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on explaining why traits are unimportant than on why situations are important athat they have failed to identify what it is about specific situations that brings ocertain behaviors (Friedman & Schustack, 2003; Funder, 2004). The socicognitive approach has also been faulted for failing to present a general theory personality, offering instead a set of more limited theories that share certacommon assumptions about the nature of personality (Feist & Feist, 2002). Mogenerally, the social-cognitive approach is considered incapable of capturing t

complexity, richness, and uniqueness that some critics see as inherent in humpersonality (Carver & Scheier, 2004). According to these critics, a far moattractive alternative is provided by the humanistic approach to personality.

The Humanistic Approach

Unlike theories that emphasize the instincts and learning processes that humaseem to share with other animals, the to personality focuses mental capabilities that set humans apart: self-awareness, creativity, plannindecision making, and responsibility. Those who adopt the humanistic approach shuman behavior as motivated mainly by an innate drive toward growth that promppeople to fulfill their unique potential. And like the planted seed whose natupotential is to become a flower, people are seen as naturally inclined toward gooness, creativity, love, and joy. Humanistic psychologists also believe that to explapeoples actions in any particular situation, it is more important to understand thview of the world than their instincts, traits, or learning experiences. To humanisthat world view is a bit different for each of us, and it is this uniquephenomenolo(pronounced feh-naw-men-ALL-oh-gee), or way of perceiving and interpretithe world, that shapes personality and guides behavior (Kelly, 1980). From tperspective, then, no one can understand another person without somehow pceiving the world through that persons eyes. All behavior, even seemingly webehavior, is presumed to be meaningful to the person displaying it. Becauseemphasizes the importance of looking at peoples perceptions, this approachsometimes called thephenomenological approach.

humanistic approach A view inwhich personality develops throughan actualizing tendency that unfoldsin accordance with each personsunique perceptions of the world.

What Is Reality? Each of thesepeople has a different perception ofwhat happened during the play thatstarted this argumentand each is surehe is right! Disagreement about thesame event illustrates phenomenology,each persons unique perceptions of theworld. The humanistic approach seesthese perceptions as shaping personalityand guiding behavior. As described inthe perception chapter, our perceptionsare often inf luenced by top-downprocessing. In this case, expectationsand motivation stemming from differingloyalties are likely to influence realityand reactionsfor each teams players,coaches, and fans.

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The humanistic approach to personality has many roots. The idea that each pson perceives a different reality reflects the views of existential philosophers suchSren Kierkegaard and Jean-Paul Sartre. The idea that people actively shape thown reality stems in part from the Gestalt psychologists, whose work is describin the chapter on perception, and from George Kelly, a psychologist who also infenced social-cognitive theorists. We can also hear echoes of Alfred Adler and othpsychodynamic theorists who emphasized the positive aspects of human nature a

the importance of the ego in personality development. Humanistic theories of pesonality have, themselves, helped to fuel research in positive psychology, whifocuses on character strengths such as wisdom, courage, and humanity, as well on happiness, thriving, and other aspects of human experience associated with maimum personal development and functioning (Peterson, 2006; Ryan & Deci, 200Seligman, 2002).

Prominent Humanistic TheoriesBy far, the most prominent humanistic theories of personality are those of CaRogers and Abraham Maslow.

Rogerss Self Theory In his extensive writings, Carl Rogers (e.g., 196

1970, 1980) emphasized the , which he described as an innainclination toward growth and fulfillment that motivates all human behavior andexpressed in a unique way by each individual (Raskin & Rogers, 2001). Rogers sapersonality as the expression of that actualizing tendency as it unfolds in each inviduals uniquely perceived reality (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). The centerpiece Rogerss theory is the self, the part of experience that a person identifies as I me. According to Rogers, those who accurately experience the selfwith all preferences, abilities, fantasies, shortcomings, and desiresare on the road to whKurt Goldstein (1939) had called self-actualization . The progress of people whoexperiences of the self become distorted, however, is likely to be slowed or stoppe

Rogers saw personality development beginning early, as children learn to neother peoples approval, or as he called it, positive regard. Evaluations by parenteachers, and others soon begin to affect childrens self-evaluations. When the

actualizing tendency According toRogers, an innate inclination towardgrowth that motivates all people.

Seeking Self-Actualization Accordingto Rogers, conditions of worth can makeit harder for children to become awareof and accept aspects of themselves thatconflict with their parents values. Progresstoward self-actualization can be enhancedby associating with those whose positiveregard is less conditional on displayingany particular pattern of behavior.

