08 the role of human in development landscape

8/2/2019 08 the Role of Human in Development Landscape

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ARL 621

EKOLOGI LANSKAP

KORDINATOR:Prof. Dr. Ir. Hadi Susilo Arifin, MS.

DOSEN ANGGOTA:Prof. Dr. Ir. Wahju Qamara Mugnisjah, M.Agr.Dr. Syartinilia, SP, MSi

BUKU RUJUKAN UTAMA:

Forman, R.T.T. and M. Godron. 1986. LandscapeEcology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 619p.


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FOREWORD v

PREFACE vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi

PART I OVERVIEW 1

1 LANDSCAPE AND PRINCIPLES 32 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS IN BRIEF 33

PART II LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE 813 PATCHES 834 CORRIDORS 1235 MATRIX AND NETWORK 1576 OVERALL STRUCTURE 191

PART III LANDSCAPE DYNAMIC 2277 NATURAL PROCESSES IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT 2298 THE HUMAN ROLE IN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT 2739 FLOWS BETWEEN ADJACENT LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS 31310 ANIMAL AND PLANT MOVEMENT ACROSS A

LANDSCAPE357

11 LANDSCAPE FUNCTIONING 397

12 LANDSCAPE CHANGE 427

PART IV HETEROGENEITY AND MANAGEMENT 46113 HETEROGENEITY AND TYPOLOGY 46314 LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT 495

REFERENCES 533

GLOSSARY 589

INDEX 603

TABLE OFCONTENTS

WQM, 2012


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WAHJU QAMARAMUGNISJAH

8THE HUMAN ROLE INLANDSCAPEDEVELOPMENT

All art, all education, can be merely asupplement to nature

(Aristotle, 384-322 B.C.)


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8. THE HUMAN ROLEIN LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT

8.1 MODIFICATION OF NATURAL RHYTHMS

8.1.1 Disturbance and Rhythms

8.1.2 Daily Rhythms

8.1.3 Seasonal Rhythms

8.1.4 Rhythms of Several Years or Centuries

8.2 METHODS OR TOOLS USED IN LANDSCAPE

MODIFICATION

8.2.1 Natural Resource Extraction and Alteration

8.2.2 Introduction of Agricultural Methods

8.2.3 Decision Catalysts

8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION GRADIENT


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8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION GRADIENT

8.3.1 Natural Landscapes

8.3.2 Managed Landscapes

8.3.3 Cultivated Landscapes

8.3.3.1 The Development of Cultivation

8.3.3.2 The Development of Villages

8.3.3.3 Characteristics of Cultivated Landscapes

8.3.4 Suburban Landscapes

8.3.4.1 A Historical Overview of Cities

8.3.4.2 Characteristics of Suburbia

8.3.5 Urban Landscapes

8.3.5.1 Specialization

8.3.5.2 Writing


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THE THREE BASIC SHAPES OF LANDSCAPEELEMENTS (THE AREA CONCEPT)

Patch (1) a nonlinear surface area differing in appearance

from its surrounding;

(2) a spatially separate instance of a given typeof

habitat

Patchiness the density of patches, or the fineness ofa mosaic.

Corridor (1) a narrow strip of habitat surrounded byhabitats

of different types;

(2) a narrow strip of land that differs from the

matrixon either side.


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q Photograph of Mont Saint Michel:A geologist would see it as anerosional outlier, a remnant of a

former plateau that later served tosupport some buildings.A landscape architect would see itas a fortified abbey, built about1450, taking advantage of a

readily defended site.

q In a landscape with people, the human role and the roleof nature may be alternatively emphasized but cannotbe disentangled.

q To understand why a landscape looks as it does:

We cannot limit ourselves to the natural or physicalenvironment.

We must also understand human influences andculture.

v abbey = building(s) in which men (called monks) or

women (called nuns) live as a community in the serviceof God

Figure 8.1 Mont Saint Michel, an

island on the northern coast of Franceas seen when rapidly rising tides coverthe adjoining mud flats.


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q Most so-called natural ecosystems, and numerousspecies within them, have long been influenced byhumans.

With the exponential growth in humanpopulation, ecosystems without this influenceare increasingly scarce.

q Rather than attempting to avoid human influencesin ecology, or calling their study applied ecology,we must develop ecological principles based onthe characteristics of most of the earth'secosystems and species.

Such principles will be far more powerful anduseful.

Nevertheless, rigor and caution are essential,

because humans become simultaneously theobservers and the ob ects of stud .


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8.1 MODIFICATION OF NATURALRHYTHMS

8.1.1 DISTURBANCE ANDRHYTHMS

q The horizontal structure of a

landscape: When undisturbed tends to progress

toward homogeneity.

Moderate disturbance rapidlyincreases heterogeneity.

Severe disturbance may increase or

decrease heterogeneity.

vGrain = natural arrangement of the lines of fibre in

wood, etc. as seen on a surface that has been sawnor cut


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q The most important ecological characteristic of adisturbance is its time lag or periodicity.

q When an environmental factor such astemperature, fire, or food supply oscillates with aregular rhythm, the genetic memory of organismspermits them to take note of the fluctuations.

q The species progressively adapt until, at somepoint, this factor can no longer be considered adisturbance.

For animals, the daily rhythm produces a series

of waking and steeping periods. Humans are so habituated to these that they

suffer noticeably from disorientation of theirbiological clock when they cross several time

zones in an airplane.


