08a620 industrial visit cum lecture.docx
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08A620 INDUSTRIAL VISIT CUM LECTURE
A REPORT
C. SIDDHARTH NARAYANAN (10A249)
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of engineering
Branch: Automobile Engineering
March 2013
DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
PSG COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous institution)
COIMBATORE-641004
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our gratitude to Dr. R.RUDRAMOORTHY, Principal, PSG College of Technology,Coimbatore, for his never ending support and words of encouragement and for providing excellentenvironment to undergo training as Industrial Visits.
We sincerely thank Dr. S. NEELAKRISHNAN, Head, Department of Automobile Engineering, for providing the necessary facilities for completing this report.
Our deep and profound thanks to Mr. M. P. Bharathimohan, Assistant Professor, Department of Automobile Engineering, who have been our mentor and constant source of encouragement andmotivation and for having helped us to complete this series of Industrial Visits with aplomb.
Our efforts could never be complete without thanking the DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEEERING for providing us the requisite permissions to use facilities available in their state-of-the-art laboratories.
For the souls that helped us, how better could we express our gratitude than extend our sincere and
humble thanks.
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CONTENTS
An Introduction to Fuel Cells.
Observation of Submersible Pump and Motor
Assembly
Product Lifecycle Management
Ambal Autos – An Industrial Visit
CNC Turning and Machining Centres
Industrial visit to GT Tuners Limited
Guest Lecture by Head of GT Tuners
Introduction to Rapid Prototyping
Industrial Visit to ROOPA Engineering industry
Guest Lecture on by faculty from Ashok Leyland
Wire EDM and CMM
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1. Fuel Cells.
INTRODUCTION:
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a
chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is the most common
fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used.
Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxygen
to run, but they can produce electricity continually for as long as these inputs are supplied.
The most important design features in a fuel cell are:
The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel
cell.
The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.
The anode catalyst, which breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode
catalyst is usually made up of very fine platinum powder.
The cathode catalyst, which turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or
carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a
nanomaterial-based catalyst.
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Types of Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This classification
determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts
required, the temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors.
These characteristics, in turn, affect the applications for which these cells are most suitable.
There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own
advantages, limitations, and potential applications. Learn more about:
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
Alkaline Fuel Cells
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
Regenerative Fuel Cells
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POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE (PEM) FUEL CELLS:
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells — also called proton exchange membrane fuel
cells — deliver high-power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume,
compared with other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and
porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen
from the air, and water to operate and do not require corrosive fluids like some fuel cells.
They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or on-board
reformers.
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C
(176°F). Low-temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and
results in less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires
that a noble-metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's electrons
and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO
poisoning, making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if
the hydrogen is derived from an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds cost. Developers
are currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more resistant to CO.
PEM fuel cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some stationaryapplications. Due to their fast startup time, low sensitivity to orientation, and favorable
power-to-weight ratio, PEM fuel cells are particularly suitable for use in passenger vehicles,
such as cars and buses.
A significant barrier to using these fuel cells in vehicles is hydrogen storage. Most fuel cell
vehicles (FCVs) powered by pure hydrogen must store the hydrogen on-board as a
compressed gas in pressurized tanks. Due to the low-energy density of hydrogen, it is
difficult to store enough hydrogen on-board to allow vehicles to travel the same distance as
gasoline-powered vehicles before refuelling, typically 300 – 400 miles. Higher-density liquid
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fuels, such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and gasoline, can be
used for fuel, but the vehicles must have an on-board fuel processor to reform the methanol to
hydrogen. This requirement increases costs and maintenance. The reformer also releases
carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas), though less than that emitted from current gasoline-
powered engines.
DIRECT METHANOL FUEL CELLS:
Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system directly or
can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as
methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), however, are
powered by pure methanol, which is mixed with steam and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.
Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of some fuel
cells because methanol has a higher energy density than hydrogen — though less than gasolineor diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to transport and supply to the public using our current
infrastructure because it is a liquid, like gasoline.
