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F R E E D O M O F R E L I G I O N

The scale and variety of acts of religious intolerance evident in so many

countries today are of enormous contemporary concern. This timely

study attempts a thorough and systematic treatment of both Universaland European practice side by side. The standards applicable to freedom

of religion are subjected to a detailed critique, and their development

and implementation within the UN is distinguished from that within

Strasbourg, in order to discern trends and obstacles to their advance-

ment and to highlight the rationale for any apparent departures between

the two systems. This dual focus also demonstrates the acute need for the

European Court to heed the warnings from various patterns of violation

throughout the world illustrated by the Human Rights Committee and

the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief.

P A U L M . T A Y L O R is a Barrister (Lincolns Inn).




F R E E D O M O F R E L I G I O NUN and European Human Rights Law and Practice

P A U L M . T A Y L O R




camde uvest pess

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, So Paulo

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CONTENTS

Forewordby David Harris page ix

Preface xi

Table of cases, applications, and communications xiii

Table of treaties, declarations, and other international

instruments xxiv

List of abbreviations xxvii

1 Introduction 1Overview 1

Interrelation between the UN and European systems 7

The institutions and their contribution to standard-setting 9

The Human Rights Committee 10

The Role of the Special Rapporteur 15

The European Convention treaty organs 16

Chapter structure 19

2 Freedom of religious choice 24

Introduction 24

Freedom to change or maintain religion 27

Pressure to maintain a religion or belief 43

Origin of the freedom from coercion 43

Interpretation of the freedom from coercion 45

Apostasy 50

Summary 53

Pressure to change religion 54

Introduction 54

Missionary activity, imperialist ambitions, colonialism and war 55

v




Social concern and inducements 57

Proselytism 64

Grounds of opposition to proselytism 64

Rights and freedoms of others 70

Coercion 73

Hate speech 77

Blasphemy, disparagement and gratuitous offence 84

Conclusion 111

3 The scope of the forum internum beyond religious

choice 115Introduction 115

Direct protection for the forum internum 120

Decisions based on justified limitation on manifestation 121

Decisions based on available alternatives 136

Exemption ruling out coercion 136

Employment 138

Decisions based on provision for interference in therelevant Convention 147

Military service 148

Taxation and social security 153

Recognition that coercion does not constitute

manifestation 156

Summary 159

Indirect protection for the forum internum 160The rights and freedoms of others as a ground of limitation 161

Education 165

Respect for parental convictions based on indoctrination 166

Alternative approaches: manifestation and

coercion to act contrary to ones beliefs 175

Summary 182

The use of anti-discrimination measures to protectthe forum internum 182

Differential treatment 187

Reasonable and objective criteria 192

Summary 198

Conclusion 198

vi C O N T E N T S




4 The right to manifest religious belief and applicable

limitations 203

Introduction 203

Beliefs and their manifestation 203

Protected beliefs 204

Nexus between religion or belief and its manifestation 210

Determination of whether there has been an interference 222

The scope of recognised manifestations of religion or belief 235

To worship or assemble in connection with a religion

or belief, and to establish and maintain places for

these purposes 237

Worship or assemble 237

Establish and maintain places of worship and assembly 242

To establish and maintain appropriate charitable

or humanitarian institutions 246

To make, acquire and use to an adequate extent the

necessary articles and materials related to the rites or customs

of a religion or belief 250To write, issue and disseminate relevant publications

in these areas 259

To teach a religion or belief in places suitable for these

purposes 263

To solicit and receive voluntary financial and other

contributions from individuals and institutions 271

To train, appoint, elect or designate by succession

appropriate leaders called for by the requirements and

standards of any religion or belief 272

To observe days of rest and to celebrate holidays

and ceremonies in accordance with the precepts of ones

religion or belief 278

To establish and maintain communications with

individuals and communities in matters of religion or belief

at the national and international levels 287Summary 290

Permissible limitations on the right to manifestation 292

Introduction 292

Prescribed by law 293

Legitimate aim 301

C O N T E N T S vii



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Necessary (in a democratic society) 305

Grounds of limitation 321

Public interest grounds of limitation 321

Public health and safety 321

Order 323

National security 325

Protection of morals 327

Fundamental rights and freedoms of others 328

Conclusion 333

5 Conclusion 339The myth surrounding the nature of coercion to change

religion or belief 339

Developing recognition of issues of conscience 342

The widening of State discretion in European jurisprudence 343

The range of manifestations of religion or belief 347

Meeting future challenges 348

Overview 350

Annexes 352

Annex 1: Universal Declaration of Human Rights 352

Annex 2: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 358

Annex 3: Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms

of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief 368

Annex 4: Convention for the Protection of Human Rights

and Fundamental Freedoms 372

Annex 5: Text of General Comment No. 22 378

Bibliography 383

Index 398

viii C O N T E N T S




FOREWORD

This study of the United Nations and European international humanrights law guaranteeing freedom of religion addresses issues of greatcontemporary concern. There are many places in the world where thefollowers of a particular religion may not lawfully worship or practisetheir religion in their daily lives. Apostacy and proselytism may becriminal acts, as may artistic speech that causes offence to religiousfeelings. Religious intolerance continues to fuel a high proportion ofthe situations of armed conflict around the world, thus being the see-mingly intractable cause of so much human suffering. Since 9/11,

incitement to religious hatred has increased in significance, withMuslims being the targets of general blame. Religion is as the heart ofthe debate about multiculturalism, exemplified by the heated contro-versy in France about the wearing of headscarves by Muslim women.The relationship between Church and State remains a contentious issuein some other societies. In a watershed and contentious judgment inRefah Partisi v. Turkey, the European Court of Human Right has ruledthat a state legal order that is founded on Shariah Law is not consistentwith democracy in Europe, so that the banning of a political party thatseeks to introduce such an order is not in breach of the guarantee of theright to freedom of association in the European Convention on HumanRights. And the return to strict Christian religious values in the UnitedStates has raised moral questions and issues of separation of Church andState for the courts.

This book is likely to become the place of first recourse on the

international human rights law on freedom of religion that governthese and other situations and issues. It offers a comprehensive analysisand evaluation of the relevant international law standards that haveevolved within the United Nations and the Council of Europe. Thebook is distinctive in its reliance upon both the sometimes differing jurisprudence and practice of the United Nations and European humanrights systems. At the United Nations level, what is of great value is the

ix




authors use not only of the practice of the Human Rights Committee,but also of the reports of the UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom ofReligion or Belief. These reports are a depressingly revealing mine of

information about the large extent and different forms of the ongoingviolations of freedom of religion perpetrated or tolerated by Statesaround the world.

D A V I D H A R R I S

Professor Emeritus and Co-Director of theHuman Rights Law Centre,

School of Law,University of Nottingham

April 2005

x F O R E W O R D




PREFACE

The escalating religious intolerance of recent years, both through Stateviolation and by non-State entities, is most conspicuous in events followingthe collapse of the former Soviet Union, in religious conflict in many partsof the world and, of course, in the attacks of 11 September 2001. This hascaused speculation whether the international instruments which weredeveloped more than half a century ago, and those which followed butwere shaped by those instruments, are sufficient to meet present andforeseeable demands. The array of religious violations visible in so manycountries today could not have been anticipated by the drafters of the core

freedom of religion Articles in the foundational instruments, namely theUniversal Declaration on Human Rights and the European Convention.The development of comparable provisions in later instruments, such asthe International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the UnitedNations Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and ofDiscrimination based on Religion or Belief (the 1981 Declaration), sug-gests that the issues which fashioned the text of those later provisions didnot depart significantly from those faced by the original drafters, exceptperhaps in the intensity with which they were debated.

Among recent patterns of violation, particularly in countries of the formerSoviet Union, are measures such as prohibitive registration formalities andbans on proselytism aimed at the protection of a traditional State religion orthe preservation of national identity in reaction to the influx of new religiousmovements. Many other countries have recently adopted preventive policiesagainst so-called sects as a result of exaggerated fears of their activities. The

xenophobia and discrimination directed at Muslims following September 11has been far more widespread and anxieties about extremism have, forexample, led various countries to react more unfavourably than ever towardsMuslim dress. Hostility towards Muslims has added impetus to moves whichhad already begun in certain countries for legislation designed to prohibitreligious vilification or religious hatred. It remains to be seen whether thiswill be at the expense of religious practice such as teaching and proselytism.

xi




One other development of recent years has been the emergence of politicalparties with an overtly religious agenda, the most radical advocating theintroduction of a system of government based on religious law.

It is therefore timely to reflect on whether existing instruments arecapable of meeting immediate expectations and, as we approach the25th anniversary of the 1981 Declaration, to consider in particular thecontribution to the development of current standards made by thatDeclaration and by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion orbelief appointed to examine incidents and governmental action incon-sistent with the Declaration. The 1981 Declaration is of unique signifi-cance in the development of the freedom of religion since it was the first,and remains the only, United Nations instrument dedicated solely tothat freedom. This work pays tribute to the specialist role of the SpecialRapporteur in providing a wealth of material on recurring patterns ofviolation worldwide and in serving to uncover contemporary sources ofintolerance and obstacles to the promotion of international obligations.

The purpose of this book is to provide a detailed survey of the elementsof the freedom of thought, conscience and religion as developed within

both the United Nations and European systems and to offer an analysis oftrends at a time when the freedom faces a number of important challenges.It provides a critique of United Nations and European practice in order toidentify and explain apparent departures between the two systems, to helpto discern obstacles to the advancement of standards and to guage the levelof recognition given to different aspects of the freedom. The aim is toenable an immediate appreciation of the United Nations or Europeansystem for those familiar with only one, and to provide coverage of thelaw and practice of both United Nations and European institutions forthose familiar with neither system.