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The contrast between day and night permits theplants alternate daytime photosynthesis andevapotranspiration with nighttime cellexpansion.

The annual seasonal cycle in the temperatezone:

launch the explosion of annual plants inspring,

gradually build the sustained greenery insummer,

lead the decreas leaves in fall

to a final dormancy in winter.

q In climates with a severe dry season, where

natural fires appear almost certain when biomassreaches a certain level.


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q These broad principles are recalled here, introducing a

chapter on the influence of people, because human actionsare sudden and unexpected in the scale of geological time.The period of human influence has been so briefthat, ineffect, other species have still not had time enough to adaptto it (Figure 8.2).

Confronted with the massive activities of humans, and nothaving sufficient time to "resist" by adaptation, manyspecies risk disappearing.

Alternatively, species may evolve by benefiting from

human construction.q

Periodic variations in the environment can beabsorbed by organisms, thanks to theirgenetic memory. It effectively notes regularfluctuations and permits an adaptation

through reproductive cycles.Unpredictable and infrequent variations aredisturbances, in the sense that theysignificantly alter the ecological system andresult in a long recovery period.

Figure 8.2 Wastematerial from stripmining operations in LaSalle County, Illinois,USA


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8.1.2 DAILY RHYTHMS

q To extend the daily temperature cycle, we construct

greenhouses. Their effect on the landscape is considerable

q The other easily changed daily rhythm is the alternation oflight and dark periods.

Elongating days with artificial lights increases theproduction of eggs and chickens.

Elongating nights accelerates the fattening of hogs.

q This type of modification is generally too localized to modify

an entire landscape but it helps produce the largefarmyards so distinctive and so repetitive.

q These human struggles against a strong regular dailyrhythm require a heavy investment in a nearly permanentagricultural infrastructure that leaves a marked imprint on

the landscape.

WQM:Green house; vinyl house

Phytotron; biotronPhotoperiodical alteration


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The stockpiling of provisions to survive the difficult seasonwas an even more basic revolution than the practice ofseed planting for legumes and grain.

The establishment of permanent settlements, thedomestication of ruminants, and cultivation are threeconvergent means to escape the constraints of seasonalrhythms.

Figure 8.3 Excavation of aPaleolithic site beneath anoverhanging cliff.The

Altiplano near Bogota,Colombia.

8.1.3 SEASONAL RHYTHMS The most spectacular revolution in

human history arose from the idea ofmodifying natural seasonal rhythms.

The change from the hunter-gatherer(Figure 8.3) to the cultivator-herder wayof life near the end of the Paleolithic orOld Stone Age has resulted in thetransformation of more than three

quarters of the global land surface.

WQM:Agricultural landscape change in

CianjurJABAL system in Java


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q The principal object of plowingand working the soil is to modifythe sequence of life cycle changesof perennial plant species

q In natural landscapes, a differentset of species may be active andproductive at each season.

q In the cultivated landscape, this

sequence is replaced by a muchmore compact cycle.

WQM:Yearly cropping system: rotation

Monoculture vs agroforestry/integrated farming system

(agrosilvopasture; agrosilvofishery; SALT-1; SALT-2; SALT-3)Seed masting; defoliation;

CONTOH POLA TANAM PEKARANGANLAHAN KERING BERIKLIM KERING(Deptrans-PPH, 1994)

A single species produces at a single moment of the year.

As a result, the landscape is transformed into acheckerboard on which each type of cultivation representsa square.

This checkerboard of mixed plantings could be constructedat the scale of a field parcel, a farm, or an entirelandscape.

Ultimately, the landscape could appear as a monoculture,in which all the squares of the checkerboard are plantedwith the same crop.


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q The history of agriculture verifies this basic pattern ofmodifying seasonal rhythms.

The Age of Copper and the Age of Bronze (the first

human cultural and technological phases with awidespread use of metal, about 3000-1200 b.c. in theMiddle East, and about 1800-600 b.c. in China), beforethe advent of iron farm instruments, were characterizedmore by temporary burned patches for crops than bypermanent agricultural clearing.

Not until the Iron Age (characterized by widespread useof iron, beginning about 1200 b.c. in the Middle East and600 b.c. in China), could the roots of herbaceous grassesreadily be cut by rigid cutting tools.

A bronze spade that twists is of limited agricultural usein digging up and turning over the dense tangle of rootsof a mature grassland.

It was not until the iron hoe became widespread that theregular cultivation of grasslands or fallow fields became

possible.


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q In the case of livestock grazing, the transformation ofthe landscape by modification of the seasonalsequence is less evident, but all ranchers and farmers

know that the rhythm of pasturing is the key to goodmanagement.

In general, overgrazing is basically the result of apoor seasonal or weekly distribution of livestockrather than an average excess of the total number ofanimals.

q Irrigation is generally used, in climates with a verydistinct seasonal rhythm, to compensate for the waterdeficit in the dry season.

The endless, monotonous appearance of thelandscape in irrigated plains bears witness to themagnitude of investments needed to reduce theconstraints of seasonal climatic cycles.

In each irrigated landscape the form of the canal


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8.1.4 RHYTHMS OF SEVERALYEARS OR

CENTURIES In environments where fire is a natural

factor that controls assemblages of animalsand plants, fires appear at relatively regular

intervalswhen the amount of combustiblematerial builds up to the level where firespreads easily.