Direct methanol fuel cell technology is relatively new compared with that of fuel cells
powered by pure hydrogen, and DMFC research and development is roughly 3 – 4 years
behind that for other fuel cell types.
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ALKALINE FUEL CELLS:
Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and they
were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical energy and
water on-board spacecrafts. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as
the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and
cathode. High-temperature AFCs operate at temperatures between 100°C and 250°C (212°F
and 482°F). However, newer AFC designs operate at lower temperatures of roughly 23°C to
70°C (74°F to 158°F)
AFCs' high performance is due to the rate at which chemical reactions take place in the cell.
They have also demonstrated efficiencies near 60% in space applications.
The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide (CO2). In
fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can affect this cell's operation, making it
necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. This purification process
is costly. Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's lifetime (the amount of time before
it must be replaced), further adding to cost.
Cost is less of a factor for remote locations, such as space or under the sea. However, to
effectively compete in most mainstream commercial markets, these fuel cells will have to
become more cost-effective. AFC stacks have been shown to maintain sufficiently stable
operation for more than 8,000 operating hours. To be economically viable in large-scale
utility applications, these fuel cells need to reach operating times exceeding 40,000 hours,
something that has not yet been achieved due to material durability issues. This obstacle is
possibly the most significant in commercializing this fuel cell technology.
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PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS:
Phosphoric acid fuel cells use liquid phosphoric acid as an
electrolyte — the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon
carbide matrix — and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The chemical reactions that take place in
the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.
The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is considered the "first
generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the most
mature cell types and the first to be used commercially. This
type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power
generation, but some PAFCs have been used to power large
vehicles such as city buses.
PAFCs are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels that
have been reformed into hydrogen than PEM cells, which are easily "poisoned" by carbon
monoxide because carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode, decreasing
the fuel cell's efficiency. They are 85% efficient when used for the co-generation of
electricity and heat but less efficient at generating electricity alone (37% – 42%). This is only
slightly more efficient than combustion-based power plants, which typically operate at 33% –
35% efficiency. PAFCs are also less powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight
and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also
expensive. Like PEM fuel cells, PAFCs require an expensive platinum catalyst, which raisesthe cost of the fuel cell.
MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS:
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Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-
based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. MCFCs arehigh-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt
mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO2)
matrix. Because they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650°C (roughly 1,200°F) and
above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.
Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions over
phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs). Molten carbonate fuel cells, when coupled with a turbine,
can reach efficiencies approaching 65%, considerably higher than the 37% – 42% efficiencies
of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and used, overall fuelefficiencies can be as high as 85%.
Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, MCFCs do
not require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the
high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the
fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.
Molten carbonate fuel cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide "poisoning"
— they can even use carbon oxides as fuel — making them more attractive for fueling with
gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types,scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal reforming of coal, assuming they
can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting
coal, a dirtier fossil fuel source than many others, into hydrogen.
The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high temperatures
at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component
breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-
resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without
decreasing performance.
REGENERATIVE FUEL CELLS
Regenerative fuel cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and generate heat and
water as byproducts, just like other fuel cells. However, regenerative fuel cell systems can
also use electricity from solar power or some other source to divide the excess water into
oxygen and hydrogen fuel — this process is called "electrolysis." This is a comparatively
young fuel cell technology being developed by NASA and others.
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COMPARISON OF FUEL CELL TYPES:
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2.SUBMERSIBLE PUMP AND MOTOR ASSEMBLY:
submersible pump (or electric submersible pump (ESP)) is a device which has a hermetically
sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the fluid
to be pumped. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump cavitation, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the fluid surface.
Submersible pumps push fluid to the surface as opposed to jet pumps having to pull fluids.