I would like to acknowledge and thank Professor David Harris, whohas been extremely generous in his support for this work and whoseassistance I value enormously. I would also like to thank, among manyothers who have helped in its preparation, the librarians at CambridgeUniversitys Squire Law Library for their patient assistance with many

queries and the kind provision of facilities beyond all expectation. I amalso greatly indebted to Wolfson College Cambridge for a VisitingFellowship that offered a stimulating environment for the completionof this work, to Finola OSullivan of Cambridge University Press whothroughout has never been anything but extremely helpful, and to theanonymous referees appointed by Cambridge University Press for theirvery useful recommendations for improvement of the text.

xii P R E F A C E




TABLE OF CASES, APPLICATIONS, ANDCOMMUNICATIONS

The European Court of Human RightsAbdulaziz, Cabales and Balkandali v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 94

(1985) ECtHR 186Agga v. Greece (App. Nos 50776/99 and 52912/99), Judgment of

7 October 2002 276Ahmet Sadikv. Greece (1997) 24 EHRR323 270Barthold v. Germany (Ser. A) No. 90 (1985) ECtHR 270

Baskaya and Okcuoglu v. Turkey (2001) 31 EHRR292 207Beard v. United Kingdom (2001) 33 EHRR 442 243Buckleyv. United Kingdom (1997) 23 EHRR101 242Buscarini and others v. San Marino (2000) 30(2) EHRR208 129, 130,

159, 199, 302, 345Case relating to certain aspects of the laws on the use of languages in

education in Belgium (the Belgian linguistics case) (Ser. A) No. 6(1968) ECtHR 167, 183, 185

Campbell and Cosans v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 48 (1982)ECtHR 128, 166, 173

Canea Catholic Church v. Greece (1999) 27 EHRR521 226Casimiro Martins v. Luxembourg (App. No. 44888/98, unreported,

decision of27 April 1999) 173Chaare Shalom Ve Tsedekv. France (App. No. 27417/95), Judgment of

11 July2000 21819, 224, 226, 258, 322

Chapman v. United Kingdom (2001) 33 EHRR399 242Chassagnou and others v. France (2000) 29 EHRR615 186Dahlab v. Switzerland (App. No. 42393/98), Judgment of15 February

2001 172, 254, 304, 331, 334, 337Dudgeon v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 45 (1982) ECtHR 310Efstratiou v. Greece (1997) 24 EHRR298 117, 173Engel v. The Netherlands (Ser. A) No. 22 (1976) ECtHR 142

xiii




Eriksson v. Sweden (Ser. A) No. 156 (1989) ECtHR 167Freedom and Democracy Party (OZDEP) v. Turkey (2001)

31 EHRR674 227

Groppera Radio AG and others v. Switzerland (Ser. A) No. 173A(1990) ECtHR 162

Handyside v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 24 (1976) ECtHR 94,185, 308

Hasan and Chaush v. Bulgaria (2002) 34(6) EHRR1339 228,2735, 277, 294, 296, 299, 311, 335, 348, 350

Hoffmann v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 255C (1993) ECtHR 269Holy Monasteries v. Greece (Ser. A) No. 301 (1995) ECtHR 230, 252Incal v. Turkey (2000) 29 EHRR449 207Informationsverein Lentia and others v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 276,

Judgment of24 November 1993 92Inze v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 126 (1988) ECtHR 186Jersild v. Denmark (Ser. A) No. 289 (1995) ECtHR 80Johnston v. Ireland (Ser. A) No. 112 (1987) ECtHR 283Kalac v. Turkey (1999) 27 EHRR552 1434, 217, 318, 345

Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v. Denmark (the Danish sexeducation case) (Ser. A) No. 23 (1976) ECtHR 116, 166, 167,168, 170, 171, 172, 201

Kokkinakis v. Greece (Ser. A) No. 260A (1993) ECtHR 39, 50,6770, 73, 86, 90, 96, 101, 112, 129, 163, 164, 168, 208, 217,225, 264, 267, 273, 294, 298, 302, 308, 330, 335, 340, 349

Larissis and others v. Greece (Ser. A) No. 65 (1998V) ECtHR363 66, 70, 98, 112, 171, 294, 309, 334, 341

Lotter and Lotter v. Bulgaria (App. No. 39015/97), Judgment of19 May 2004 289

McGuinness v. United Kingdom (App. No. 39511/98 unreported,decision of8 June, 1999) 130

Maestri v. Italy (App. No. 42393/98), Judgment of17 February2004 296, 335

Malone v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 82 (1984) ECtHR 294

Manoussakis and others v. Greece (1997) 23 EHRR387 50, 503,126, 233, 242, 299, 302, 303, 310, 324, 328, 335, 349

Marckxv. Belgium (Ser. A) No. 31 (1979) ECtHR 186Metropolitan Church of Bessarabia and others v. Moldova (2002)

35 EHRR306 2224, 225, 230, 234, 240, 245, 246, 247, 271,2727, 291, 299, 303, 308, 312, 313, 324, 335, 337, 338, 350

xiv T A B L E O F C A S E S




Muller v. Switzerland (Ser. A) No. 133 (1988) ECtHR 978Murphyv. Ireland (App. No. 44179/98) (2004) 38 EHRR

212 89, 98, 11314, 163, 304, 309, 325

Olsson v. Sweden (Ser. A) No. 130 (1988) ECtHR 294Otto-Preminger-Institut v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 295A (1994) ECtHR

857, 99, 11314, 162, 164, 343Palau-Martinez v. France (App. No. 64927/01), Judgment of16

December 2003 269Plattform Arzte fur das Leben v. Austria (Ser. A) No. 139 (1988) ECtHRPrettyv. United Kingdom (2002) 35 EHRR1 207, 208, 216Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and others v. Turkey (2003) 37

EHRR1 229, 314, 335Riera Blume and others v. Spain (2000) 30 EHRR632 332Serifv. Greece (1999) 31 EHRR561 164, 218, 2756, 277, 312,

325, 335, 336, 349Sidiropoulos v. Greece (1999) 27 EHRR633 229, 302, 304Socialist Party and others v. Turkey (1999) 27 EHRR51 317Stankov and the United Macedonian Organisation Ilinden v. Bulgaria

(1998) 26 EHRR, CD 103 302The Sunday Times Case (Ser. A) No. 30 (1979) ECtHR 294The Sunday Times v. United Kingdom (No. 2) (1992) 14 EHRR229 308Supreme Holy Council of the Muslim Communityv. Bulgaria (App. No.

39023/97), Judgment of16 December 2004Thlimmenos v. Greece (2001) 31 EHRR411 18990, 201, 295,

336, 348Tsirlis and Kouloumpas v. Greece (1998) 25 EHRR198 150, 193United Christian Broadcasters Ltd v. United Kingdom (App. No.

44802), Judgment of7 November 2000 92United Communist Party of Turkey and others v. Turkey (1998) 26 EHRR

121 304, 313, 314Vatan v. Russia (App. No. 47978/99), Judgment of7 October 2004 81VgT Verein Gegen Tierfabriken v. Switzerland (App. No. 24699/94),

Judgment of28 June 2001 92, 923

Valsamis v. Greece (1997) 24 EHRR294 117, 172, 1756, 282Vogt v. Germany (Ser. A) No. 323A (1995) ECtHR 99Wingrove v. United Kingdom (1997) 24 EHRR1 8792, 967,

113, 328Young, James and Webster v. United Kingdom (Ser. A) No. 44 (1981)

ECtHR 174

T A B L E O F C A S E S xv




The European Commission of Human Rights

Angeleni v. Sweden, App. No. 10491/83 (1986) 51 D&R 41 128,

166, 192, 208Arrowsmith v. United Kingdom, App. No. 7050/75 (1980) 19

D&R 5 123, 128, 12930, 174, 207, 210Autio v. Finland, App. No. 17086/90 (1991) 72 D&R 245 193B. and D. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 9303/81 (1986) 49 D&R

44 167

Bernard and others v. Luxembourg, App. No. 17187/90 (1993)75 D&R 57 174, 192

C. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 10358/83 (1983) 37 D&R142 124,126, 154, 157, 214, 215, 247, 252

Chappell, A.R.M. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 12587/86 (1987)53 D&R 241 240, 331, 337

Childs v. United Kingdom, App. No. 9813/82, decision of1 March1983 unpublished, Council of Europe Digest of StrasbourgCase-Law relating to the European Convention on Human Rights,

Section 9.2.1.1, p. 1 239, 324Choudhuryv. United Kingdom, App. No. 17439/90 (1991)

12 HRLJ 172 85Christians against Racism and Fascism v. United Kingdom, App. No.

8440/78 (1980) 21 D&R138 323, 336Church of Scientology and 128 of its members v. Sweden, App. No.