When humans intervene, they generallyaccelerate the cadence or frequency of

fires. The clearest example is the tropicalsavanna in parts of Africa and SouthAmerica, where millions of hectares aredeliberately burned each year.

In some areas, foresters use control burns

to help manage the forest for woodroducts. These are intentional, controlled

v Cadence = rhythm

Seruu.com [19 Apr2012]- Hutan rakyat (3 ha)terbakar di DusunNogosari, DesaSelopamioro,

Kecamatan Imogiri,Kabupaten Bantul,Daerah IstimewaYogyakarta


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q Management of European forests provides a significantexample of the modification of century-long rhythms.

For example, the forest of Blois in the Loire Valley of

France was oriented in the seventeenth century towardproduction of wood for the royal navy. It is still managedwith a complete rotation of 240 years, giving the oaksfine-grained wood for producing deluxe furniture.

This type of forest management produces a

checkerboard of parcels usually of four identifiabletypes, by increasing age: (a) seedling brush, (b) saplingthicket, (c) pole stand, and (d) forest grove.

Forests resulting from this process are very differentfrom natural forests because woodcutters harvest somewood from the forest about every ten years.

At each harvest the poorest growing trees are selectedfor removal, so the final forest grove is composed ofbeautiful, tall, productive trees that in turn give rise to

the following forest generation.

Selected harvest by HPH


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q Another influence of civilization at the century scale is theincrease in the level of atmospheric CO2.

q This increase affects the entire biosphere and is linked tolandscapes because it depends on the annual productionand decomposition rhythms of ecosystems.

Deforestation of landscapes in the past two decadesappears to be a particularly important factor in the

overall CO2 increase.

WQM: Pembukaan hutan untuk

daerah transmigrasi Banjir bandang vs kekeringan


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8.2 METHODS OR TOOLS USEDIN LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION

q We could spell out other widespread and long-termeffects of human actions on landscapes, such asdesertification, deforestation, and erosion.

q It is more interesting now, however, to explore howthe methods or tools used by people affect thelandscape.


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8.2.1 NATURAL RESOURCE EXTRACTIONAND ALTERATION

q Doubtless the first influence of prehistoric people was theirpredation on edible animals and plants.

This predation did not modify the landscape much morethan that of chimpanzees.

q Modification became somewhat more serious near the endof the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) with the invention of thebow.

During this period, livestock and planted crops allowedsome further increases in regular harvest production aswell as in human population growth.

However, domestication at its beginning probably hadlittle genetic effect on the wild strains used.

q The earth supported only a few million people (estimates of

2 to 10 million) then, an average density of less than one

vBow = a piece of wood curved by a tight string, used for shooting arrows.


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It was mainly by using fire that

humans came to exert a majorinfluence.

Traces of human use of fire have

been found in deposits more than200,000 years old, such as thosenear Aix-en-Provence in southeastern

France. Throughout history, sailors who

navigated along shores inhabited by

"indigenous savages" have described

vSavages = wild, primitive;cruel or barbarous person


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q The extraction of minerals alsotransforms landscapes.

Quarries, sand and gravel extraction,open pit mines, and especially surfacestrip mining for coal and other mineral

resources far exceed the abilities of theexisting natural ecosystems to adjustand of their species to adapt.

These pits and mining activities result inlong-term marks on the landscape.

v Quarries = placefrom which stone etc

may be extracted


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8.2.2INTRODUCTION OF

AGRICULTURALMETHODS

q Agriculture is not

Figure 8.5 Livestock as anintroduced species bred and tendedby humans.

qThe mechanical energynecessary for cultivation hasproduced a major effect on

the landscape, especially theutilization of draft animalssuch as oxen and horses. Thisinnovation has still notreached its peak.q The complex of species

introductions and mechanicalcultivating methods producesa human-driven process oflandscape development

Green revolution inIndonesia

Environment degradation

v Innovation = a newtechnique or idea that

causes a significant effect


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q Throughout the historical period, the techniques used toharvest the annual increment of livestock and cropproductivity have become ever more powerful.

Nevertheless, the rise in human population and theincreasing use of fossil fuel are the two main factors in theincrease in the amount extracted each year.

q The inputs of fertilizers and pesticides are also effectivelyinputs of energy. Their influence on landscapes is often as

conspicuous as that of mechanization, because they lead toincreasing homogeneity of cultivated parcels with fewpatches of weeds or parasites evident.

With these techniques, the long-term trade-off betweenhigher crop productivity and soil erosion andimpoverishment of the native biotabecomesincreasingly clear.

Despite the use of pesticides in many agricultural fields,pest explosions continue in landscapes. In some cases,

the pests are both native species and nonnative ones.


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8.2.3 DECISION CATALYSTS

q The tools used for constructing buildings and

cities, as well as transportation andcommunication routes, are powerful and diverse.

How their effects in modifying landscapes.

How political, economic, and social decisions

affect the landscape.

q Nearly all characteristics of landscape structure,functioning, and change operate at levels ofandare confined bypolitical, economic, and social

forces.

In such cases, specific human decisions act astriggersor decision catalysts that may betransmitted to another landscape (or landscape

element) by communication, and cause change


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8.3 A LANDSCAPE MODIFICATIONGRADIENT

q Human influences on landscapes are numerous and it isneither possible nor useful to consider each of these inisolation.

q A more promising approach is to consider the combined

effects of all human influences on a landscape. To do this, we can observe a gradient of landscape

modification, extending from a natural landscapewithout significant human impact to an urban landscape(i.e. large city) -- and make historical observations, since

each landscape is a product of its historicaldevelopment.

