 143

3.6.2.6 Further Considerations.................................................................................................................................. 144

3.6.2.7 Importance of Accounting for Prestress Losses and Conclusion .................................................................. 145

3.6.3 Cast-In-Place Construction .............................................................................................................. 147

3.6.3.1 Cast-In-Place Construction Applied to Cantilevering................................................................................... 148

3.6.3.2 Quality Control ............................................................................................................................................. 150

3.6.3.3 Durability...................................................................................................................................................... 150


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3.6.3.4 Camber.......................................................................................................................................................... 150

3.7 CONSTRUCTABILITY OF BOX GIRDERS ........................................................................................................ 151

3.7.1 Characteristics of Box Girders ......................................................................................................... 151

3.7.1.1 Webs ............................................................................................................................................................. 152

3.7.1.2 Diaphragms................................................................................................................................................... 153

3.7.1.3 Structural Behavior .......................................................................................................................................153

3.7.2 Implementation of Box Girders......................................................................................................... 154

3.7.2.1 Width ............................................................................................................................................................ 154

3.7.2.2 Depth............................................................................................................................................................. 155

3.7.2.3 Span Length .................................................................................................................................................. 155

3.7.2.4 Durability...................................................................................................................................................... 155

3.7.2.5 Appearance ................................................................................................................................................... 156

CHAPTER 4: THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF SEGMENTAL BRIDGES............................... .......... 157

4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSED SEGMENTAL BRIDGES........................... ............................... 157

4.1.1 Degree of Prestressing...................................................................................................................... 158

4.1.2 Pre-Tensioning............... ................................ ............................... ................................ .................... 159

4.1.3 Post-Tensioning ................................................................................................................................ 159

4.2 CONCRETE BRIDGE ERECTION TECHNIQUES................... ............................... ............................... 160

4.2.1 Cantilevering Method ....................................................................................................................... 161

4.2.1.1 Precast Construction ..................................................................................................................................... 162

4.2.1.2 Cast-In-Place Construction ........................................................................................................................... 165

4.2.1.3 Balanced Cantilever Construction................................................................................................................. 167

4.2.1.4 Progressive Placement Method.....................................................................................................................169

4.2.1.5 The Linn Cove Viaduct................................................................................................................................. 170

4.2.1.6 Concluding the Cantilevering Process .......................................................................................................... 171

4.2.2 Cantilever Erection Equipment......................................................................................................... 173

4.2.2.1 Form Travelers.............................................................................................................................................. 173

4.2.2.2 Launching Girders......................................................................................................................................... 175

4.2.2.2.1 Launching Girder Slightly Longer Than One Span............................................................................ 176

4.2.2.2.2 Launching Girder Slightly Longer Than Two Spans.......................................................................... 178

4.2.3 Incremental Launching..................................................................................................................... 179

4.2.4 Falsework.................. ................................ ............................... ............................... .......................... 183

4.2.4.1 Stationary Falsework..................................................................................................................................... 184

4.2.4.2 Traveling Falsework...................................................................................................................................... 185

4.2.4.3 Temporary Towers ........................................................................................................................................ 185

4.2.5 Span-By-Span Erection..................................................................................................................... 186


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4.3 CONSIDERATION OF CONSTRUCTION LOADS AND STRESSES.................... ............................... 187

4.3.1 Types of Construction Loads and Influences.................................................................................... 189

4.3.1.1 The Zilwaukee Bridge................................................................................................................................... 191

4.3.1.2 The West Gate Bridge...................................................................................................................................193

4.3.2 Influence of Erection Method and Construction Sequence............................................................... 194

4.3.3 Existing Codes and Regulations ....................................................................................................... 196 4.3.3.1 American Concrete Institute.......................................................................................................................... 197

4.3.3.2 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ......................................................... 197

4.3.3.3 American Society for Testing and Materials ................................................................................................. 201

4.3.3.4 American Welding Society ........................................................................................................................... 201

4.3.3.5 Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute ............................................................................................................. 201

4.3.3.6 Other Institutions .......................................................................................................................................... 202