8282/78 (1980) 21 D&R109 100Church of X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 3798/68 (1968) 29

CD 70 289C. J., J. J. & E. J. v. Poland, App. No. 23380/94 84A (1996) D&R46

176, 346Conscientious objectors v. Denmark, App. No. 7565/76 (1978)

9 D&R 117 148D. v. France, App. No. 10180/82 (1983) 35 D&R 199 283Darbyv. Sweden (Ser. A) No. 187 (1990) ECtHR, annex to the decision

of the Court 39, 41, 116, 127, 156, 160, 199, 342E. & G. R. v. Austria, App. No. 9781/82 (1984) 37 D&R42 40, 137East African Asians cases, App. No. 4403/70 etc (1981) EHRR76, 36

CD, 92 165, 186Gay News Ltd and Lemon v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8710/79

(1982) 5 EHRR123 84, 96, 99

xvi T A B L E O F C A S E S




Glimmerveen and Hagenbeekv. The Netherlands, App. No. 8348/78and 8406/78 (1979) 18 D&R 187 80

Gottesmann v. Switzerland, App. No. 101616/83 (1984) 40 D&R

284 3941, 341Grandrath v. Germany, App. No. 2299/64, 10 YBECHR (1967)

626 149, 193Gudmundsson v. Iceland, App. No. 511/59, 3 Yearbook (1960) 394 154Hazar and Acikv. Turkey, App. Nos. 16311/90, 16312/90 and 16313/

90 (1992) 73 D&R 111 (settlement); (1991) 72 D&R 200(admissibility) 128, 207, 208

Iglesia Bautista El Salvador and Ortega Moratilla v. Spain, App. No.17522/90 (1992) 72 D&R 256

ISCON and others v. United Kingdom, App. No. 20490/92 (1994) 90D&R 90 242, 243

Johansen v. Norway, App. No. 10600/83 (1985) 44 D&R 155 148Karaduman v. Turkey, App. No. 16278/90 (1993) 74 D&R 93 144,

215, 2534, 318, 337, 349Karlsson v. Sweden, App. No. 12356/86 (1988) 57 D&R172 1401

Khan v. United Kingdom, App. No. 11579/85 (1986) 48 D&R253 213, 283

Knudsen v. Norway, App. No. 11045/84 (1985) 42 D&R247 129,13941, 212, 220

Kommunistische Partei Deutschland v. Germany, App. No. 250/57,1 Yearbook (19557) 222 165

Konttinen v. Finland, App. No. 24949/94 (1996) 87 D&R 68 158,1889

Kuhnen v. Germany, App. No. 12194/86 (1988) 56 D&R 205Kustannus Oy Vapaa Ajattelija AB and others v. Finland, App. No.

20471/92, 85A (1996) D&R29 226Logan v. United Kingdom, App. No. 24875/94 (1996) 22 EHRR, CD

178 241

Marais v. France, App. No. 31159/96 (1996) 86 D&R 184 81N. v. Sweden, App. No. 10410/83 (1985) 40 D&R 203 148, 193

Omkarananda and the Divine Light Zentrum v. United Kingdom, App.No. 8188/77 (1981) 25 D&R 105 58, 273

Ortega Moratilla v. Spain, App. No. 17522/90 (1992) 72 D&R256 157Plattform Arzte fur das Leben v. Austria, App. No. 10126/82 (1985)

44 D&R 65 1001, 128, 208Raninen v. Finland, App. No. 20972/92, 84A (1996) D&R17 193

T A B L E O F C A S E S xvii




Reformed Church of X. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 1497/62, 5Yearbook (1962) 286 1367, 1545

Scientology Kirche Deutschland v. Germany, App. No. 34614/96, 89A

(1997) D&R163Seven Individuals v. Sweden, App. No. 8811/79 (1982) 29 D&R

104 167, 268Stedman v. United Kingdom, App. No. 29107/95, 89A (1997) D&R

104 144, 158, 189, 241, 282Suter v. Switzerland, App. No. 11595/85 (1986) 51 D&R 160 193T. v. Belgium, App. No. 9777/82 (1983) 34 D&R 158 81V. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 10678/83 (1984) 39 D&R

267 126, 215Van den Dungen v. The Netherlands, App. No. 22838/93 (1995) 80

D&R 147 99100, 160, 188Van de Heijden v. The Netherlands, App. No. 11002/84 (1985) 41

D&R 264Verein Kontakt-Information-Therapie and Hagen v. Austria, App. No.

11921/86 (1988) 57 D&R 81

W. & D.M. and M. and H.I. v. United Kingdom, App. Nos. 10228/82and 10229/82 (joined) (1984) 37 D&R 96 171

X. v. Austria, App. No. 1747/62 (1963) 13 CD 42 326X. v. Austria, App. No. 1753/63 8 Yearbook (1965) 174 256, 324X. v. Austria, App. No. 5591/72 (1973) CD 43 161X. v. Austria, App. No. 8652/79 (1981) 26 D&R 89 228X. v. Denmark, App. No. 7374/76 (1976) 5 D&R157 48, 1389, 145X. v. Denmark, App. No. 7465/76 (1977) 7 D&R153 289X. v. Germany, App. No. 2413/65 (1966) 23 CD 1 224X. v. Germany, App. No. 7705/76 (1977) 9 D&R 196 148X. v. Germany, App. No. 8410/78 (1980) 18 D&R 216 184X. v. Germany, App. No. 8682/79 (1981) 26 D &R 97 239X. v. Germany, App. No. 8741/79 (1981) 24 D&R 137 208, 285X. v. Germany, App. No. 9235/817 (1982) 29 D&R 194 81X. and Y. v. Germany, App No. 7641/76 (1976) 10 D&R 224 142

X. v. Iceland, App. No. 2525/65 (1967) 18 CD 33X. v. Italy, App. No. 6741/74 (1976) 5 D&R 83 79X. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 1068/61, 5 Yearbook (1962)

278 122

X. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 2065/63, 8 Yearbook (1965)266 137, 155

xviii T A B L E O F C A S E S




X. v. The Netherlands, App. No. 2988/66, 10 Yearbook (1967)472 332

X. v. Sweden, App. No. 9820/82 (1984) 5 EHRR297 100, 270, 331

X. and the Church of Scientologyv. Sweden, App. No. 7805/77 (1979)16 D&R 68 226, 252

X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 5442/72 (1975) 1 D&R 41 260,324, 334, 337

X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 6084/73 (1975) 3 D&R 62X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 6886/75 (1976) 5 D&R 100 251X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 7291/75 (1977) 11 D&R 55X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 7992/77 (1978) 14 D&R 234 256X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8010/77 (1979) 16 D&R 101 267,

330

X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8160/78 (1981) 22 D&R27 1445,147, 177, 188, 211, 225, 241, 247, 267, 337

X. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8231/78 (1982) 28 D&R 5 256X., Y. and Z. v. United Kingdom, App. No. 8566/79 (1982) 31

D&R 50 167

Yanasikv. Turkey, App. No. 14524/89 (1993) 74 D&R14 141, 217,318, 345

Views and Decisions of the Human Rights Committee

A group of associations for the defence of the rights of disabled andhandicapped persons in Italy, and persons signing thecommunication, on 9th January1984 v. Italy, CommunicationNo. 163/1984 (decision 10 April 1984), UN Doc. A/39/40(1984), p. 197 226

A. and S. N. v. Norway, Communication No. 224/1987 (decision of11July1988), UN Doc. A/43/40 (1988), p. 246 1789

Ahani v. Canada, Communication No. 1051/2002 (views of29 March2004), UN Doc. A/59/40 vol. 2 (2004), p. 260 52

Arenz v. Germany, Communication No. 1138/2002 (decision of24

March 2004), UN Doc. A/59/40 vol. 2 (2004), p. 548B.d.B. et al. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 273/1988 (decision

of30 March 1989), UN Doc. A/44/40 (1989), p. 286 191Bhinder K. Singh v. Canada, Communication No. 208/1986 (views of

9 November 1989), UN Doc. A/45/40 vol. 2 (1990), p. 501323, 146, 191, 240, 257, 332

T A B L E O F C A S E S xix




Boodoo v. Trinidad and Tobago, Communication No. 721/1997 (viewsof2 August 2002), UN Doc. A/57/40 vol. 2 (2002), p. 76 135,239, 257

Brinkhofv. The Netherlands, Communication No. 402/1990 (decisionof 27 July1993), UN Doc. A/48/40 vol. 2 (1993), (1994) 14HRLJ 410 193, 345

Broeks, S. W. M. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 172/1984(views of9 April 1987), UN Doc. A/42/40 (1987), p. 139 187

Buckle v. New Zealand, Communication No. 858/1999 (views of25 October 2000), A/56/40, p. 175 269

C. v. Australia, Communication No. 900/1999 (views of28 October2002) UN Doc. A/58/40 vol. 2 (2003), p. 188 52

Coeriel, A. R. and M. A. R. Aurikv. The Netherlands, CommunicationNo. 453/1991 (views of31 October 1994), UN Doc A/50/40 vol.2 (1999), p. 21 1334, 279

Danning, L. G. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 180/1984(views of9 April 1987), UN Doc. A/42/40 (1987), p. 151 183

De Groot, Leonardus J. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 578/

1994 (decision of14 July1995), UN Doc. A/50/40 vol. 2 (1999),p. 179 1312

E.P. et al. v. Colombia, Communication No. 318/1988 (decision of15 July1990), UN Doc. A/45/40 (1990), p. 184 278

E.W. et al. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 429/1990(decision of8 April 1993), UN Doc. A48/40 vol. 2 (1993),p. 198

Faurisson, Robert v. France, Communication No. 550/1993 (views of8 November 1996), UN Doc. A/52/40 vol. 2 (1999), p. 84 82,83, 108, 298, 300

Foin, Frederic v. France, Communication No. 666/1995 (views of3 November 1999), (2000) 7(2) IHRR354 194, 346

G.T. v. Canada, Communication No. 420/1990 (decision of22 March1990), (1994) 1(1) IHRR46 146

H.A.E.d.J. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 297/1988

(decision of30 October 1989), UN Doc. A/45/40 vol. 2 (1990),p. 176 191

Hartikainen v. Finland, Communication No. 40/1978 (views of9 April1981), UN Doc. A/36/40 (1981), p. 147 17881

Hertzberg and others v. Finland, Communication No. R.14/61 (views of2 April 1982), UN Doc. A/37/40 (1982), p. 161 186, 327

xx T A B L E O F C A S E S




Hopu, Francis and Tepoaitu Bessert v. France, Communication No.549/1993 (views of29 July1997), UN Doc. A/52/40 vol. 2(1999), p. 70 238, 240

J.v.K. and C.M.G.v.K.-S. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 483/1991(decision of23 July1992), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1994), p. 435 155