The natural landscape is in equilibrium with its (zonal)soil, while the city is the highest level of human-causedmodification (or "artificialization") considered.


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q In a highly diversified region, five primary landscapetypes will be discussed

1. Natural landscapewithout significant

human impact

2. Managed landscapefor example, pastureland or forest, where native species aremanaged and harvested.

3. Cultivated landscapewith villages andpatches of natural or managed ecosystemsscattered within the predominant cultivation.

4. Suburban landscapea town and countryarea with a heterogeneous patchy mixture of

residential areas, commercial centers, cropland,managed vegetation, and natural areas.

5. Urban landscapewith remnant managedpark areas scattered in a densely built up matrixseveral kilometers across.

q We will concentrate on the horizontal structure of

Figure 8.7 Patch characteristics changing alonga landscape modification gradient. The landscapemodification levels are (1) natural, (2) managed,(3) cultivated, (4) suburban, and (5) urban.

Figure 8.8 Corridors and other featureschanging along a landscape modification gradient.Landscape modification levels are: (?) natural, (2)managed, (3) cultivated, (4) suburban, and (5)urban. The matrix of a cultivated landscape isextensive where a single crop predominates, butlow where a few crops predominate in similarproportions.


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Figure 8.7 Patchcharacteristicschanging along alandscapemodificationgradient. Thelandscapemodification levelsare (1) natural, (2)managed, (3)cultivated, (4)


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Figure 8.8Corridors and otherfeatures changing

along a landscapemodificationgradient. Landscapemodification levelsare: (?) natural, (2)managed, (3)

cultivated, (4)

8 3 SC S


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8.3.1 NATURAL LANDSCAPES

q In the natural landscapes we see a highlyconnected matrix (Figure 8.6) surroundinga relatively low density ofnatural patchesand corridors.

q The grain of the landscape is usually rathercoarse, and in many cases boundariesbetween landscape elements are indistinct.

Most patches are environmentalresource patches resulting from spatialvariations in physical factors, butdisturbance-caused patches are alsopresent (Figure 8.7).

Figure 8.6 A highlyconnected rain forest matrix

contrasted with a rivercorridor and agriculturalpatches.

The few corridors present are almost always streamcorridors (Figure 8.8).

In flat areas, boundaries between landscape elements are

commonly parallel to topographic contours, while on slopestheir limits are often linked to the depth of soil or watertable, resulting in an inter-digitating pattern of thevegetation.

In either case, boundaries are highly curved and rarely

straight. Average patch size is large, but more striking isthe hi h variabilit in atch size.

v

Natural landscape = An area where human effects, ifpresent, are not ecologically significant to the landscape as


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q Biomass, or potential energy accumulated by thevegetation, is almost always at its maximum.

The rate of photosynthesis is high, but because so muchenergy is required to support the large biomass, andbecause decomposers are actively breaking downbiomass, the net production available for sustained

human harvest is minimal (without significantlychanging the landscape).

Nutrient runoff to streams is present but generally small.

Species diversity is generally high and (in some naturallandscapes) extremely rich.


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qThe colonization of natural landscapes mayinvolve nomadic grazing of livestock or the

establishment of scattered clearings for cultivation(Figure 8.6). In either case, corridor and patch density

increases and matrix connectivity decreases. The major consequence of these new

landscape elements is that they serve asnuclei for the spreading of people and toolsinto the natural matrix of the landscape.

Livestock, domestic animals, introduced

plants, and people can move readily into theimmediate surrounding area that hadpreviously been remote.

The other side of results, of course, is thatthose native animals that require

remoteness or large tracts of undisturbed


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8.3.2

MANAGEDLANDSCAPE Major changes

appear as weobserve themanaged

landscape(pastureland,rangeland, orforests harvestedf r w r t

Figure 8.9 Geometrizationintroduced into a managed range/andlandscape near Crystal, Idaho (UnitedStates).

vManaged landscape = A landscape, such asrangeland or forest, where native species are

harvested


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Mineral nutrient cycles may beextensively disturbed as a resultof widespread management andharvest activities along with thecumulative localized effects ofclearings, hamlets, and roads.

After logging, for example,mineral nutrient losses from anecosystem typically increasesharply, and then soon drop as

vegetative regrowth accelerates. However, if regrowth is inhibited

for a period by disturbance, largemineral nutrient losses,especially of nitrate, can be

expected (Figure 8.10).

Average net production for the whole landscape is positive,with patchy harvests, reflecting the locations of settlements.Harvest patterns also vary temporally, taking place annuallyin the case of sheep, for example, or at several-decade

intervals in the case of wood products.

Figure 8.10 Dissolved ions leachingout of undisturbed (a) versus disturbed(b) forest ecosystems. Disturbance inthese three forests of southern Indiana(United

states) is a roottrenching

technique with prevention of vegetation


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Figure 8.10 Dissolved ions leaching out of undisturbed (a)versus disturbed (b) forest ecosystems. Disturbance in thesethree forests of southern Indiana (United states) is a roottrenching technique with prevention of vegetation regrowth.


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q Species diversity in managed

landscapes may increase ordecrease.

Perhaps often the number ofnative

species that disappear is greater thanthe number of nonnative species thatare introduced in patches across thelandscape.

