04. material preparation: agglome- ration, drying

Zulfiadi Zulhan/Taufiq Hidayat/Imam Santoso 2021 MG-3111 Pyrometallurgy

04. Material Preparation: Agglome-

ration, Drying, Calcination, Roasting

Pyrometallurgy (MG-3111)

5th Semester – 2021/2022

Zulfiadi Zulhan

Taufiq Hidayat

Imam Santoso

Department of Metallurgical Engineering

Faculty of Mining and Petroleum Engineering

Institut Teknologi Bandung

INDONESIA


NO TALKING

NO SLEEPING

NO MOBILE PHONE

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Course Content

1. Introduction

2. Refractory

3. Slag

4. Material Preparation: Aglomeration, Drying, Calcination, Roasting

5. Carbo- / Aluminothermic (Metalothermic)

6. Smelting, Refining

7. Pyrometallurgy of Copper Production I

8. Pyrometallurgy of Copper Production II

9. Mid Exam

10. Pyrometallurgy of Tin Production

11. Pyrometallurgy of Nickel Production(Nickel Matte, FeNi)

12. Pyrometallurgy of Zinc and Lead Productions

13. Production of Ferro Alloy I (FeMn)

14. Production of Ferro Alloy II (FeCr, FeSi)

15. Group Presentation (FeNb, FeMo, FeTi, FeV, FeTa, FeW, CaSi, CaC2 etc.)

16. Final Exam


Learning Activity Objectives

After completing this learning activity, the course participants should be

able:

1. to state the reason for agglomeration and to list and describe the types

of aglomeration equipment used in industrial processes

2. to state the purpose of and be able to list types of roasting operations

3. to state the reason for drying and calcining and able to list and

describe the types of drying and calcining equipment used in industrial

processes.


Process Flow Diagram:

Production of Ferronickel Pomalaa, PT Aneka Tambang


EB Mine

Hi Recovery

Low Olivine parent

WB Mine

Low Recovery

High Olivine parent

Process Flow Diagram:

Production of Ni matte at Soroako PT Vale


Copper Smelter


Mitsubishi Continuous Process (Naoshima)


AGLOMERATION


Agglomeration

The primary purpose of agglomeration is to improve burden permeability

and gas-solid contact.

A good agglomerate :

• should contain a minimum of undesirable constituents, a minimum of

material less than 6 mm, and a minimum of material larger than 25

mm.

• should be strong enough to withstand degradation during stockpiling,

handling, and transportation.

• must be able to withstand the high temperature.

• should be reasonably reducible.

Sludge and Dust from Dedusting System shall be aglomerated first

before they are charged into kilns or furnaces.


Agglomeration

S: The making, shaping and treating of steel, 11th Edition Ironmaking Volume, the AISE Steel Foundation, 1999

Sinter

Pellet


Definition

Sintering and pelletising are processes by which ore (fines / dust /

sludge) are agglomerated into larger pieces with or without

incorporation of lime and magnesia as fluxes.

Pellet Sinter


AGLOMERATION:

Pelletizing


Pellet

1st patent of pelletizing in rotating drum:

• Anderson, Sweden, 1912

• Brakelsberg, Germany, 1913

For Pelletizing:

Binder : bentonite (Al2O3.4SiO2.H2O), clay or hydrated

lime

consumption: 6.3 – 10 kg / ton of feed

Water : Optimum moisture content is 9-12%

Pelletisation is a process of agglomeration of ore fines. Particles smaller

than 0.2 mm are converted into 12-15 mm green pellets. On drying and

firing, green pellets become hard and strong to be used as feed for

furnaces.


Typical Chemical Composition of Magnetite Pellet

Feed

%

Fe 65.5

SiO2 7.8

Al2O3 0.5

CaO 0.5

MgO 0.6

Mn 0.25

P 0.032

S 0.003

TiO2 0.1

Moisture 10

Grain size: < 0.2 mm

70-80% < 40 mm

S: H.-W.Gudenau, Eisenhüttenmännische Verfahrenstechnik,

Vom Erz zum Stahl, Materialsammlung zum Praktikum, IEHK-RWTH Aachen, 1989


Properties of Bentonite


Green Ball Formation

When two ore particles

which are coated with binder

slurry come in contact with

each other due to motion on

a pelletising machine, they

collide with another particle

to form liquid bridge acting

as capillary. Surface tension

of the fluid capillary keep the

particle together


Methods to produce green pellet

6 - 10°

Cone

Drum

Disk




Rotating Drum to produce green pellets

Dimension of rotating drum for green pellet production with

capacity of 90-130 t / hS: H.-W.Gudenau, Eisenhüttenmännische Verfahrenstechnik,



Rotary Drum


Angle =

45-48°

Rotating Disk to produce green pellets

Dimension of rotary disk for green pellet production with capacity

of 90-140 t / h




Rotating Disk


Rotating Disk to produce green pellets:

Pyrometallurgy Laboratory

Mini Rotating Disc Pelletizer


Rotating Cone to produce green pellets

Mixture ready for balling

Green PelletsS: H.-W.Gudenau, Eisenhüttenmännische Verfahrenstechnik,



Drum vs. Disc

The balling drum and the disc pelletizer are the most widely used

devices for forming green balls

Disk

(+) Lighter weight

(+) Greater possibility for adjustment e.g. instantaneous fluctuations in the

feed

(+) Classifying action promotes discharge of balls of more uniform size,

which simplifies screening of the product.

(-) Capacity of the discs is low


Pellets Hardening

• Green pellet is hardened by heating (firing at sufficiently high

temperature, ~ 1200°C)

• Methods for Pellet Hardening:

traveling grate

grate-kiln

shaft furnace


Typical Pelletizing Plant

S: The making, shaping and treating of steel, 11th Edition Ironmaking Volume, the AISE Steel Foundation, 1999


Pellet Hadening (Traveling Grate)

S: The making, shaping and treating of

steel, 11th Edition Ironmaking Volume,

the AISE Steel Foundation, 1999


Rotating Drum + Pellet Hardening (Grate Kiln)


AGLOMERATION:

Sintering


Sintering

Definition: burning of fuel (coke breeze, anthracite) mix with iron bearing

material, e.g. Fine ore, concentrate, metal shop waste (dust, miling scale,

sludge, etc.) under controlled conditions.

Iron ore : 55.5%

Circulation Komponet : 4.8%

Fluxes : 12.7%

Return material : 27%

Raw mix : 100%

Composition of Sinter Mix

(example for iron ore):

Raw mix : 92.1%

Coke breeze : 2.3%

Moisture : 5.6%

Sinter mix : 100%


Sintering

Air

Sinter< 5 mm

iron ore

Coke fines

Limestone fines


Zonen während des Sintervorganges und

Temperaturverlauf (5.8 minutes after ignition)

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 140000

02

04

06

08

10

12

14

16

18

20

Temp. °C

Sin

tering b

ed d

ep

th (

cm

)

Cooling zone

Oxidation zone

Sinter zone

Ignition zone

Drying zone Separation of

crystalline water


Schematic Diagram of Iron Ore Sintering Process


Sintering


Typical Chemical Composition of Sinter

%

Fe total 56.33

Mn 3.99

P 0.04

SiO2 5.83

CaO 11.05

MgO 1.85

Al2O3 1.14

CaO/SiO2 1.9




AGLOMERATION:

Briquetting


Briquetting

Metallurgical processes produce

frequently substances that due to

their of fineness are unsuited for

further use.

Briquetting or compaction

processes enables a product of

defined size for further utilized /

processed.

Via a feeder system, material is

introduced into a space above

two rotating rollers. When

passing through the roller gap,

material is compacted and

formed into product.


Briquetting


Briquetting

Roller technology has been applied for more than 150 years.

Roller press consists of the following main assemblies:

• Press frame

• Floating and fixed rollers

• Main drive

• Material feeder equipment

• Hydraulic and pressurizing system

Briquetting is used in the following metallurgical industry:


Briquetting

Rollers carrying the pressing tools. The roller’s surface is designed to meet

specific requirements and suited for the feed to be processed.