Jansen-Gielen v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 846/1999(views of3 April 2001), UN Doc. A/56/40 vol. 2, p. 158 267

J.H.W. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 501/1992 (decision of16 July1993) (1994) 1(2) IHRR39 187

J.P. v. Canada, Communication No. 466/1991 (decision of7 November1991), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1994), p. 426 155, 220

J.P.K. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 401/1990 (decision of7 November 1991), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1994), p. 405 151

J.R.T. and the W.G. Partyv. Canada, Communication No. 104/1981(decision of6 April 1983), UN Doc. A38/40 (1983), p. 231 79

Jarvinen, Aapo v. Finland, Communication No. 295/1988 (views of25 July1990), UN Doc. A/45/40 vol. 2 (1990), p. 101 194

Kang v. Korea, Communication No. 878/1999 (views of15 July2003),

UN Doc. A/58/40 vol. 2 (2003), p. 152 32Kitokv. Sweden, Communication No.197/1985 (views of27 July1988),

UN Doc. A/43/40 (1988), p. 221 279Kivenmaa, Auli v. Finland, Communication No. 412/1990 (views of

31 March 1994) (1994) 1(3) IHRR88 300K.V. and C.V. v. Germany, Communication No. 568/1993 (decision of

8 April 1994), UN Doc. A/49/40, vol. 2 (1994), p. 365 155Lansman, Jouni E. et al. v. Finland, Communication No. 671/1995

(views of30 October 1996), UN Doc. A/52/40 vol. 2 (1999),p. 191 279

L.T.K. v. Finland, Communication No. 185/1984 (decision of9 July1985), UN Doc. A/40/40 (1985), p. 240 148, 150, 151

M.A. v. Italy, Communication No. 117/81 (decision of10 April 1984),UN Doc. A/39/40 (1984), p. 190 7980

M.A.B., W.A.T. and J.-A.Y.T. v. Canada, Communication No. 570/

1993 (decision of8 April 1994), UN Doc. A/49/40, vol. 2 (1994),p. 368 128, 209, 238, 251

M.B.B. v. Sweden, Communication No. 104/1998, UN Doc. CAT/C/22/D/104/1998 (views of5 May1999) (2000) 7(2) IHRR400

M.J.G. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 267/1987 (decision of24 March 1988), UN Doc. A/43/40 (1988), p. 271 1901

T A B L E O F C A S E S xxi




Maille, Richard v. France, Communication No. 689/1996 (views of10July2000) (2000) 7(4) IHRR947 148

Mathews, Patterson v. Trinidad and Tobago, Communication No. 569/

1993 (views of31 March 1998), UN Doc. A/53/40 (1998),p. 30 1345, 257

Nam v. Korea, Communication No. 693/1996 (decision of28 July2003), UN Doc. A/58/40 vol. 2 (2003), p. 390 180

Paez, W. Delgado v. Colombia, Communication No. 195/1985 (viewsof12 July1990), UN Doc. A/45/40 vol. 2 (1990), p. 43 1456,267

Palandjian v. Hungary, Communication No. 1106/2002 (decision of30 March 2004), UN Doc. A/59/40 vol. 2 (2004), p. 534

Park, Tae-Hoon v. Korea, Communication No. 628/1995 (views of20 October 1998) (1999) 6(3) IHRR623 165, 210, 293, 325

P.S. v. Denmark, Communication No. 397/1990 (decision of22 July1992), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1992), p. 395 268

Riley et al. v. Canada, Communication No. 1048/2002 (decision of21 March 2002), UN Doc. A/57/40 vol. 2 (2002), p. 356 257

Ross, Malcolm v. Canada, Communication No. 736/1997 (views of18 October, 2000), UN Doc. A/56/40 vol. 2 (2001), p. 69 82,207, 221, 222, 260, 263, 3001, 304, 307, 329

Sanles Sanles v. Spain, Communication No. 1024/2001 (decision of30March 2004), UN Doc. A/59/40 vol. 2 (2004), p. 505

Somers, Ivan v. Hungary, Communication No. 566/1993, (views of23 July1996), UN Doc. A/51/40 vol. 2, (1997), p. 144 183

T.W.M.B. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 403/1990(decision of7 November 1991), UN Doc. A/47/40 (1994),p. 411 151

Vakoume, Mathieu and others v. France, Communication No. 822/1998 (decision of31 October 2000), UN Doc. A/56/40 vol. 2,p. 249 238

Van der Ent, Gerrit v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 657/1995(decision of3 November 1995), UN Doc. A/51/40 vol. 2 (1997),

p. 276 132Waldman, Arieh Hollis v. Canada, Communication No. 694/1996

(views of3 November 1999) (2000) 7(2) IHRR368 178, 179,181, 192, 2667

Westerman, Paul v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 682/1996(views of3 November 1999) (2000) 7(2) IHRR363

xxii T A B L E O F C A S E S




X. v. Australia, Communication No. 557/1993 (decision of16 July1996),UN Doc. A/51/40 vol. 2 (1997), p. 235

Zundel v. Canada, Communication No. 953/2000 (decision of27 July

2003), UN Doc. A/58/40 vol. 2 (2003), p. 483 82Zwaan-de Vries, F.W. v. The Netherlands, Communication No. 182/

1984 (views of9 April 1987), UN Doc. A/42/40 (1987),p. 160 183

The Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina v. The RepublikaSrpska, Case No. CH/96/29 (decision of11 June 1999) (2000)7(3) IHRR833 244, 246

Mahmutovic, Dzevad v. The Republika Srpska, Case No. CH/98/892(decision of8 October 1999) (2000) 7(3) IHRR869 284

T A B L E O F C A S E S xxiii




TABLE OF TREATIES, DECLARATIONS, AND OTHERINTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948), GA Res. 217A(III),UN Doc. A/3/810 (1949) 203, 3528

Article 18 1, 4, 7, 235, 355

drafting history 24Article 29 206, 293, 357

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights andFundamental Freedoms (1950), 213 UNTS 221 372

Article 1 317Article 2 165, 1669Article 4 149

Article6 227

Article 8 1767Article 9 2, 4, 7, 17, 22, 26, 72, 757, 100, 116, 201, 204, 244, 284,

306, 313, 317, 330, 3434, 347, 349, 3501gratuitously profane expressions 956legal obligation 121proselytism 112

Article 10 80, 106, 108, 113, 170, 2045, 328, 330, 3434

Article 11 1001, 227, 311, 314Article 12 283Article 14 183, 18990Article 17 80, 101, 165, 313Article 25 17Article 26 17Article 27 17

Article 52 18discretion to states under 185limitation 161Protocol 11 16, 384publications 263

Convention on Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers forWork of Equal Value (1951), 165 UNTS 257 183

xxiv




Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (1958),362 UNTS 31 183

UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960),

429 UNTS 93 183International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial

Discrimination (1965), 660 UNTS 195 9, 80International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), 999 UNTS

171 1015, 36, 156, 203, 35868Article 2 12, 18, 47, 183, 359Article 5 46, 79, 101, 360Article 6 51, 361Article 17 165, 365Article 18 1, 4, 8, 9, 1113, 14, 15, 19, 22, 28, 435, 51,

63, 78, 151, 165, 177, 194, 206, 220, 269, 306, 323,325, 365

Article 19 221, 305, 366Article 20 77, 101, 305, 366Article 25 46, 368

Article 26 183, 190, 368Article 31 11Article 40 10, 11, 13Articles 110 12limitation 161Optional Protocol 79, 82

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights(1966), 993 UNTS 3 36

International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of theCrime of Apartheid (1973), 1015 UNTS 243 184

Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights (1976), 999 UNTS 171 10, 14, 15, 79, 1312

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination againstWomen (1979), 1249 UNTS 13 184

Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance and of

Discrimination based on Religion or Belief (1981), GA Res. 36/55,UN Doc. A/36/51 (1982) 2, 4, 8, 15, 26, 35, 56, 36872

Article 1 4, 5, 369Article 6 22, 66, 204, 221, 226, 235, 236, 262, 329, 334, 336,

347, 371Article 8 28, 372

T A B L E O F T R E A T I E S xxv




Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or DegradingTreatment or Punishment (1984), 1465 UNTS 3

article 3 51

Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), 1577 UNTS 3 34Protocol 11 to the European Convention on Human Rights and

Fundamental Freedoms (1994), 155 ETSEuropean Framework Convention for the Protection of National

Minorities (1995), 157 ETS 5, 18, 250, 259, 276, 279

xxvi T A B L E O F T R E A T I E S




ABBREVIATIONS

AC Appeal CasesAIR All India ReporterAm J Intl L American Journal of International LawBrigham Young UL Rev Brigham Young University Law ReviewBYBIL British Yearbook of International LawCambridge LJ Cambridge Law JournalCase W Res J Intl L Case Western Reserve Journal of

International LawCD Collected Decisions of the European

Commission of Human RightsCHR Commission on Human RightsCIL Contemporary Issues in LawCon & Lib Conscience & LibertyCornell Intl LJ Cornell International Law JournalEcc LJ Ecclesiastical Law JournalEc Rev Ecumenical ReviewECtHR European Court of Human Rights

Judgments and DecisionsEd & Law Education and the LawEHRLR European Human Rights Law Review EHRR European Human Rights ReportsEmory Intl L Rev Emory International Law ReviewEmp Lawyer Employment LawyerESCOR United Nations Economic and Social

Council Official RecordsETS European Treaty SeriesEur L Rev European Law ReviewGA Res. General Assembly ResolutionGAOR General Assembly Official RecordsHarv Intl LJ Harvard International Law JournalHarv L Rev Harvard Law Review

xxvii




Harv WLJ Harvard Womens Law JournalHR & UKP Human Rights and UK PracticeHRLJ Human Rights Law Journal