Submersibles are more efficient than jet pumps.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Produced liquids, after being subjected to great centrifugal forces caused by the high
rotational speed of the impeller, lose their kinetic energy in the diffuser where a conversion of
kinetic to pressure energy takes place. This is the main operational mechanism of radial and
mixed flow pumps.
The pump shaft is connected to the gas separator or the protector by a mechanical coupling at
the bottom of the pump. Well fluids enter the pump through an intake screen and are lifted by
the pump stages. Other parts include the radial bearings (bushings) distributed along the
length of the shaft providing radial support to the pump shaft turning at high rotational
speeds. An optional thrust bearing takes up part of the axial forces arising in the pump but
most of those forces are absorbed by the protector‘s thrust bearing.
PSG PUMPS AND MOTORS:
SUBMERSIBLES (3")
Application : Household, apartments, Industrial and rural water
supply, Irrigation ( Flood, Sprinkler, Drip),
Farm houses water supply, cooling water circuiting systems.
Features :
water filled design for longer life
Pump casing is designed to ensure the best
hydraulic efficiency. Dynamically balanced rotors and impellers for vibration free
performance
Wide voltage range motor design and hardwearing water
lubricated bushes
Easy dismantling and repairing
Highly durable water cooled rewind able motor
SUBMERSIBLES (4")
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Application :
Household, apartments, Industrial and rural water
supply, Irrigation (Flood, Sprinkler, Drip),Farm houses water sup
ply, cooling water circuiting systems.
Features :
Water filled design for longer life
Pump casing is designed to ensure the best
hydraulic efficiency.
Dynamically balanced rotors and impellers for vibration free
performance
SUBMERSIBLES (6")
Application :
Industrial and rural water supply, Irrigation (
Flood, Sprinkler, Drip), Farm houses water supply,
cooling water circuiting systems.
Features :
water filled design for longer life
Pump casing is designed to ensure the best
hydraulic efficiency.
Dynamically balanced rotors and impellers for
vibration free performance
Wide voltage range motor design and hardwearing
water lubricated bushes
Easy dismantling and repairing
Highly durable water cooled rewind able motor
SUBMERSIBLES (8")
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Application :
Industrial and rural water supply, Irrigation (
Flood, Sprinkler, Drip), Farm houses water supply,
cooling water circuiting systems.
Features :
water filled design for longer life
Pump casing is designed to ensure the best
hydraulic efficiency.
Dynamically balanced rotors and impellers for
vibration free performance
Wide voltage range motor design and hardwearing
water lubricated bushes
Easy dismantling and repairing
Highly durable water cooled rewind able motor
PARTS:
PRESSURE DIE CASTING:
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Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel
dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during
the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper,
aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin based alloys. Depending on the type of metal
being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.
ADVANTAGES:
Excellent dimensional accuracy (dependent on casting material, but typically 0.1 mm
for the first 2.5 cm (0.005 inch for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for each additional
centimetre (0.002 inch for each additional inch).
Smooth cast surfaces (Ra 1 – 2.5 micrometres or 0.04 – 0.10 thou rms).
Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand and permanent mould casting
(approximately 0.75 mm or 0.030 in).
Inserts can be cast-in (such as threaded inserts, heating elements, and high strength
bearing surfaces).
Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations.
Rapid production rates.
Casting tensile strength as high as 415 mega Pascal (60 ksi).
Casting of low fluidity metals.
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3. PLM:
• product lifecycle management is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a
product from its conception, through design and manufacture, to service and disposal.
• PLM systems help organizations in coping with the increasing complexity and
engineering challenges of developing new products for the global competitive
markets.
• PLM describes the engineering aspect of a product, from managing descriptions and
properties of a product through its development and useful life.
Phase 1: Conceive:
Imagine, specify, plan, innovate
Phase 2: Design
Describe, define, develop, test, analyse and validate
Phase 3: Realize
Manufacture, make, build, procure, produce, sell and deliver
Phase 4: Service
Use, operate, maintain, support, sustain, phase-out, retire, recycle and disposal.