• Thermoplastic binders (e.g. pitch, bitumen, plastics, waxes, resins)

• Mortar binders (e.g. lime mortar, gypsum, cement)

• Clay binder (bentonite)

Chemical Formula of Bentonite:

Physical Properties :

Al2O34SiO2H2O

Sp. Gravity : 2.4

Bulk density : 0.6

PH of 10% Aqueous solution: 8 to 8.8

Chemical Composition :

Silica : 54.26

Aluminium : 18.34

Ferric Oxide : 10.91

TiO2 : 01.25


Briquetting of Hot Sponge Iron

Briquetting machine (typical for HBI) consists of

following elements:

1. Roller press with screw feeder

2. Briquette string separator

3. Double deck hot screen

4. Vibrating deck hot screen

5. Hot fines recirculation


Briquetting of Hot Sponge Iron


Extrusion


DRYER


Drying

Drying: removal of water (bulk and / or adsorbed „surface held“

moisture) from other substances (ore or coke) by evaporation.

Drying at atmospheric pressure: heating the substance above normal

boiling point of water (100-200°C).

Evaporation of water is an endothermic process:

H2O(l) = H2O(g) DH298 = 43.9 kJ

Drying is accomplished by passing hot combustion gases through or

above the substance.

In most integrated metallurgical plant, hot gases which have temperature

of a few hundred degress celcius is used.

If hot gases is not available, extra fuel has to be burned.


Drying

Drying can be carried out in a number of different types of furnaces:

- Rotary dryer

- Fix bed furnace

- Fluidized bed furnace


Fluidized Bed: Dryer


Rotary Dryer

A rotary dryer consists of a cylinder, rotated upon suitable bearings and

slightly inclined to the horizontal.

Diameter : less than 0.3 to more than 3 m

Length : from 4 to more than 10 times its diameter


Rotary Dryer

Rotary dryers can been classified as direct and indirect.

“direct”: if heat is added to or removed from the solids by direct exchange

between flowing gas and solids

“indirect”: if the heating medium is separated from physical contact with

the solids by a metal wall or tube.

Usually carbon steel is used as material for cylinder. No lining is needed,

temperature 650-700K


Rotary Dryer


Rotary Dryer: Flight / Lifter


Rotary Dryer: Flight (Lifter) Arrangement

Direct-heat rotary dryer is usually

equipped with flights on the interior for

lifting and showering the solids

through the gas stream during

passage through the cylinder.

These flights are usually offset every

0.6 to 2 m to ensure more continuous

and uniform curtains of solids in the

gas.

Shape of flights depends upon the

handling characteristics of the solids.

For free-flowing materials, a radial

flight with a 90° lip is employed.

For sticky materials, a flat radial flight

without any lip is used.


Rotary Dryer: Flight (Lifter) Arrangement

When materials change characteristics

during drying, the flight design is

changed along the dryer length.

Many standard dryer designs employ:

• flat flights with no lips in the first one-

third of the dryer measured from the

feed end,

• flights with 90° lips in the final one-

third of the cylinder.

• flights with 90° lips in the final one-

third of the cylinder.


Rotary Dryer


Rotary Dryer: Retention Time

Retention time:

θ = time of passage, min

S = slope, ft/ft;

N = speed, r/min;

L = dryer length, ft

D = dryer diameter, ft


Dryer


Drying: Co-Current


Drying Rate


Rotary Dryer


Rotary Dryer

Ore

Hot gas


Rotary Dryer (Hot Gas Producer)

Pulverized Coal

Hot gasAir


Rotary Dryer

Ore

Hot gas


Rotary Dryer


CALCINATION


Calcination

Calcination: processes designed to decompose or partially decompose a

compound

removal of chemical bound water (hydrates) and gases (CO2 from carbonates,

SO2 from sulfates)

Calcination is more endothermic than drying.

Heat must be supplied at relatively high temperature

Temperature required for calcining is depending on the compound to be

treated.

Term „calcine“ was originally used to describe the product produced by

decomposition of magnesium and calcium carbonates, hydrates and

hydroxides.

However, this term is now used also for roasted copper sulfide concentrates,

roasted zinc sulfide concentrates, partial reduction of nickel oxide, etc.


Decomposition Pressure of Various Carbonates

and HydratesL

og

pC

O2,

(H2O

), a

tm

FeCO3 and Mg(OH)2,

T< 200°C

MgCO3, T ~ 400°C

CaCO3, T ~ 900°C


Calcination

Calcination can be carried out in:

- Shaft furnace (for coarse sizes)

- Rotary kiln (for mixed particle size, for lumps which disintegrade during

the process)

- Fluidized bed (for uniform small particle size)

Solids in

Product out

Fluid out

Fluid in Gas in

Gas out + dust

Solids in

Solids

out

Shaft furnace

Rotary Kiln

Fluidized bed


Lime making (Calcination) in Shaft Furnace

CaCO3 = CaO + CO2, DH298 = 177.8 kJ

Heat must be supplied at relatively high temperature. Calcination rate is

governed primarily by supply of necessary heat for decomposition.