HRQ Human Rights QuarterlyHRJ Human Rights JournalICCPR International Covenant on Civil and

Political Rights (1966)IHRR International Human Rights ReportsILM International Legal MaterialsInt JLP & F International Journal of Law, Policy and

the FamilyIntl & Comp Law Q International and Comparative Law

QuarterlyIntl Bull Miss Res International Bulletin of Missionary

ResearchIntl Commn Jurists Rev Review, International Commission of

JuristsIsr YB Hum Rts Israel Yearbook on Human Rights

J Church & St Journal of Church and StateJ Civ Lib Journal of Civil LibertiesJ Soc Wel Law Journal of Social Welfare LawKCLJ Kings College Law JournalMed Sc & L Medicine, Science and the LawNeth Intl L Rev Netherlands International Law ReviewNLJ New Law JournalNorthern Ireland LQ Northern Ireland Legal QuarterlyNorthw UL Rev Northwestern University Law ReviewNYUJ Intl L & Pol New York University Journal of

International Law and PoliticsODIHR Office for Democratic Institutions and

Human RightsOSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation

in Europe, formerly the Conference for

Security and Co-operation in EuropeOxford J Leg Stud Oxford Journal of Legal StudiesPac Rim L & Poly J Pacific Rim Law and Policy JournalPat of Prej Patterns of PrejudicePL Public LawPlen. Mtg Plenary Meeting

xxviii L I S T O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S




Pol Quart Political QuarterlyRADIC African Journal of International and

Comparative Law

Rat Jur Ratio JurisRCADI Receuil des Cours de lAcademie de Droit

International de la HayeSanta Clara L Rev Santa Clara Law ReviewSCR Supreme Court ReportsU Chicago L Rev University of Chicago Law ReviewUN United NationsUNTS UN Treaty SeriesVand J Transnatl L Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational LawVirginia J Intl L Virginia Journal of International LawWCRP World Conference on Religion and PeaceWilliam Mary L Rev William and Mary Law ReviewWLR Weekly Law ReportsYBECHR Yearbook of the European Commission

of Human Rights

Yearbook Yearbook of the European Conventionon Human Rights

L I S T O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S xxix




1

In t rodu c t i on

Overview

A n a p p r a i s a l o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c o n t e n t o f t h e f r e e d o m o f t h o u g h t ,c on sc ie nc e a nd r el ig i on h as n ev er b ee n m or e c ha ll en gi n g. E ve nt s s in cet h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e f o r m e r S o v i e t U n i o n a n d t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e a t t a c k so f 1 1 S ep te mb er 2 00 1 h av e c on fr o nt ed t he t ra di ti on al c on ce pt o f f r ee -d o m o f r e l i g i o n w i t h a n e n t i r e l y n e w r a n g e o f d e m a n d s . T h e s e c o u l d n o th av e b ee n a nt ic ip at ed b y t he d ra ft er s o f t he c or e f re ed om o f r el ig io nA r t i c l e s i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s . I n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s c o n t e x tt h e s e are Ar t ic l e 1 8 o f t h e Un i v er sa l D ec la ra ti on o n H um an R ig ht s( th e Un iv er sa l D ec la ra ti o n )1 a nd Ar ti c l e 1 8 o f th e I n t e rn a t io n a lC ov en an t o n C iv il a nd P oli ti ca l R ig ht s ( t he I CC PR ) .2 W it hi n t he

1 Th e f u l l t e x t o f t h e U n i v e rsa l D e c l a ra t i o n i s a t A n n e x 1 . A rt i c l e 1 8 o f t h e U n i v e rsa lD e c l a r a t i o n r e a d s a s f o l l o w s :

E ve ry o ne h as t h e r i gh t t o f r ee do m o f t h ou gh t , c o ns c ie nc e a nd r el ig i on ; t h isr i gh t i n cl ud e s f r ee do m t o c ha ng e h is r e li gi o n o r b e li ef , a n d f r ee do m , e it h er

a lo ne o r i n c om mu ni ty w it h o th er s a nd i n p ub li c o r p ri va te , t o m an if es t h isr e l i g i o n o r b e l i e f i n t e a c h i n g , p r a c t i c e , w o r s h i p a n d o b s e r v a n c e .

( U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n o n H u m a n R i g h t s , a d o p t e d a n d p r o c l a i m e d b y G AR e s . 2 1 7 A ( I I I ) o f 1 0 D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 8 , U N D o c . A / 3 / 8 1 0 ( 1 9 4 9 ) ) .

2 Th e k e y A rt i c l e s o f t h e I C C P R a re se t o u t i n A n n e x 2. A rt i c l e 1 8 o f t h e I C C P R re a d s a sf o l l o w s:

1 . Ev er yo ne s ha ll h av e t he r ig ht t o f re ed om o f t ho ug ht , c on sc ie nc e a ndr e l i g i o n . T h i s r i g h t s h a l l i n c l u d e f r e e d o m t o h a v e o r t o a d o p t a r e l i g i o n o r

b e l i e f o f h i s c h o i c e , a n d f r e e d o m , e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l l y o r i n c o m m u n i t y w i t ho t h e r s a n d i n p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e , t o m a n i f e s t h i s r e l i g i o n o r b e l i e f i n w o r s h i p ,o b s e r v a n c e , p r a c t i c e a n d t e a c h i n g .

2 . N o o n e s h al l b e s u bj ec t t o c oe r ci o n w h i ch w ou l d i m p ai r h i s f re e do m t o h a v eo r t o a d o p t a r e l i g i o n o r b e l i e f o f h i s c h o i c e .

3 . F re ed om t o m an if es t o ne s r el ig io n o r b el ie fs m ay b e s ub je ct o nl y t o s uc hl im it at io ns a s a re p re sc ri be d b y l aw a nd a re n ec es sa ry t o p ro te ct p ub li cs a f e t y , o r d e r , h e a l t h , o r m o r a l s o r t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s a n d f r e e d o m s o f o t h e r s .

1




C o n ve n t io n f o r t h e Pro t e c t io n o f H u m a n R igh t s a n d F u n d a m e n t a lF re e d o m s ( t h e Eu ro p e a n C o n ve n t io n ) , a d o p t e d u n d e r t h e a u s p ic e s o f t h e C o u n c il o f Eu ro p e , t h e k e y p ro vis io n is A rt ic l e 9 .3 Eve n t h e

D e c l a ra t io n o n t h e El im in a t io n o f a l l F o rm s o f In t o l e ra n c e a n d o fD is c rim in a t io n B a s e d o n R e l igio n o r B e l ie f ( t h e 1 9 8 1 D e c l a ra t io n ) ,4

w hi ch w as c on cl ud ed m uc h l ate r an d w as th e fi rs t in te rn at io na l in st ru -m e n t d e d ic a t e d s o l e l y t o f re e d o m o f re l igio n , d id n o t c o n t e m p l a t e re c e n tp a t t e rn s o f vio l a t io n w h ic h a re e m e rgin g gl o b a l l y .

T h o s e t e x t s c o n s t it u t e t h e b a s ic b u il d in g b l o c k s o f t h e f re e d o m o f re l igio n a n d w e re in e vit a b l y s h a p e d b y t h e is s u e s w h ic h f a c e d t h e o ri-gin a l d ra f t e rs . Pro m in e n t a re a s o f c o n t e n t io n in t h e e a rl y d e b a t e s w e rere s is t a n c e t o a n e x p l ic it righ t t o c h a n ge re l igio n ( f ro m va rio u s Is l a m icc o u n t rie s ) , d o u b t s a b o u t p ro s e l y t is m a s a n a d j u n c t t o t h e righ t t op ra c t is e a re l igio n a n d , m o re ge n e ra l l y , t h e id e o l o gic a l o p p o s it io nf ro m n u m e ro u s C o m m u n is t c o u n t rie s t o t h e a s s e rt io n o f righ t s o f t h ein d ivid u a l o ve r t h e in t e re s t s o f t h e S t a t e . T h e e x t e n t t o w h ic h n e u t ra l it y s h o u l d b e p re s e rve d in S t a t e e d u c a t io n w a s a l s o a f u n d a m e n t a l , t h o u ghm o re re c e n t , c o n c e rn ( in t h e IC C PR a n d t h e 1 9 8 1 D e c l a ra t io n ) .

H o w e ve r, s in c e t h o s e in s t ru m e n t s w e re c o n c l u d e d a n u m b e r o f t re n d sh a ve t e s t e d w h e t h e r t h e t e x t o f t h e c o re p ro vis io n s is s u f fic ie n t t o a d d re s st h e im m e d ia t e a n d f o re s e e a b l e c h a l l e n ge s o f t h e f u t u re . A m o n g s u c h

4 . Th e S t a t e s P a rt i e s t o t h e p re se n t C o v e n a n t u n d e rt a k e t o h a v e re sp e c t f o r t h el i b e rt y o f p a re n t s a n d , w h e n a p p l i c a b l e , l e g a l g u a rd i a n s t o e n su re t h ere l i g i o u s a n d m o ra l e d u c a t i o n o f t h e i r c h i l d re n i n c o n f o rm i t y w i t h t h e i ro w n c o n v i c t i o n s.

( I n te r n at i o n al Co v e n an t on C i v il an d P o l i ti c a l R i g ht s ( 1 9 66 ) , N e w Y o r k ,1 6 D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 6 , i n f o r c e 2 3 M a r c h 1 9 7 6 , 9 9 9 U N T S 1 7 1 )

3 Th e k e y A rt i c l e s o f t h e E u ro p e a n C o n v e n t i o n a re se t o u t i n A n n e x 4 . A rt i c l e 9 o f t h eE u ro p e a n C o n v e n t i o n re a d s a s f o l l o w s.