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FIVE PRIMARY AREAS OF PLM:
• Systems engineering (SE)
• Product and portfolio management (PPM)
• Product design (CAx)
• Manufacturing process management (MPM)
• Product Data Management (PDM)
Benefits of PLM:
• Reduced time to market
• Improved product quality
• Reduced prototyping costs
• More accurate and timely request for quote generation
• Ability to quickly identify potential sales opportunities and revenue contributions
•
Savings through the re-use of original data
• A framework for product optimization
• Reduced waste Savings through the complete integration of engineering workflows
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4. AMBAL AUTOS:
Workshop facilities:
1. WORKSHOP
2. SERVICE
3. EXPRESS SERVICE BAY
4. BUFFING
5. WATER WASH
6. BODY SHOP
7. DENTING
8. TINKERING
9. PAINT BOOTH
10. WHEEL ALIGNMENT
11. WATER WAHSH
WHAT THEY DO:
Workshop: Where the entire automobile are serviced by the technicians and electricians.
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Service: Every vehicle that comes for periodic servicing like oil change, battery check, and
other major components functional testing are carried. If there is any fault found that part is
replaced by a new one.
Express service bay: Here the vehicle which is to serviced quickly is handled and the
charges is costly. Express service bay for people who are always busy.
Buffing: here they do the finishing process like buffing and polishing. Polishing and
buffing are finishing processes for smoothing a work piece‘s surface using an abrasive and a
work wheel. Technically polishing refers to processes that use an abrasive that is glued to the
work wheel, while buffing uses a loose abrasive applied to the work wheel. Polishing is amore aggressive process while buffing is less harsh, which leads to a smoother, brighter
finish. A common misconception is that a polished surface has a mirror bright finish,
however most mirror bright finishes are actually buffed.
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Water Wash: A car wash (also written as "carwash") or auto wash is a facility used to clean
the exterior and, in some cases, the interior of motor vehicles.
Wheel Alignment: Wheel alignment, sometimes referred to as breaking or tracking, is
part of standard automobile maintenance that consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels so
that they are set to the car maker's specification. The purpose of these adjustments is to
reduce tire wear, and to ensure that vehicle travel is straight and true (without "pulling" to
one side). Alignment angles can also be altered beyond the maker's specifications to obtain a
specific handling characteristic. Motorsport and off-road applications may call for angles to
be adjusted well beyond "normal" for a variety of reasons.
Painting: Spray painting is a painting technique where a device sprays a coating (paint, ink,
varnish, etc.) through the air onto a surface. The most common types employ compressed gas —
usually air — to atomize and direct the paint particles. Spray guns evolved from airbrushes, and the
two are usually distinguished by their size and the size of the spray pattern they produce. Airbrushes
are hand-held and used instead of a brush for detailed work such as photo retouching, painting nails or
fine art. Air gun spraying uses equipment that is generally larger. It is typically used for covering
large surfaces with an even coating of liquid. Spray guns can be either automated or hand-held and
have interchangeable heads to allow for different spray patterns. Single color aerosol paint cans are
portable and easy to store.
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Tinkering: The process of tinkering is that to service the vehicles which are undergone to
accidents.
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5. CNC Turning and Machining Centres
CNC machines:
• CNC are computer controlled
automatic machines which will
machine the give component to
required dimension.
• Types
LATHE
Milling machine
Combined lathe and milling
• The VICE: This holds the material
to be cut or shaped. Material must be held securely otherwise it may 'fly' out of the
vice when the CNC begins to machine. Normally the vice will be like a clamp that
holds the material in the correct position.
• The GUARD: The guard protects the person using the CNC. When the CNC is
machining the material small pieces can be 'shoot' off the material at high speed. This
could be dangerous if a piece hit the person operating the machine. The guard
completely encloses the the dangerous areas of the CNC.
• The CHUCK: This holds the material that is to be shaped. The material must be
placed in it very carefully so that when the CNC is working the material is not thrown
out at high speed.