Even more striking is the relativehomogenization of the matrix.

While some native species, especially

among the vertebrates, become rare,


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8.3.3 CULTIVATED LANDSCAPES

8.3.3.1 The Development of Cultivation

q In flat temperate areas of Europe, agriculture developedand deciduous forest was removed. By late in the Iron Age(1250 to 1400 a.d.) , a so-called open-field landscape(Figure 8.11) had formed along with a social system thatdirectly controlled land use practices.

q Extensive plains were often totally cultivated and typicallyunderwent a system ofthree-field rotation.

While one field was in winter wheat,

one would be in summer grain, and

one in fallowthat is, abandoned to natural vegetation,soil refertilization, and often a few livestock.v Cultivated landscape = A landscape dominated by

plow land for crops, but ussually with patches ofnatural

and managed land present


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q The land around a village was divided into three relativelylarge homogeneous sections that were rotated nearly everyyear.

A new section could be in fallow to prevent soildepletion,

while in the other sections all the farmers had to worktogether to produce the same crop, and then cattle andsheep were permitted to graze those sections.

q The next phase took place when a network of hedgerowswas constructed to form enclosures for pastures orcultivation.

The establishment of enclosed fields that began to

develop around the end of the fourteenth century waslinked to an increase in livestock. The grazing oflivestock was widespread and even high elevationparcels were carved out of the forest for enclosures.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the spread of

the field enclosures was accompanied, progressively, bythe cultivation of crops such as peas, beans, clover,

Yearly cropping pattern inIndonesia: IFS

Agricultural land use in Sundanese:

pekarangan dan talun


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The rural agricultural system functioned in this manner inall middle European countries up to the nineteenth century.Extensive hedgerow removal then occurred in many of theopen plain areas.

Although traces of the former enclosure landscapes remain,today's plains have much larger fields and fewerhedgerows, as a consequence of the mechanization offarming.

q

Agricultural systems can be quite stable in human hands, asthose of plains in Europe and the Ukraine.

Agricultural systems on plains, however, remain particularlysubject to the hazards of geopolitics. There are numerousexamples that have been ravaged or altered to become

deserts.

Agricultural land conversion Recent trend to sustainable agricultural

system


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8.3.3.2 The Development of Villages

q A village is a cluster of homes in a rural area, somewhatlarger than a hamlet, that includes at least one common

building or a market place. The location of a village usually has to do with the

presence of particular necessities such as access to wellwater or defense against ravaging during insecureperiods (Figure 8.12).

By the late Paleolithic, about 6000 b.c., a village wasalready installed at the "Iron Gates" site by the DanubeRiver in Yugoslavia.

In the Middle East, many traces of villages have been

discovered that date to the second half of the fifthmillennium b.c. (e.g., Tell Massuna in Mesopotamia,Saktchegozou in Syria, and Sialk in northwestern Iran).

Egyptian sites apparently were still hamlets in the fourthmillennium b.c.

v Rural = in, of, characteristic of, suitablefor, the country (opp. of urban)


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q Villages, of course, do not represent alandscape by themselves but ratherrepresent a new type of landscape element.

A village may be linear in shape (Figure8.12), as is Marschufendorf today inGermany, for example, and the manysettlements called "rangs" that linecountry roads in Quebec.

However, most villages are somewhatcircular as a result of a physical or socialconstraint, such as a fortified site or thehub of an open-field agricultural area.Villages may also be a loose cluster of

hamlets, often connected by a hedgerownetwork.

q Whatever shape they have, villages cause

an increase in the number of patchespresent in a landscape,

Figure 8.12Linear villagedeveloped in agorge for areligiouscommunity dating

to the tenthcenturya.d. St.Cuilhem le Desert,Languedoc,southern France.

v Gorge = narrowopening, usu. witha stream , betweenhills or mountains

q This type of rural landscape with a village structure can be


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q This type of rural landscape with a village structure can bevery stable and persist over several centuries or evenmillennia, as has been the case in Numidia and Switzerland.

Ecological catastrophes such as floods, salinization of

irrigated land (Jacobsen and Adams, 1958), and loss offertility, as well as economic or military setbacks, cancause a long-term loss of the village structure from alandscape.

q It is recognized that a large number of widespread or

"cosmopolitan" species "follow" human aggregations aroundthe world. Several of such species are particularly abundantin villages and may be called village species.

Village species provide ecological repeatability to thevillage landscape elements scattered across a rurallandscape.

q A modification or extension of the village role in thelandscape can be seen today in some landscapes in socialistand other countries where collectives have been built in the

rural landscape.


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8.3.3.3 Characteristics of Cultivated Landscapes

q Agricultural development of a landscape usually progressesthrough three stages.

1. Traditional agriculture: a somewhat heterogeneousfine-grained matrix with scattered, irregularly-shapedfield patchesthat have just been cultivatednext tograzed fallow patches.

2. Combined traditional and modern agriculture: similarexcept with wide, persistent, homogeneous patches onthe best soils.

3. Modern agriculture with remnants of traditionalagriculture: a matrix of large persistent homogeneous

parcels with scattered patches of traditional agricultureand remnant natural patches.

q The most general characteristic of the cultivatedlandscape is that geometrizationthe formation of linearand polygonal featureshas been imposed on it, and

straight lines are visible throughout.