1 . E v e ry o n e h a s t h e ri g h t t o f re e d o m o f t h o u g h t , c o n sc i e n c e a n d re l i g i o n ; t h i sri g h t i n c l u d e s f re e d o m t o c h a n g e h i s re l i g i o n o r b e l i e f a n d f re e d o m , e i t h e ra l o n e o r i n c o m m u n i t y w i t h o t h e r s a n d i n p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e , t o m a n i f e s t h i sre l i g i o n o r b e l i e f , i n w o rsh i p , t e a c h i n g , p ra c t i c e a n d o b se rv a n c e .

2 . F re e d o m t o m a n i f e st o n e s re l i g i o n o r b e l i e f s sh a l l b e su b j e c t o n l y t o su c h

l i m i t a t i o n s a s a re p re sc ri b e d b y l a w a n d a re n e c e ssa ry i n a d e m o c ra t i c so c i e t y i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f p u b l i c s a f e t y , f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f p u b l i c o r d e r , h e a l t h o rm o ra l s, o r f o r t h e p ro t e c t i o n o f t h e ri g h t s a n d f re e d o m s o f o t h e rs.

( E u r o p e a n C o n v e n t i o n o n H u m a n R i g h t s a n d F u n d a m e n t a l F r e e d o m s(1950), Rome, 4 November 1950 in force 3 September 1953, 213 UNTS 221)

4 Th e f u l l t e x t o f t h e 1 9 8 1 D e c l a ra t i o n i s a t A n n e x 3 ( D ec l ar a t io n o n t h e E l i mi n at i o n o f a ll F or ms o f I nt ol er an ce a nd o f D is cr im in at io n B as ed o n R el ig io n o r B el ie f ( 19 81 ),p r o c l a i m e d b y G A R e s . 3 6 / 5 5 o f 2 5 N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 1 , U N D o c . A / 3 6 / 5 1 ( 1 9 8 2 ) ) .

2 I N T R O D U C T I O N




t r en ds i s t he p o li t ic al m om en tu m i n m an y c ou nt ri e s o f t he f o rm er S o v ie tB l o c t o p r o t e c t t r a d i t i o n a l S t a t e r e l i g i o n i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n fl u x o f n e w r e li g io us m ov em en ts . N ew r el ig i ou s m ov em en ts fi ll ed t he v ac uu m l ef t

b y t he ab ru pt e xo du s o f Co mm un is m a nd ar e s ee n a s a th re at t o th ep r o c e s s o f r e b u i l d i n g t h e n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y o f t h o s e c o u n t r i e s . O b s t a c l e si m p o s e d t o p r e v e n t t h e e m e r g e n c e o f n e w r e l i g i o u s m o v e m e n t s i n c l u d ep r oh i bi t i ve r e g is t ra t io n f o r ma l it i es r e qu i re d f o r t h ei r e s ta b li s hm e nt , a sw e ll a s w i de s pr e ad p r oh i bi t io n s o n r e li g i ou s p r ac t ic e , p a rt i cu l ar l y p r o-s el yt is m. T he pr ote ct io n o f tr adi ti ona l S ta te r el ig io n as a me an s o f r e i g n i t i n g n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y i s a r e l a t i v e l y n e w i s s u e . U n t i l r e c e n t l y , t h ep r o t e c t i o n o f S t a t e r e l i g i o n h a s m o r e c o m m o n l y b e e n a f e a t u r e o f m a n y I s la mi c c ou nt ri es w he re n at io na l l aw i s i ns ep ar ab le f r om r el ig io us l aw a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e o r t h o d o x y o f S t a t e r e l i g i o n i s p a r a m o u n t .

A n o t h e r r e c e n t t r e n d h a s b e e n t h e p r o n o u n c e d i n c i d e n c e o f r e l i g i o u sh a tr e d a g ai n st M us l i ms . T he x e no p ho b i a, i n to l er a nc e a n d d i sc r i mi n a-t i o n t o w a r d s M u s l i m s w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e e v e n t s o f S e p t e m b e r 1 1 c a u s e dt he C om mi ss i on o n H um an R ig ht s t o r ea ct w it h c al ls f or a pp ro pr i at ec o n t r o l o f t h e m a s s m e d i a t o p r e v e n t i n c i t e m e n t t o v i o l e n c e a n d i n t o l -

e r a n c e t o w a r d s I s l a m .5

T h i s g a v e s t r e n g t h t o m o v e s w h i c h w e r e a l r e a d y a f o o t i n c e r t a i n c o u n t r i e s ( f o r e x a m p l e , A u s t r a l i a ) t o e n a c t l e g i s l a t i o n t op ro hi bi t v il i fic at io n o n g r ou nd s o f r e li g io n a nd h as s i nc e g iv e n r is e t oi n it ia ti v es i n o th er c ou nt ri es ( no ta bl y t he U ni te d K in gd om ) t o c re at er e l i g i o u s o f f e n c e s s u c h a s i n c i t e m e n t t o r e l i g i o u s h a t r e d . H o w e v e r , t h e r eh av e b ee n c onc er ns t ha t s uch a l ow t hr esh ol d c ould , in p rac ti ce, b ea p p l i e d t o t h i s t y p e o f l e g i s l a t i o n s o a s t o i n t e r f e r e d i r e c t l y w i t h f u n d a -m en ta l a sp ec ts o f f re ed om o f r e li g io n , p ar ti c ul ar ly r el ig i ou s p ra ct ic et h r o u g h t e a c h i n g a n d p r o s e l y t i s m . T h e r i s k s a r e i n h e r e n t i n t h e t e a c h i n go f a ny r el ig io n w hi ch a mo un ts t o t he d en ia l o f o th er r el ig io ns b ut a reg r e a t e r i n t h e c a s e o f c o m p a r a t i v e t e a c h i n g o r t e a c h i n g b y o n e r e l i g i o u sg r o u p o f t h e b e l i e f s o f a n o t h e r .

A t s a m e t i m e , t h e r e h a s b e e n m i s p l a c e d c o n c e r n t h a t t h e o v e r t p r a c -t ice o f I sl am is a p ro xy f or ext re mi sm. Th is h as i nfl ue nc ed c er tai nE ur op ea n S ta te s ( no ta bl y F ra nc e a nd S wi tz er la nd ) t o r ea ct a ga in st

t ra di ti on al M us li m o bs er v an ce , s uc h a s t he w ea ri ng o f r e li g io u s h ea d-d r e s s i n S t a t e s c h o o l s , r e l y i n g o n t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f n e u t r a l i t y o f S t a t e s i ne du ca ti on a nd ( in t he c as e o f S wi tz er la nd ) p ro hi bi ti n g r el ig i ou s h ea d-w e a r a s a f o r m o f p r o s e l y t i s m . T h e s a m e i s s u e h a s a d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o ni n T ur ke y w he re p ri nc ip le s o f s e cu la ri ty a re e nf or ce d m or e g en er al ly .

5 C H R R e s . 2 0 0 2 / 9 ( 2 0 0 2 ) o f 1 5 A p r i l 2 0 0 2 .

O V E R V I E W 3




F e a r s o f e x t r e m i s m , c o u p l e d w i t h a l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e q u i r e -m e n t s o f I s l a m h a s r e s u l t e d i n a w i d e s p r e a d f a i l u r e o n t h e p a r t o f m a n y E ur o pe an S ta te s t o a pp re ci at e t he i mp or ta nc e t o M us li ms o f s tr ai gh t-

f or wa rd r el i gi ou s p ra ct ic e a nd o bs er v an ce . T he 1 98 1 D ec la ra ti on h asd o n e m u c h t o c o rre c t t h is b y p ro vid in g a d e t a il e d e x p l a n a t io n o f d if f e re n tf o r m s o f m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f r e l i g i o n o r b e l i e f .

O n e o t h e r p h e n o m e n o n o f n o t e h a s b e e n t h e e m e r g e n c e o f p o l i t i c a lp ar ti es a do pti ng a n o ve rt ly r el ig io us a ge nd a, w it h th e m os t r ad ic alp ar ti es a dv o ca ti ng t he i nt ro du ct io n o f a s ys te m o f g ov er n me nt b as edo n r e l i g i o u s l a w . T h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f s o m e r e l i g i o u s p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s h a v eg iv en r is e t o co nc er ns o ve r t he i mpo sit io n o f r el ig io us l aw o n no n-ad he re nts . O uts ide th e po li ti ca l sp he re p os iti ve e nd or se me nt h asu nd ou bt ed ly b ee n g iv e n r ec en tl y t o t he c ol le ct iv e , r at he r t ha n i nd iv i -d ua l, a sp ec ts o f r e li gi o us m an if es ta ti on t hr o ug h r e li gi o us a ss oc ia ti ona n d c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p ( a n d t h i s g o e s s o m e w a y t o w a r d s d i s m a n t l i n gth e i mpe d im en t s t o re l ig io u s a s s o c ia t io n po s e d b y re gi str at i onre q u ire m e n t s ) .

R e c e n t y e a r s h a v e a l s o w i t n e s s e d a s t e a d y g r o w t h i n r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e

c on sc ie nt io us i mp li c at io ns o f c om pu ls or y m il it ar y s er vi ce . T hi s h ass e r v e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e j u s t h o w u n d e v e l o p e d a r e t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e sc o n c e r n i n g v a r i o u s f o r m s o f c o e r c i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o e r c i o n t o a c t c o n -t r a r y t o o n e s r e l i g i o n o r b e l i e f a n d c o m p u l s i o n t o d i s c l o s e o n e s b e l i e f s .O f t h e c o r e f r e e d o m o f r e l i g i o n A r t i c l e s , A r t i c l e 1 8 ( 2 ) o f t h e I C C P R a n dA rt ic le 1 (2 ) o f th e 1 98 1 D ec la ra ti on o ff er e xp li ci t p ro te ct io n a ga in stc o e r c i o n b u t o n l y a g a i n s t c o e r c i o n i n r e l i g i o u s c h o i c e . I t r e m a i n s t o b es e e n w h a t f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s w i l l t a k e .