• The MOTOR: The motor is enclosed inside the machine. This is the part that rotatesthe chuck at high speed. Servo motor is used.
• The LATHE BED: The base of the machine. Usually a CNC is bolted down so that it
cannot move through the vibration of the machine when it is working.
• The CUTTING TOOL: This is usually made from high quality steel and it is the part
that actually cuts the material to be shaped.
Lathe operations:
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• Turning
• Facing
• Threading
• Parting off
• Chamfering
• drilling
Some Milling operations:
• Profiling
• Plain milling
• Drilling
• Slotting
G codes and m codes:
• G codes are preparatory functions
•
m-codes are miscellaneous functions.
SOME G-CODES:
• G00-Rapid positioning
• G01-linear interpolation
• G02-circular interpolation clockwise
• G03 -circular interpolation counter
clockwise
• G04-Dwell
• G17- xy plane
• G18- zx plane
• G19- yz plane
• G20- in inches
• G21- in mm
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M-codes:
M00- compulsory stop
M02- End of program
M03- Spindle on (clockwise rotation)
M04- Spindle on (counterclockwise rotation)
M05- Spindle stop
M06-Automatic tool change (ATC)
M08-Coolant on (flood)
M09-Coolant off
M30-End of program, with return to program top.
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6. Industrial visit to GT Tuners.
Motorized Work:
We offer a full line of auto repair services in our state-of-art facility. our services include
engine repair, transmission reapir, electrical repair, fluid ex-change, air-conditioning repair,
battery service, brake repair , tyre service and alignment and balancing services. We also
have a full service auto parts department that can obtain most parts in minutes.
Body Collision Repairs:
From fender benders to severe body damage, our repair shop repairs them all. Our staff hasyears of touch-of-class car repair and body shop experience in all aspects of auto body and
frane damage repair. All work is done in-house and utmost care is given to make your car
look like a new one after we are done. We are approved by major insurance companies.
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Auto Painting:
We offer custom paiting and custom mixed paints with original manufacturer paint match-up. At our
state-of-the-art paint booth we ahve computerized paint mixing with Glasruit Paint. We offer you
factory baked finish. Restoration of Bumpers / Fenders / Doors / Hooks / Dent Reapir / ScratchRepairs and any banged up part of your car. We are approved by global car manufacturers.
Car Valeting:
We use the best possible products available to the trade. For this reason we don't just use one
brand, but the best product for any particular job. These inlcude Auto Glym,3M,Meguirs.
The combination results in an outstanding overall finish which we are confident of. Hence,
you would be proud of as much as we are.
Power Performance Tuning:
Performance Tuning Accesories, Air-Intake system, Body and Exterior Styling, Interior
Styling, Roll-Cage, Brake System, Bushing, Chasis / Body Strengthing, Cooling Systems,Drive Train, ECU, Electronics, Fuel Systems, Super Charger, Suspension and Turbo.
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8. Rapid Prototyping:
Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a
physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data.
The Basic Process:
Although several rapid prototyping techniques exist, all employ the same basic five-step
process. The steps are:
1. Create a CAD model of the design
2. Convert the CAD model to STL format
3. Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers
4. Construct the model one layer atop another
5. Clean and finish the model
Selective Laser Sintering:
uses a laser beam to selectively fuse powdered materials, such as nylon, elastomer, and
metal, into a solid object.
Parts are built upon a platform which sits just below the surface in a bin of the heat-
fusable powder. A laser traces the pattern of the first layer, sintering it together. The
platform is lowered by the height of the next layer and powder is reapplied. This process
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continues until the part is complete. Excess powder in each layer helps to support the part
during the build. SLS machines are produced by DTM of Austin, TX.
Fused Deposition Modelling:
In this technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip that moves in the
x-y plane. Like a baker decorating a cake, the controlled extrusion head deposits very thin
beads of material onto the build platform to form the first layer. The platform is maintained ata lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic quickly hardens. After the platform lowers, the
extrusion head deposits a second layer upon the first. Supports are built along the way,
fastened to the part either with a second, weaker material or with a perforated junction.