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q The characteristics of thecultivated landscape based on thethree basic shapes of landscapeelements (area concept)

Stream corridors are oftendestroyed, and fewer remain(Figure 8.13), while linecorridors that connect villages

or are used in cultivation andharvest are widespread (Figure8.8).

Corridor networks are usuallyconspicuous and predominant,

and so matrix connectivity islow.

If a single crop is prevalent, thematrix covers a large portion ofthe landscape area.

In the case of a few major

Intensive cultivation that nearlyeliminates a stream corridor. Theresult is high levels of nutrient loss,stream bank erosion, flooding,stream sedimentation, watertemperature, and fishdisappearance.


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q Compared with managed landscapes, in cultivatedlandscapes:

Patch density increases, Variability in patch size decreases (Figure 8.7).

A marked shift in the causes of the patchesemerges.

Fewer disturbance patches and more introducedcultivated patches are evident,

More remnant patches appear as the natural

Managed vegetation is cut into increasingly fineresidual parcels.


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8.3.4.1 A Historical Overview of Cities

q The oldest town site known today is Jericho, founded in the latePaleolithic around 6000 b.c., in the Middle East.

q The first city-states of the Sumerian civilization were also holycities. The Sumerian civilization had four-sided pyramids with fivelevels. The oldest known sanctuary (about 3700 b.c.?) was foundat Eridou near the gulf between Iran and Saudi Arabia.

q The landscapes of Mesopotamia (now primarily Iraq) weredominated by rounded pyramids with exterior staircases(ziggurats). At Our (Ur), which dates to the third millennium b.c.,trees and shrubs formed an island of protective shadeor a sacredwood on the highest level of the pyramid. In the eighth centuryb.c. at the same site (then called Assour), Sennacherib (landscape

architects or botanists) built a sort of botanical garden, coveringlocal species, as well as those from territories to the north, theeast, and the Mediterranean shores.


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q The combination of architecture and plantsreached its zenith in the suspended gardens ofBabylon.

The gardens were almost certainly constructedby Nebuchadnezzar II (604 to 561 b.c.) andwere to have been dedicated to Amouhid,daughter of King Midas, who languished for the

green forests of her childhood. These gardens, 120m on a side, had the form of

an amphitheater and were bounded by exteriorcolonnades 25 m high.

Trees 4 m in circumference and 60 m high werereported to grow there.

Three wells were found in the center of thesuspended gardens during excavations. Thewater was originally brought up to the summit


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q Egypt is no longer considered the sole progenitor of urbancivilizations but it played a key role in the development ofthe city form.

Around the beginning of the third millennium b.c., thepeoples of Upper Egypt near the Nile and Lower Egyptaccepted a common sovereign, Menes, who initiated anarchitecture of a gradiose scale.

The terraced 60 m pyramid of Djeser dates from justbefore 2600 B.C. The great pyramids and the Sphynx(built during the fourth dynasty, 2600-2480 b.c.)attained a maximum height of 146 mas high as themuch later Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome.

q

These brief examples of landscape development inMesopotamia and Egypt illustrate the process ofsequentoccupance.

This term refers to the landscape changes producedwhen a sequence of different cultures occupies the same

area.

vSovereign = supreme ruler, esp. amonarch

Gradiose = ?


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q Similar trends doubtless took place in other parts of the world.

The early Chinese town Liang Chengzhen, dating to about 3500B.C.), whereas astronomy (or geomancy) may also have played a

role in the design of some cities. The Greek name for townpolisexpresses the idea that there

politics, the process of governing, came into being (Plato, 428-348 b.c. The Republic).The politically powerful almost inevitablymade their role sacred and erected monumental buildings thatreflected a new holy or religious mentality.

The large cathedrals of Europe, the Mayan temples (Figure8.15a), the forbidden city of Peking, and the sacred steps ofBenares along the River Ganges in India all are sacredmonuments.

In modern times, political power is manifested directly in thebuildings that symbolize governmentgovernment monumentssuch as the Kremlin (Figure 8.15b), Versailles, the HofburgImperial Palace, and the Capitol in Washington.

Construction now is focused more on "temples to a new god,

moneythat is, financial monuments, including skyscrapers like


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8.3.4.2 Characteristics ofSuburbia

q The characteristics of thesuburban landscape based onthe three basic shapes oflandscape elements (areaconcept) (Figure 8.16).

Line corridors and networkscontinue to increase, whilestream corridors decrease(Figure 8.8).

Matrix area and connectivity

are minimal. Patchiness is nearly at its

maximum in the suburbanlandscape (Figure 8.7).

The richness of types oflandscape elements is very

Figure 8.16 New housingdevelopments and woodlandcorridors in a suburbanlandscape. Undeveloped areas

in suburbia are usually underenormous competing land-usepressures, including shopping,industrial, housing, wastedisposal, and nature reserveinterests.

Average net productivity for the landscape is always patchy and


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q Average net productivity for the landscape is always patchy andoften low.

In the face of increasing human population pressure,cultivated fields and managed remnant patches in

suburban landscape may soon be gobbled up for otherland uses (Figure 8.16).

The suburban landscape has a special kind of dynamicssince it continues to creep outward from cities,maintaining a consistent form.

Mineral nutrient cycling in suburban landscapes isessentially unstudied and difficult to characterize becauseof the extreme landscape heterogeneity.

q Species diversity is high, perhaps usually greater than that ofthe natural landscape. Many species characteristic of natural andcultivated landscapes are present overall.

The plants and animals from nurseries, florists, and petstores that are associated with human aggregations arealso a large source of species richness.