A n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n o f r e c e n t c h a n g e h a s b e e n t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f r e l i -g i o u s i n t o l e r a n c e b y n o n - S t a t e e n t i t i e s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r o l e o f t h eS t a t e i n c o m b a t i n g i n t o l e r a n c e . G r e a t e r e m p h a s i s h a s b e e n p l a c e d o n t h ep o s i t i v e o b l i g a t i o n s o n S t a t e s t o p r o t e c t r i g h t s a n d f r e e d o m s b y a p p r o -pria te me a n s a n d i t i s e x pe c t e d th a t t hi s p rin c ip le w il l s e e gre at erp r a c t i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n i n f u t u r e y e a r s .

A l l t h e s e i s s u e s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s , w h i c h w i l l

a dd re ss t he o ri gi ns o f th e t ex t o f e ac h o f t he c or e f re ed om o f r el ig io nA r ti c le s a n d t h e d e v el o pm e nt o f s t an d ar d s a pp l ic a bl e t o e a ch c o ns t it u en tf re e d o m .

O ne o th er o bs er va ti on w or th ma ki ng a t t he o uts et c on ce rn s t heo b vi o us d i ff e re n ce s b e tw e en t h e U n it e d N a ti o ns a n d E u ro p ea n f r am e -w or ks . T he t ex tu al si mi lar iti es b et we en A rt ic le 9 o f t he E ur ope anC on ve nt i on a nd A rt ic le 1 8 o f t he U ni ve rs al D ec la ra ti o n f ro m w hi ch i t





s te mm ed a re s el f- ev i de nt . H ow ev er , t he r e la ti v e h om og en ei ty o f l eg ala nd d em oc ra ti c s ys te ms a cr o ss E ur op ea n c ou nt ri es c on tr a st s w i th t hev as t r an ge o f i de ol og ic al , r eli gio us a nd c ul tu ra l f ou nda ti on s o f th e

s y s t e m s o f g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e n a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n t h e U n i v e r s a ls ys te m. I n s om e c ou nt ri es t he se fo un da ti on s e ve n g o t he r oo t o f t he irb as ic c on ce pt io n o f t he f re ed om o f t ho ug ht , c on sc ie nc e a nd r e li gi o n.F o l l o w i n g m o r e t h a n h a l f a c e n t u r y o f e x p e r i e n c e o f b o t h t h e E u r o p e a na n d U n i t e d N a t i o n s s y s t e m s , a n d i n t h e f a c e o f n e w p a t t e r n s o f r e l i g i o u si n to le r an ce i n r ec en t y ea rs , i t i s t im el y t o e xa mi n e c ri t ic al ly t he p at hst a k e n b y e a c h s y s t e m i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e s t a n d a r d s a p p l i c a b l e t o r e l i g i o u sf r e e d o m s i n c e t h e U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n w a s a d o p t e d i n 1 9 4 8 , a n d s i n c et h e E u r o p e a n C o n v e n t i o n e n t e r e d i n t o f o r c e i n 1 9 5 3 .

Th is w or k t he re fo re ai ms t o p ro vid e an a ppr ai sal o f t he de ve lo p-m e n t o f t h e r ig ht to f r ee do m o f th o u gh t, c o n s c ie n c e an d r el i gio na t bo th U ni ted N ati ons a nd E ur op ean le ve ls . S tan da rd s w it hi n th eU ni te d N at io ns s ys te m a re r efl ec te d pr in ci pa ll y i n th e w or k o f t heH um an R ig ht s Co mm it te e a nd th e S pe ci al Ra pp or te ur ( t he S pe ci alR a p p o rt e u r )6 ap po int ed b y t he C omm is si on o n Hu ma n Ri ght s t o

e xa mi ne i nc id en ts a nd g ov er nm en ta l a cti on i nc on si st en t w it h t he1 98 1 D ec la r at io n. I n a dd it i on , w id er s ou rc es s uc h a s t he t r av a ux p r e-

parato ires o f m o s t i n s t r u m e n t s t o u c h i n g u p o n f r e e d o m o f r e l i g i o n p l a y a n e ss en ti a l p ar t. W it hi n E ur op ea n j ur i sp ru de nc e, t he p ra ct ic e o f t heE ur ope an Co ur t o n Hu ma n Ri ghts ( th e E ur ope an Co ur t) an d th ef or me r Eu ro pe an Co mm is sio n o n H um an Ri gh ts ( t he E ur ope anC om mi ss i on ) p ro vi de t he b as i s f or e v al ua ti n g d ev el op in g E ur op ea ns t a n d a r d s u n d e r t h e E u r o p e a n C o n v e n t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h i s w o r k i s p r i -m ar il y ai me d at t he c on clu si ons to b e dr aw n f ro m a c ri ti qu e o f th ep ra ct ic e o f t he U ni te d N at io ns a nd E ur o pe an i ns ti tu ti on s, o cc as io na lr e f e r e n c e w i l l b e m a d e t o o t h e r r e g i o n a l i n i t i a t i v e s f o u n d i n t h e C o u n c i lo f E ur ope F ra me wo rk C on ve nti on f or th e P ro te cti on o f N at io nalM in or it ie s a nd t he O rg an iz at io n f or S ec ur it y a nd C o- op er at io n i nEu ro pe ( OS CE, f o rm e rl y t he C o nf e re n ce f o r S e cu rit y a nd C o-o pe ra t io nin E ur op e) , a s w el l a s c er ta in s ys te ms o f n ati on al l aw w he re t he y h av e

p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e .Th e U ni te d Na ti ons an d th e E ur ope an s ys te ms w er e s el ec te d f or

e xa mi na ti on b ec au se o f t he h is to ri ca l i nt er re la ti on b et we en t he t wo

6 T h e t i tl e o f t h e Sp ec ia l R ap p or t eu r o n r e li gi o us i nt o le r an ce w as c ha n ge d t o S pe ci alR ap p or t eu r o n f r ee do m o f r el ig i on o r b el ie f b y C HR R es . 2 0 00 / 33 o f 2 0 A pr i l 2 0 0 0.

O V E R V I E W 5




( gi ve n t ha t A rt ic le 9 o f t he E ur op ea n C on ve nt io n w as t ak en f ro m t het e x t o f A r t i c l e 1 8 o f t h e U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n ) . H o w e v e r , i t i s i m p o r t a n tt o a p p r e c i a t e f u l l y t h e s i g n i fi c a n c e o f a n y a p p a r e n t d e p a r t u r e s b e t w e e n

U ni te d N at io ns a nd E ur op ea n s ta nd ar ds a nd t o d is ti ng ui sh g en ui nef r o m s u p p o s e d p a t h s o f d i v e r g e n c e . S o m e d i f f e r e n c e s m a y b e e x p l a i n e dm e r e l y b y t h e d i f f e r e n t r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n p l a y e d b y e a c h o f t h e v a r i o u so rg an s f ro m w hi c h a pp li c ab le s ta nd ar ds o f r el ig io us f r ee do m m ay b ed e r i v e d o r t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y a r e e x p r e s s e d . L i m i t a t i o n s o f l e g a l c o m -p et en ce a nd t ec hn ic al e xp er ti se a re a ls o r e le va nt . S om e d if fe r en ce s a reex pli ca bl e o nl y i n t er ms o f p ol ic y (fo r w hi ch hi sto ric al tr end s a rep ar ti cu la rl y i mp or ta nt ) w hi le o th er s a r e a tt ri bu ta b le t o t he d if fe r en tc o n t e x t s i n w h i c h U n i v e r s a l a n d E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d s a p p l y .

A t h e m a t i c a p p r o a c h w i l l b e f o l l o w e d a s c l o s e l y a s p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h -o ut t hi s w or k i n o rd er t o d is ce rn t he a dv an ce s a nd r ev er sa ls o n p ar ti cu la ri ss ue s o f r ec ur ri ng i mp or ta nc e. A n i n- de pt h e va lu at io n o f a pp ar en td is cr ep an ci es w it hi n p ar ti c ul ar t he me s w il l h el p t o e xp os e t he s ig ni fi-c a n c e o f p o i n t s o f d i v e r g e n c e . A t h e m a t i c a p p r o a c h a l s o l e n d s i t s e l f t o a na s s e s s m e n t o f t h e f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t a n d a r d s o f r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m

i n s u c h a w a y t h a t m i g h t a c h i e v e b e t t e r c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e dN a t i o n s a n d E u r o p e a n i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d m a y p o i n t t o t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v em e a n s o f u t i l i s i n g t h e e x i s t i n g o r g a n s .