Decomposition of limestone ~ 900°C.

Calcination in Shaft Furnace:

Furnace is charged with a mixture of limestone and coke.

Air is introduced at the bottom of the furnace, where burned is withdrawn.

Furnace can be divided into three zones:

1. Preheating zone : solid charge is preheated to 800°C

2. Reaction zone : burning of coke and decomposition of limestone

take place

3. Cooling zone : burned lime is cooled to 100°C.


Thermodynamic Data for Calcination of Limestone

CaCO3 (s)⇔CaO (s) +CO2 (g) DH298 = 177.8 kJ

DG° = 182837 + 13.402 T ln T − 251.059 T J mol−1


Decomposition of calcium carbonate as function of

temperature



0.56 or (183/328) mol of carbon is required per mole of CaCO3

0.56 mol C ~ 0.067 kg carbon per kilogram CaCO3.

In practice, amount of carbon required per kg CaCO3 ~ 0.1 kg to

cover heat losses through furnace wall.


ROTARY KILN


Rotary Kiln

Rotary kiln: a long, narrow cylinder inclined 2 to 5 degrees to the

horizontal and rotated at 0.25 to 5 rpm.

The length/diameter ratio ranges from 10 to 35, depending on the reaction

time needed.

Refractory lining is needed (due to high temperature processes~700-

1400°C).


Rotary Kiln

Formulas for capacity and residence time in terms of operating conditions:

W = 148 n D3 tan ϑ in t/(m3⋅d)

in hours

where n = rpm

= fraction of cross section occupied

D = diameter, m

L = length, m

ϑ = degrees inclination to the horizontal

tan D n 60

L

=


Rotary Kiln


Rotary Kiln: Sealing

Rotate

Static


Rotary Kiln


Rotary Kiln: Burner


Functional Principle of Rotary Kiln


Heat Transfer in Rotary Kiln

Radiation

Heat transfer from

burner flame and

from refractory

Most heat transfer in

a Kiln is by Radiation

Convection

Heat transfer from

the process gases to

the material

Conduction

Heat transfer from

the hot brick in

contact with the

material


Lime Making in Rotary Kiln

From fuel requirement: rotary kiln is flexible

Fuel: natural gas, fuel oil, pulverized fuel (coal,

coke, sawdust)

88% of burned lime is produced by rotary kiln.

L/D ~ 30-40, L ~ 22.7 – 152.5m, D ~ 1.2-3.3m

Slope ~ 3-5°

Degree of fill ~ 10-12%

Thermal consumption:

Without heat recuperation: ~ 3336 – 4170

kcal/kg of lime

With heat recuperation: ~ 1668 – 2224 kcal/kg

of lime


Lime Stone Dissociation Process Steps

1. Heat is transferred from the furnace gases to the surface of the decomposing

particle.

2. This is followed by heat conduction from the surface to the reaction front

through the micro-porous lattice structure of lime.

3. Heat arrives at the reaction front and causes the dissociation of CaCO3 into

CaO and CO2.

4. The CO2 produced migrates from the reaction front, through the lime layer, to

the particle surface.

5. CO2 migrates away from the particle surface into the kiln’s atmosphere.


Solid B

C

A

Shrinking – Core Model for Spherical Particles of

Unchanging Size

Fluid A

A (fluid) + b B (solid) = c C (fluid) + d D (solid)

Fluid phase mass transfer

(STEP1)

Fluid phase mass transfer

(STEP 5)

C A bulk

C C bulk

T bulk

Chemical

Reaction

(STEP 3)


Lime Making in Rotary Kiln


Lime Kiln, Heat and Material Balance


Cement Making in Rotary Kiln

Rotary Kilns are synonymous with cement making.

Raw materials (CaCO3, Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2) are charged to

produce:CaO·SiO2 (C3S), 2CaO·SiO2 (C2S), 3CaO·Al2O3 (C3A), and

4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3 (C4AF).