Only some of these species can successfully colonize themore natural portions of the suburban landscape, but

those that do often become significant pests. In the built-up portions of the landscape a large biota of

v Gobble up = eat (up) fast, noisy, and greedilyv Creep = move along with the body close to the ground


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8.3.5 URBAN LANDSCAPES

q Cities are a type of organizationtotally different from the latePaleolithic encampments andhamlets.

q The development of hamlet into cityoccurred when a relativelyunorganized homogeneous ensemble

transforms itself into an organizedstructure that cycles objects,information, and energy within itself

v Encamp = settled in a campv Ensemble = a thing view as the sum of its parts

v Urban = of or in a townvUrbanize = change from a rural to an urban character

v Urban Landscape = A landscape with a densely built-up

matrixs


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8.3.5.1 Specialization

q

A city has a large human populationand functions by having a series ofspecialized objects flow through anetwork.

q A primary difference between a cityand a group of huts is that in a citypeople have specialized or diversified

roles. In villages of Eskimos in the Arctic,

Indians of the Matto Grasso in Brazil,

and Aborigines of central Australia, each

v Hut = small simple or crude house or shelterv Blacksmith = ?

v Artisan = skilled manual worker or ceaftsman

8 3 2 i i


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8.3.5.2 Writing

q The above vision of the birth of cities is reinforced by aremarkable concurrent event.

Writing was born when cities appeared.

The origins of these two revolutionary developmentswere not unrelated.

Traces of the first of many writings have been found at

Ourouk in Sumeria along the Euphrates River.

These texts of commercial dealings and inventories arepreceded only by trading chips or stones from the latePaleolithic.

q Scholarly classes arose along with the erection ofsanctuaries and the origin of holy cities in this epoch.

In this manner Mexico City was organized around thetemples of the Sun and the Moon, and remained so aslate as 1525 when the Spanish soldiers arrived.

v Potters wheel = horizontal revolving disk to carry clayduring moulding

v Mould = make (an object) in a required shape or from certain

ingredients


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8.3.5.3 UrbanStructure and

Functionq The city has a

network of

circulatorystructures whereinthe exchanges

occur (Figure8.17).

q The circulation

routes or streets,

Figure 8.17 Circulatorynetwork underpinning theurban block or patchstructure. Each block is

unique and depends on theinputs from, and outputs to,the particular circulatoryconfiguration surrounding it.

v Pave = cover (a street, floor, etc.) with a durablesurface

vSewer = conduit, usu. undergound, for carrying offdrainage water and sewage

v Conduit = channel or pipe conveying liquidsv Underpin = support, sthrengthen


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q The urban structures that result fromthis functioning seem to some

designers analogous to biologicalstructures.

q The architect Saarinen (1965)

suggests that the physical order ofurban communities comparesfundamentally to the organic order of

organisms.q Doxiadis (1968) hypothesizes that all

human settlements are composed

of four indispensable elementsnature,

vIndispensable = that cannot be dispensed with;necessary.

v Dispend = deal out

q Urban landscapes are largelyd f t l t f


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composed of two general types oflandscape elements, streets and cityblocks, with a scattering of parks andother uncommon landscape features.

q Districts, distinctive groupings ofthese landscape elements, are usuallyevident and not uniformly distributed,as illustrated in the following threemodels of urban spatial structure.

In the concentric zone model, thesequence of districts surrounding acentral business district is similarin all directions (Figure 8.18a).

In the wedge-shaped sectormodel,a particular type of district, oftenextends from the central businessdistrict to the city limit, so differentsides of the city have different

districts (Figure 8.18b).

Figure 8.18 Threepatterns of urban

spatial structure


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q Such differing spatial patterns result

partially from the underlying geomorphicconfiguration, but

primarily from the cultural characteristics andthe political system.

q Hence, the present pattern reflects any previousimprint or plan ranging from, for example, theroutes chosen by cows (some claim) before Bostonarose, to the highly planned city of Brasilia.

8 3 l f h


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8.3.5.4 Ecology of theModern City

q Relatively few animal and plantspecies thrive and reproduce in themodern city.

q The biological system is totallypolarized around the needs of thehuman species. While unplanned

assemblages of species always existin the city, artificial communities ofplants and animals are constructed

as a depauperate symbol or reminder

vThrive = grow strong and healthyvDepauperate = ?

v Biophilia =affinity and need for plants andanimals

v Conduit = channel or pipe conveying liquidsv Underpin = support, sthrengthen


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q By the year 2000, UNESCO estimates that three billionpeople will have squeezed in around urban zones.

Most of these inhabitants will be in 60 cities of more

than five million people, 47 of which will be in thedeveloping nations.

Thus, urban landscapes are rapidly increasing innumber, and unique circulation and structural patternsare emerging for each.

q Characteristics or urban landscape:

an extensive corridor network of streets perforates theurban landscape, producing a tremendous density of tinyequal-sized introduced patches (Figure 8.17);

all other patch and corridor types are at a minimum(Figures 8.7 and 8.8);

those that remain, such as the occasional streamcorridor, urban woodlot, golf course, or cemetery are

conspicuous and of exceptional importance to the biota.

v Squeeze = exert pressure onv Exert = bring to bear, use (a quality, force,

influence, etc)v Conspicuous = easily seen; attracting attention;


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Average net productivity for the landscape is negative, asthe entire ecosystem is fundamentally based on massiveimports of plant and animal food.

o Inputs include sunlight, water, fuel, food, manufacturedgoods, and atmospheric deposits usually containing highpollutant levels.

o Outputs include sewage, solid wastes, water, heat, andvarious pollutants.