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evaluations are in agreement with a childs own self-evaluations, the child reactsa way that matches, or is congruentwith, self-experience. The child not only expriences positive regard but also evaluates the self as good for having earnapproval. This positive self-experience becomes part of the , which is tway one thinks of oneself. But what if a positive self-experience is evaluatnegatively by others, as when a little boy is teased by his father for having fun playi

with dolls? In this case, the child must either do without a parents positive regard more likely, reevaluate the self-experiencedeciding perhaps that I dont like dolor Feeling good is bad.

In other words, said Rogers, personality is shaped partly by the actualizitendency and partly by evaluations made by others. In this way, people come to liwhat they are supposed to like and to behave as they are supposed to behaThis socialization process is adaptive, because it helps people to function in sociebut it often requires that they suppress their self-actualizing tendency and distotheir experience. Rogers argued that psychological discomfort, anxiety, or evmental disorder can result when the feelings people experience or express aincongruent, or at odds, with their true feelings.

Incongruence is likely, said Rogers, when parents and teachers act in ways thlead children to believe that their worth as people depends on displaying the righattitudes, behaviors, and values. These are created whenev

people are evaluated instead of their behavior. For example, parents who find thtoddler smearing finger paint on the dog are unlikely to say, I love you, but I doapprove of this particular behavior. They are more likely to shout, Bad boy! Bad girl! This reaction sends a subtle message that the child is lovable aworthwhile only when well behaved. As a result, the childs self-experience is notlike painting Fang, but Mom and Dad dont approve, but instead, Playing wpaint is bad, and I am bad if I like it, so I dont like it, or I like it, so I must bad. The child may eventually display overly neat and tidy behaviors that do nreflect the real self but, rather, are part of the ideal self dictated by the parents.

self-concept The way one thinks ofoneself.

conditions of worth According toRogers, the feelings an individualexperiences when the person, insteadof the persons behavior, is evaluated.

conditions of worth

self-concept

Parents are not usually this obviousabout creating conditions of worth, butaccording to Rogers, the message getsthrough in many more subtle ways.

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As with Freuds concept of superego, conditions of worth are first set up external pressure but eventually become part of the persons belief system. Rogers saw rewards and punishments as important in personality development njust because they shape overt behavior but also because they can so easily creadistorted self-perceptions and incongruence.

Maslows Growth Theory Like Rogers, Abraham Maslow (1954, 197considered personality to be the expression of a basic human tendency towagrowth and self-actualization. In fact, Maslow believed that self-actualization is njust a human capacity but a human need. As described in the motivation anemotion chapter, he placed self-actualization as the highest in a hierarchy motives, or needs. Yet, said Maslow, people are often distracted from seeking seactualization because they focus on needs that are lower on the hierarchy.

Maslow saw most people as controlled by a , the preoccpation with perceived needs for material things, especially things they do not havUltimately, he said, deficiency-oriented people come to see life as a meaningless execise in disappointment and boredom, and they may begin to behave in problemaways. For example, in an attempt to satisfy the need for love and belongingnepeople may focus on what love can give them (security), not on what they can gito another. This deficiency orientation may lead a person to be jealous and to focon what is missing in relationships. As a result, the person will never truly experieneither love or security.

In contrast, people with a do not focus on what is missibut draw satisfaction from what they have, what they are, and what they can dThis orientation opens the door to what Maslow calledpeak experiences, in whipeople feel joy, even ecstasy, in the mere fact of being alive, being human, anknowing that they are utilizing their fullest potential.

Evaluating the Humanistic ApproachThe humanistic approach to personality is consistent with the way many peopview themselves. It gives a central role to each persons immediate experiences anemphasizes the uniqueness of each individual. The humanistic approach and its phnomenological perspective inspired the person-centered therapy of Rogers and othforms of psychotherapy (see the chapter on treatment of psychological disorderThis approach also underlies various short-term personal growth experiencessuas sensitivity training and encounter groups designed to help people become mo

growth orientation

deficiency orientation According toMaslow, a preoccupation with perceivedneeds for things a person does not have.

growth orientation According toMaslow, a tendency to draw satisfactionfrom what is available in life, ratherthan to focus on what is missing.

deficiency orientation

The Joys of a Growth OrientationAccording to Maslows theory ofpersonality, the key to personal growth and

fulfillment lies in focusing on what we have,not on what we dont have or on what wehave lost. Rachel Barton could have letthe accident that took her leg destroy hercareer as a concert violinist, and with it, her

joy in lifebut she didnt. Researchers inthe field of positive psychology are studyingthe development of resilience, as well asother character strengths, as part of aneffort to understand and promote all thethings that can go right in human life(Peterson, 2006).

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