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9. ROOPA Engineering industry:
They produce components that are used for spinning mills. Example for such componentsspinning dies, nut and bolts, washers.
The machines used are:
1. Centre lathe
2. Turret lathe
3. Drilling machine
4. CNC milling machine
5. CNC lathe machine
6. Thread forming
7. Gear hobbing
8. Gear milling
Centre lathe: The Centre Lathe is used to manufacture cylindrical shapes from a range of
materials including; steels and plastics. Many of the components that go together to make anengine work have been manufactured using lathes. These may be lathes operated directly by
people (manual lathes) or computer controlled lathes (CNC machines) that have been
programmed to carry out a particular task. A basic manual centre lathe is shown below. This
type of lathe is controlled by a person turning the various handles on the top slide and cross
slide in order to make a product / part.
Turret lathe: The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe that is used for repetitive
production of duplicate parts, which by the nature of their cutting process are usually
interchangeable. It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of the turret, which is anindexable tool holder that allows multiple cutting operations to be performed, each with a
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different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no need for the operator to perform
setup tasks in between, such as installing or uninstalling tools, nor to control the tool path.
The latter is due to the toolpath's being controlled by the machine, either in jig-like fashion,
via the mechanical limits placed on it by the turret's slide and stops, or via electronically-
directed servomechanisms for computer numerical control lathes.
Drilling machine:
When it comes to mechanical machining, radial drilling machine is used for all functions
such as drilling, counter boring, spot facing, lapping, screwing reaming, tapping and boring.
Radial drilling machines work well with a variety of material such as cast iron, steel, plastic
etc. Drilling machines hold a certain diameter of drill (called a chuck) rotates at a specified
rpm (revolutions per minute) allowing the drill to start a hole.
Radial drills are of three types. With the plain radial drill, the drill spindle is always vertical,
and may not swing over any point of the work. The spindle in the half-universal drill may be
swung over any point of the work and it may swing in one plane at any angle to the vertical
up to complete reversal of the direction of the drill. And the spindle in the full-universal drill
can be swung in any plane at any angle to the vertical.
Gear hobbing machine:
Hobbing is a machining process for making gears, splines, and sprockets on a hobbing
machine, which is a special type of milling machine. The teeth or splines are progressivelycut into the work piece by a series of cuts made by a cutting tool called a hob. Compared to
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other gear forming processes it is relatively inexpensive but still quite accurate, thus it is used
for a broad range of parts and quantities.
Gear milling:
Milling is a form-cutting process limited to making single gears for prototype or very small
batches of gears as it is a very slow and uneconomical method of production. A involute
form-milling cutter, which has the profile of the space between the gears, is used to remove
the material between the teeth from the gear blank on a horizontal milling machine. The
depth of cut into the gear blank depends on the cutter strength, set-up rigidity and
machinability of the gear blank material.
Thread forming: Thread forming is performed using a flute less tap, or roll tap,[17] which
closely resembles a cutting tap without the flutes. There are lobes periodically spaces around
the tap that actually do the thread forming as the tap is advanced into a properly sized hole.
Since the tap does not produce chips, there is no need to periodically back out the tap to clear
away chips, which, in a cutting tap, can jam and break the tap. Thus thread forming is
particularly suited to tapping blind holes, which are tougher to tap with a cutting tap due to
the chip build-up in the hole. Note that the tap drill size differs from that used for a cutting
tap and that an accurate hole size is required because a slightly undersized hole can break the
tap. Proper lubrication is essential because of the frictional forces involved, therefore
lubricating oil is used instead of cutting oil.
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10. SMED and Guest Lecture by Ashok Leyland:
Single-Minute Exchange of Die (SMED) is one of the many lean production methods for
reducing waste in a manufacturing process. It provides a rapid and efficient way of
converting a manufacturing process from running the current product to running the next product. This rapid changeover is key to reducing production lot sizes and thereby improving
flow (Mura).