Species diversity of most animal and plant groups is low,although in spots it may be relatively high where nonnativespecies are abundant.

The city is two ecological systems, spatially superimposed

but with generally minor linkages.

o The primary productivity of the city grass, trees, andother plants supports a rather simplified trophicstructure that involves a few herbivores or carnivoressuch as squirrels and birds.

o


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q 8.3.6 THE MEGALOPOLIS

q The magnitude of inputs and outputs and of services withina city cannot increase indefinitely without creating

problems.

q The following activities disrupt the urban ecological systemeffectively, rapidly, and critically:

severe drought spells,

disruptions in the availability of oil, coal, and electricity,

air pollution build-ups,

military attacks, and

strikes of truckers, railroaders, waste disposal workers,and sewage treatment personnel.

q The political system responds to disruption in varyingdegrees of rapidity and effectiveness.

q

The larger the magnitudes of inputs and outputs relative to

v Megalopolis is the tying together of two unlikelandscapes that serve different major functions,

i.e. city and suburban, as a result of of increasing

q An alternative to indefinite urbanization where a city


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q An alternative to indefinite urbanization, where a citycontinues to spread in all directions, is megalopolization.

q The end product of this process is an enormous suburban

landscape, on an order of magnitude larger than before,within which cities are scattered.

q The smaller city centers are simply a distinctive type oflandscape element within suburbia.

q The large cities, as nuclei giving rise to megalopolization,are urban landscapes in their own right and are surroundedby the gigantic suburban landscape.

v Megalopolization = the process of forminga number of cities surrounded by suburbia.


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q The two types of landscapes within the megalopolis aretightly bound together.

For example: flows of commuters, information, and

pollutants between the landscapes are extensive.

Thus, the megalopolis appears to be a distinctive pointalong the gradient of concentrating and specializinghuman processes that began with scattered homes andhamlets.

q Characteristics of megalopolis

The megalopolis is anything but the pinnacle of stability.

With its enormous inputs and outputs, the megalopolis is

more dependent than ever on other landscapes. Massive amounts of fossil fuel sustain the megalopolis.

In its unique political system, many governmental bodies(most of which are in competition) make decisions.

Hence, responses to or recovery from disruption are

v Pinnacle = culmination or climax


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q One worries about the risk of a degeneration. The ultimatepoint in the aggregation process has been termed an"ecumenopolis" or "planetopolis," or world city.

q These ideas seem to be academic exercises in planningwithout the constraints of universal ecological principles.

vAn ecumenopolis (pl. ecumenopoleis) was atype of planet, or in some cases a moon,whose entire surface was covered with a

single worldwide city

(http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Ecumenopolis [18

Apr 2012])

SUMMARY
http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Ecumenopolis%20%5B18http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Ecumenopolis%20%5B18


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Human influences (except where extremely heavy) increase

landscape heterogeneity in three primary ways.

First, rhythms of natural disturbances, ranging from oneday to a few centuries long, are modified throughagricultural and forestry practices.

Second, the methods of landscape modificationforexample, extracting renewable resources, developingagriculture, and constructing buildings andcommunication routeshave increased in number andeffectiveness. Such methods range from early huntingand use of fire to modern machinery and chemicalinputs.

Third, the aggregation process, from hamlets to cities, isrelated to the centralization of necessities, thediversification or specialization of human roles, the

construction of sacred and other monuments, and thedevelo ment of olitics.

SUMMARY

SUMMARY


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In the cultivated landscape, two prominent features aregeometrizationand the abundance of villages that develop

where special resources exist. Villages contain characteristic species and serve as

nuclei for effects on the landscape.

The megalopolis is composed of two linked landscapes,the urban and the suburban, with huge inputs, outputs,and internal cycling. It is subject to many disturbancesand has a relatively ineffective political system torespond to the disturbances.

When each of the structural characteristics of landscapes is

separately examined along a human modification gradientfrom natural to urban, patterns emerge.

Introduced patches increase, whereas disturbance andenvironmental resource patches decrease.

Patch density and regularity in shape increase, whereaspatch size and variability decrease.

SUMMARY

QUESTIONS


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QUESTIONS1. How is it that a particular environmental change is a disturbance in one landscape but

not in another? To back up your answer, cite and explain examples of two quitedifferent types of natural environmental changes.

2. When were the various human cultural and technological phases? How did humansaffect landscapes during each phase?

3. Does altering the periodicity of natural rhythms produce minor or major effects on alandscape? Why? Is it possible for a particular type of human influence to alter naturalrhythms of different lengths? Explain.

4. Describe, in the order of their introduction, the major types of agricultural methodsthat have changed landscapes over time.

5. How do patch origins change along a landscape modification gradient? How aboutaverage patch sizes and shapes?

6. How do corridor types change along a landscape modification gradient? How would ageographer describe the patterns of geometrization along the gradient?

7. How does net production change along a landscape modification gradient? How domineral nutrient outputs change?

8. What characteristics differentiate a hamlet, a village, a city, and a megalopolis?

9. What changes in species diversity and composition take place in proceeding from anatural to a managed landscape? In what order? What major recommendations can

08 the role of human in development landscape

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