4.3.3.7 Federal Highway Administration.................................................................................................................. 202

4.3.3.8 Owner Specifications .................................................................................................................................... 203

CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDY – THE WILSON CREEK BRIDGE ............................... ............................... ..... 204

5.1 PROJECT CONCEPTUALIZATION ................................................................................................................... 204

5.1.1 General Project Overview ................................................................................................................ 204

5.1.2 Smart Road Project........................................................................................................................... 205

5.1.3 Objective of Smart Road and Overview............................................................................................ 206

5.1.4 Regional Traffic Infrastructure......................................................................................................... 207

5.1.5 Bridge Overview ............................................................................................................................... 208

5.1.6 Parties Involved ................................................................................................................................ 209

5.1.7 Contractual Provisions ..................................................................................................................... 210

5.1.8 Financial Provisions......................................................................................................................... 212

5.2 PROJECT DESIGN ......................................................................................................................................... 214

5.2.1 Member Designation......................................................................................................................... 214

5.2.2 Member Geometry ............................................................................................................................ 215

5.2.2.1 Foundations................................................................................................................................................... 215

5.2.2.2 Abutments..................................................................................................................................................... 216

5.2.2.3 Pier Shafts ..................................................................................................................................................... 216

5.2.2.4 Pier Tables .................................................................................................................................................... 219

5.2.2.5 Superstructure...............................................................................................................................................219

5.2.2.6 Surrounding and Incidental Works ............................................................................................................... 222

5.2.3 Change in Design.............................................................................................................................. 222

5.2.4 Quantities of Construction Materials................................................................................................ 224

5.2.5 Reinforcement and Related Details................................................................................................... 226


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5.2.5.1 Concrete Cover ............................................................................................................................................. 226

5.2.5.2 Prestressing Tendons, Tendon Ducts, and Anchorages.................................................................................226

5.2.5.3 Segment Reinforcing Schedule.....................................................................................................................230

5.2.6 Further Construction Details............................................................................................................ 230

5.2.6.1 Bearings ........................................................................................................................................................ 231

5.2.6.2 Expansion Joints ........................................................................................................................................... 231

5.2.6.3 Accessory Details and Finishing ................................................................................................................... 231

5.2.7 Plan Documents, Structural Calculations, and Construction Manuals............................................ 233

5.2.7.1 Plans.............................................................................................................................................................. 233

5.2.7.2 Structural Calculations.................................................................................................................................. 234

5.2.7.3 Geometry Control Manual ............................................................................................................................234

5.2.8 Architectural Considerations............................................................................................................ 235

5.3 PROJECT CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 236

5.3.1 Site Layout and Subsurface Conditions ............................................................................................ 237

5.3.2 Site Preparation................................................................................................................................ 238

5.3.3 Foundation Construction, Drainage System, and Earthwork........................................................... 2395.3.4 Substructure Construction ................................................................................................................ 240

5.3.4.1 Abutments..................................................................................................................................................... 240

5.3.4.2 Pier Shafts ..................................................................................................................................................... 240

5.3.5 Change in Construction .................................................................................................................... 242

5.3.6 Superstructure Construction............................................................................................................. 245

5.3.6.1 Pier Tables .................................................................................................................................................... 245

5.3.6.2 Form Travelers.............................................................................................................................................. 246

5.3.6.3 Other Construction Equipment .....................................................................................................................250

5.3.7 Segment Casting Cycle ................................................................................................................................. 251

5.3.8 Cantilevering Sequence .................................................................................................................... 2555.3.9 Surveying and Construction Tolerances........................................................................................... 256

5.4 DISCUSSION OF CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES ............................................................................................ 258

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................... 260

6.1 SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................... 260

6.2 CONTRIBUTIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 268

6.3 R ECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................................................... 269


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REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................................270

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................280

APPENDIX A: LIST OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS .............. ............................. ...........284

APPENDIX B: CASTING CYCLE FOR WILSON CREEK BRIDGE ........................................ .....................288

VITA ........................................................................................................................................................................292