O f t he m aj or r ec en t w or ks o n f re ed om o f r el ig io n, t ha t b y Ta hz ib7

r ep re se nt s t he m os t c om pr eh en si ve s ur ve y o f U ni te d N at io ns i ns tr u-m e n t s , a n d t h o s e b y M a l c o l m E v a n s8 a n d C a r o l y n E v a n s9 b o t h p r o v i d ep e n e t r a t i n g i n s i g h t i n t o t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g o f t h e E u r o p e a n C o u r t a n dE u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n . H o w e v e r , n o n e a t t e m p t s a n y d e t a i l e d t h e m a t i ce v a l u a t i o n o f b o t h E u r o p e a n a n d U n i v e r s a l s t a n d a r d s b e y o n d c o v e r a g eo f t h e s e p a r a t e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e m a j o r U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n dEu ro pe an i ns tr um en ts a nd t he o cc as io na l c om pa ri so n b et we en t het w o .10 G i v e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s u c h a n e v a l u a t i o n t h i s w o r k a t t e m p t st o d e v e l o p a f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f b o t h U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n d

7

B . G . T ah zi b, F re ed om o f R el ig io n o r B el ie f: E ns ur in g E ff ec ti ve I nt er na ti on al L eg al P ro t e ct i o n , T h e H a g u e / L o n d o n : M a r t i n u s N i j h o f f P u b l i s h e r s ( 1 9 9 6 ).8 M . D . E v an s , R e l i g i o u s L i b e r t y a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w i n E u r o p e , C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ( 1 9 9 7 ).9 C . E v a n s , F r e e d o m o f R e l i g i o n U n d e r t h e E u r o p e a n C o n v e n t i o n o n H u m a n R i g h t s , O x f o r d :

O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s (2 0 0 1 ).10 A u se fu l o ve rv ie w o f t he r ol e o f U N a nd r eg io na l s ys te ms i n p ro te ct in g f re ed om o f

r el ig io n i s f ou nd i n N . L er ne r, R el i gi on , B el i ef s a n d I n te rn a ti o na l H u ma n R i gh ts ,M a r y k n o l l , N e w Y o r k : O r b i s ( 2 0 0 0 ).





E ur ope an j ur is pr ud enc e. E xte ns iv e u se w il l b e m ad e o f th e S pe cia lR ap po rte ur s r ep or ts i n o rd er t o d em on st ra te t he v al ue o f th e r ol e o f t he S pe ci al R ap po rt eu r i n o ff er in g m or e i n- de pt h u nd er st an di ng o f

r e li gi o us c o nfl ic t a nd v io la ti o n t ha n t he b ar es t o ut li ne a va il ab le i n t heH uma n Ri ght s Co mmi tte e s r ev ie w o f St at e r ep or ts o r t he s pec ifi ci ns tan ce s c on si de re d i n in di vi du al co mmu ni ca ti on s. Th e Sp ec ia lR a pp o rt e ur s r e po r ts o f f er , i n t h e U n iv e r sa l c o nt e xt , a b e tt e r a p pr e ci a -t i o n o f t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e f r e e d o m o f r e l i g i o n w h i c h , i t w i l l b e a r g u e d ,a re a ll t oo o ft en o ve rl oo ke d i n t he d ec is io ns o f t he E ur op ea n i ns ti tu -t i o n s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o b e a w a r e o f e m e r g i n g t r e n d s i n r e l i g i o u s i n t o l -e ran ce a nd t o h ee d t he w ar ni ng s t ha t ca n o nl y b e d is cer ne d fr om a ne xa mi na ti on o f s it ua ti on s w or ld wi de i n w hi ch t he w id es t v ar ie ty o f c u l tu re s , re lig io ns a n d va lu e s in t e rac t. It i s s u gge s t ed th a t th eE ur o pe an C ou rt m ig ht t ak e i nt o a cc o un t, f ar m or e t ha n h it he rt o, t hed i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s a n d g u i s e s o f i n t o l e r a n c e e v i d e n c e d g l o b a l l y a n d a n t i c i -p a t e m o r e f u l l y t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s a n d p o t e n t i a l r e a c h o f i t s d e c i s i o n s .

Interrelation between the UN and European systems

T he h is to ri c c on ne ct io n b et we en t he U ni ve rs al D ec la ra ti on a nd th eE u ro pe an C on ve nt io n f ro m w hi c h i t s te mm ed d es er ve s s pe ci al c om -m ent at t hi s s tag e. I t i s a ls o i mp or tan t t o n ote s ome o f t he pr ac ti calo bs ta cl e s f ac e d b y th e d e ve l o pm en t o f f re e do m o f re l i gio n i n th eU ni ve rs al c on te xt , w hi ch a rg ua bl y h av e l es s r el ev an ce t o E ur op e i nis o l a t io n .

A rt ic le 9 o f t he E ur op ea n C on ve nt io n d re w i ts i ns pi r at io n a nd i ts t ex tf r om A rt ic le 1 8 o f t he U ni ve rs al D ec la ra ti o n i n p ur su anc e o f t he e xp re ssa im o f t he E ur op ean C on ve nt ion i n t ak in g th e fi rst s te ps f or collectiveenforcement of certain rights stated in the Universal Declaration.11 Article9 was to be based as far as possible on Article 18 of the UniversalD ec la ra ti on t o r edu ce t he r is k o f de vi sin g de fin it io ns t ha t w er e a t o ddsw it h t ho se i n U ni te d N at io ns i ns tr ument s. T he tr av a ux p r eparatoires ofA rt ic l e 1 8 o f t h e U n ive rs a l D e c l a ra t io n ,12 a n d t h o s e o f s u b s e q u e n t U n it e d

11 P r e a m b l e t o t h e E u r o p e a n C o n v e n t i o n . F o r t h e d r a f t i n g o f t h e E u r o p e a n C o n v e n t i o n ,s e e C o u n c i l o f E u r o p e , C o l l e c t e d E d i t i o n o f T h e T r a v a u x P r epara toire s of the Europ eanC on ve nt i on o n H u ma n R i gh ts , 8 v ol s. , T he H ag ue : M ar ti nu s N ij ho ff (1 9 7 5 8 5 ). F orc om me nt ar y, s ee A . H . R ob er ts on a nd J . G . M er ri ll s, H um an R ig ht s i n t he W or ld ,M a n c h e s t e r : M a n c h e s t e r U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ( 1 9 9 6 ).

12 F or c om me nt ar y o n t he d ra ft in g o f A rt ic le 1 8 o f t he Un iv er sa l D ecl ar at io n, s ee:N . R o b in so n, U n i ve rs al D e cla ra ti o n o f H u m an Ri gh t s : I t s O ri gi n s , S i g ni fi can ce , A p p li ca ti o n

U N A N D E U R O P E A N S Y S T E M S : I N T E R R E L A T I O N 7




N at io ns i ns tr um en ts i n t he fi el d o f f re ed om o f r el ig io n, d em on st ra te t ha ts o m e o f t h e i n fl u e n c e s t h a t f a s h i o n e d t h e t e x t o f A r t i c l e 1 8 m a y b e s a i d t oha ve li ttle r ele van ce to Ar ti cle 9 o f t he C onv en ti on . So me o f t he m os t

s ign ific a n t is s u e s d e b a t e d in t h e f o rm u l a t io n o f A rt ic l e 1 8 o f t h e U n ive rs a lD e c l a ra t io n , s u c h a s t h e righ t t o c h a n ge re l igio n , a c c e n t u a t e t h e d if f e re n c e sb e tw e en ins t ru me n ts in te n de d f o r U nivers al a nd Euro pe an a pp lic at ion ,w er e r ai sed w it h g re ate r f or ce ( an d w er e t o ha ve l as ti ng i mp ac t) i n thede bate s tha t l ed up t o A rti cle 1 8 o f the I CC PR 13 a nd t he 1 98 1 D ec lar at io n.14

D ive rge n c e in t h e b a s ic c o n c e p t io n o f t h e f re e d o m o f re l igio n a t U n ive rs a llevel w as par ti cula rly marked w he n impetu s w as g iv en to a Unite dN at ion s in it iat ive o n re ligio u s in to l era nc e f o ll ow ing va rio us a nt i-S em itici nci de nt s i n t he e ar ly 1 960 s. T he G en era l A sse mb ly p as sed a r es ol ut io nc al li ng f o r t he p re pa ra ti on o f a d ra ft d ec la ra ti on a nd a d ra ft c on ve nt io non the eliminatio n o f r elig ious into le ra nc e. S im ul ta ne ou sl y, a d raf tdeclaration15 a nd a d ra ft c on ve nt io n16 w ere a dvan c ed o n t h e e lim in a tio n

and Interpretation, N e w Y o r k : I n s t i t u t e o f J e w i s h A f f a i r s ( 1958) ; R . C a s s i n , L a D eclarationU ni ve rs el le e t l a M is e e n O eu vr e d es D ro it s d e l H om me, 79 RCADI (1951) 2 41 ; B . K au fm an n,

D as P r ob l em d er G la ub en s- u nd U be rz eu gu n gs fr e ih ei t i m V olkerrecht, Zuri c h: S c h ul t h essPolygraphischer Verlag ( 1989) , p p . 1 24 46 ; M . S ch e in in , Ar t ic le 1 8 , i n A . E id e ( ed .) , TheU n iv er s al D ec l ar at i on o f H um an R i gh t s: A C om me nt a ry , O sl o: S ca nd i na vi an U ni v er s it y P r es s(1992) ; A . V er d oo d t, N a is sa nc e e t S ig ni fic an c e d e l a D ec la r at io n U ni ve rs el l e d es D ro i ts d elHomme (1964) , L o ur ai n: P a ri s S o ci ete det u de s m o ra le s, s oc ia ls e t j u ri di q ue s , E d it io n sN a u we l ae rt s (1964).

13 M . J . B os s uy t , G u i d e t o t h e T r a v a u x P r eparat oires of the Inter natio nal Covenan t on Civila n d P o l i t i c a l R i g h t s , D o r d r e c h t / L a n c a s t e r : M a r t i n u s N i j h o f f ( 1 9 8 7 ) . F o r c o m m e n t a r y o nt he d r af t in g o f A r ti cl e 1 8 o f t he I CC PR , se e : T . v an B ov en , D e V o l k e nr e c h t e l ij k eB es c he r mi ng v an d e g od s di en s tv r ij h ei d , A ss en , N et her la nd s: V an G or cu m ( 1 9 6 7 );

K . J . P ar ts ch , Fr ee do m o f C on sc ie nc e a nd E xp re ss io n, a nd P ol it ic al F re ed om s , i nL . H en k in

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