Kiln is divided into three zones:

- decomposition zone (900°C),

- transition zone (900-1300°C), and

- sintering zone (1300-1400°C).



Decomposition zone:



Transition zone:

Sintering zone:


▪ Calcination is carried out in Rotary Kiln to remove moisture

(hydrates water from ore) and LOI (loss on ignition). Partial

reduction is also performed in rotary kiln using counter current

principles.

▪ 20% NiO is reduced to Ni and 80% Fe2O3 to FeO in the rotary kiln

▪ Hot gas in rotary kiln is produced by pulverized coal combustion at

the calcine discharging end. Temperature of hot gas ~ 12400C. Hot

gas will heat the material up to 10200C near the discharge end.

▪ Hot spot of the burner flame may reach over 18000C and will heat

the material up to partial fusion (clinker).

Rotary Kiln (PT Aneka Tambang)

114


Rotary Kiln (PT Aneka Tambang)

115


Rotary Kiln

116


Reduction Kiln (PT International Nickel Indonesia)


Rotary Kiln (PT International Nickel Indonesia)


Rotary Kiln SL/RN Process


Roasting

Aim of roasting:

1. Conversion of material to the oxide form as prelimanary to a metal

extraction

2. Formation of water soluble sulphates which can be employed in in

subsequent hydrometallurgical processes.

Typical ores which are roasted: sulfides of copper, nickel, zinc and lead.

Roasting is carried out below melting point of sulfides, usually below 1000°C

From kinetic point of view, temperature should be above 500°C

Temperature range: 500-1000°C.


Equations:

K log- p log p log 2

2MeSO O 2SO 2MeO 4.

4OSO

422

22=+

=++

K log - p log

MeO 2 O 2Me 2.

2O

2

2=

=+

K log p log 3 - p log 2

2SO 2MeO 3O 2MeS 3.

3OSO

22

22=

+=+

K log p log - p log

O MeS SO Me 1.

1SOO

22

22=

+=+

K log - p log 2

MeSO 2 2O MeS 5.

5O

42

2=

=+

p log K log p log 2 - p log 2

SO 2 2O S 6.

222 S6OSO

222

+=

=+

p log 2 K log- p log p log 2

2SO O SO2 7.

322 SO7SOSO

322

+=+

=+


Schematic: Equilibria and Predominance Areas at

Constant Temperature (Kellog diagram) for System

Me-S-O


Roasting Equipment


Multi Hearth Furnace


Roasting Equipment: Multi Hearth Furnace


Multi Hearth Furnace


Roasting Equipment: Fluidized Bed


Fluidized Bed


Fluidized Bed: Combustion


Ni-S-O System

When nickel sulfide (NiS) is roasted in an oxygen bearing atmosphere,

nickel oxide (NiO) or nickel sulfate (NiSO4) is formed, depending on

temperature, pO2 and pSO2


Equilibrium constant data for different reactions in

Ni-S-O System


In a roaster operating

at total pressure of 1

atm, gas composition in

the range 3-10% O2

and 3-10% SO2, nickel

suphate will be

produced

If gas phase containing

1% O2 and 1% SO2,

nickel oxide will be

formed

Determine which phase

is most stable when log

pSO2 = -1 and log pO2 =

-12. Total pressure is 1

atm


Example 1:

Nickel sulfide concentrates with 60% NiS and 40% SiO2 are roasted in a

fluidized bed reactor using oxygen-enriched air. The composition of the gas

phase is found to be 10% SO2, 7.5% O2 and 82.5% N2. Temperature and

pressure in the reactor are steady at 1000°K and 1 atm. The roasted

product is found to contain 2.4% S.

a. Which solid phases are present in the solid product and in what

amount?

b. What is the oxygen content of the enriched air used in the operation?

c. How much air is required per 100 kg of concentrate?

d. How much heat is lost to the surroundings? (assume that the

concentrates and the air enter the reactor at 298°K and the gaseous

and solid products leave it at 1000°K)


Example 1

The following data are given:


Example 1: Solution, a.

Consider 100 kg of concentrates as basis:

Amount of Ni = 38.83 kg

Amount of S = 21.17 kg

Kmol of Ni = 0.6615

Gas phase contain SO2 and O2,

pSO2 = 0.1 atm, log pSO2 = -1

pO2 = 0.075 atm, log pO2 = -1.1249

From diagram, solid product = NiSO4

However, sulphur content in the roated product is too small (2.4%S).

The product may contain NiO and NiSO4


Example 1: Solution, a.

Suppose that the weight of roasted product is w kg

Amount of sulphur in the product = 0.024w kg

Kmol of sulphur =

Kmol of NiSO4 in product =

Kmol of Ni present as NiO = 0.6615 –

Amount of NiSO4 = kg

Amount of NiO = kg

Amount of SiO2 = 40 kg

89.42 + 0.06 w = w; w=

Product: NiO = 44.08 kg, NiSO4 = 11.04 kg, SiO2 = 40 kg


Example 1: Solution, b and c.

Suppose that the volume of enriched air supplied is y m3 at STP.

q is volume percent of O2 in dry air.

Volume of O2 supplied = 0.01 qy m3 at STP

Volume of N2 supplied = y -0.01 qy m3 at STP

Kmol O2 supplied = 0.01qy/22.4

Kmol N2 supplied = (y -0.01 qy)/22.4

Volume of gaseous products at STP from reactor is z m3

Volume of O2 in products = 0.075 z m3 at STP

Volume of SO2 in products = 0.1 z m3 at STP

Volume of N2 in products = 0.825 z m3 at STP



kmol of O2 in products = 0.075 z/22.4

kmol of SO2 in products = 0.1 z / 22.4

kmol of N2 in products = 0.825 z/22.4

Oxygen balance:

O2 input = O2 in gases (as O2 and SO2) + O2 as NiO + O2 as NiSO4

0.01 qy = 0.175 z + 9.8111

Nitrogen balance:

N2 input = N2 output (as O2 and SO2)

y - 0.01 qy = 0.825 z



sulphur balance:

S in NiS concentrate = S in NiSO4 + S in SO2

0.6615 = 0.07136 + 0.1 z / 22.4

z = 132.27 m3; y = 142.08 m3; q = 23.2 %(vol.)

Volume air required = 142.08 m3

Oxygen content of enriched air = 23.2%


Example 1: Solution, d

Reactions:

NiS + 3/2 O2 = NiO + SO2

NiS + 2O2 = NiSO4

Heat losses = 132 502 kJ


Cu-S-O System


Cu-S-O System

The purpose of copper

sulfides roasting is to produce

either CuO product or water

soluble CuSO4 product

T < 677°C CuSO4 is stable

T > 800°C CuO is stable

T ~ 677- 800°C CuO.

CuSO4 is stable


Fe-S-O System

If in concentrate copper contains

Fe, i.e. chalcopyrite (CuFeS2),

roasting temperature should be

considered:

At T > 677°C, Fe2O3 is stable!

For hydrometallurgy process:

Roasting temperature: 677-

800°C, product: CuO.CuSO4

and Fe2O3

In subsequent pyrometallurgy

process, the presence of

Fe2O3 (or Fe3O4) leads to

over oxidation condition.


8% SO2 and 4% O2,

CuSO4 and Co SO4

are stable

In case of Cu and Co

will be separated by

leaching, then

roasting operation

should be in area „A“


Pb-S-O System


Extraction of Mercury from Cinnabar

Mineral Cinnabar is a relatively pure form of HgS, the metal can be

obtained by direct oxidation:

HgS(s) + O2(g) = Hg(l) + SO2(g) DGo = -57000 – 8.6 T cal

Hg (l) = Hg(g) DGo = 14100 – 22.4 T cal

Or:

HgS(s) + O2(g) = Hg(g) + SO2(g) DGo = -42100 – 31.0 T cal


Roasting Flash Smelting

Zulfiadi Zulhan/Taufiq Hidayat/Imam Santoso 2021 MG3111 Pyrometallurgy

Terima kasih!Program Studi Teknik Metalurgi

Fakultas Teknik Pertambangan dan Perminyakan

Institut Teknologi Bandung

Jl. Ganesa No. 10

Bandung 40132

INDONESIA

www.metallurgy.itb.ac.id

Dr.-Ing. Zulfiadi Zulhan, ST., MT.

[email protected]

Taufiq Hidayat, ST., M.Phil., Ph.D.

[email protected]

D.Sc. (Tech.) Imam Santoso, ST., M.Phil

[email protected]

04. material preparation: agglome- ration, drying

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