Effects of implementation:
However, the power of SMED is that it has a lot of other effects which come from
systematically looking at operations; these include:
Stockless production which drives inventory turnover rates,
Reduction in footprint of processes with reduced inventory freeing floor space
Productivity increases or reduced production time
o Increased machine work rates from reduced setup times even if number of
changeovers increases
o Elimination of setup errors and elimination of trial runs reduces defect rates
o Improved quality from fully regulated operating conditions in advance
o Increased safety from simpler setups
o Simplified housekeeping from fewer tools and better organization
o Lower expense of setupso Operator preferred since easier to achieve
o Lower skill requirements since changes are now designed into the process
rather than a matter of skilled judgment
Elimination of unusable stock from model changeovers and demand estimate errors
Goods are not lost through deterioration
Ability to mix production gives flexibility and further inventory reductions as well as
opening the door to revolutionized production methods (large orders ≠ large
production lot sizes)
New attitudes on controllability of work process amongst staff.
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How Can SMED Help My Organization?
SMED and quick changeover programs have many benefits for manufacturers. From
reducing downtime associated with the changeover process to reducing the waste created
during startup. Additional benefits include:
WIP and lot size reduction
Finished goods inventory reduction
Improved equipment utilization/yield
Increased profitability without new capital equipment purchase
Effective SMED programs identify and separate the changeover process into key operations –
External Setup involves operations that can be done while the machine is running and before
the changeover process begins, Internal Setup are those that must take place when the
equipment is stopped. Aside from that, there may also be non-essential operations. The
following is a brief example of how to attack the SMED process:
Eliminate non-essential operations – Adjust only one side of guard rails instead of
both, replace only necessary parts and make all others as universal as possible.
Perform External Set-up – Gather parts and tools, pre-heat dies, have the correct new
product material at the line… there's nothing worse than completing a changeover
only to find that a key product component is missing.
Simplify Internal Set-up – Use pins, cams, and jigs to reduce adjustments, replace
nuts and bolts with hand knobs, levers and toggle clamps… remember that no matter
how long the screw or bolt only the last turn tightens it.
Measure, measure, measure – The only way to know if changeover time and startup
waste is reduced is to measure it!
Always measure time lost to changeover and any waste created in the startup process so that
you can benchmark improvement programs. Ever see a racing pit crew? They have mastered
SMED and quick changeover! In less than 15 seconds they can perform literally dozens of
operations from changing all tires and refueling the car to making suspension adjustments
and watering the driver. Watch closely next time – you will always see one person with a
stopwatch benchmarking their progress.
Quick Definition
SMED is the term used to represent the Single Minute Exchange of Die or setup time that can
be counted in a single digit of minutes. SMED is often used interchangeably with ―quick
changeover‖. SMED and quick changeover are the practice of reducing the time it takes to
change a line or machine from running one product to the next. The need for SMED and
quick changeover programs is more popular now than ever due to increased demand for
product variability, reduced product life cycles and the need to significantly reduce
inventories.
Expanded Definition
The successful implementation of SMED and quick changeover is the key to a competitiveadvantage for any manufacturer that produces, prepares, processes or packages a variety of
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products on a single machine, line or cell. SMED and quick changeover allows manufacturers
to keep less inventory while supporting customer demand for products with even slight
variations. It also allows manufacturers to keep expensive equipment running because it can
produce a variety of products. SMED has a lot of hidden benefits that range from reducing
WIP to faster ROI of capital equipment through better utilization.
To understand how SMED can help we have to look at the changeover process. Typically
when the last product of a run has been made the equipment is shut down and locked out, the
line is cleaned, tooling is removed or adjusted, new tooling may be installed to accommodate
the next scheduled product. Adjustments are made, critical values are met (die temperature,
accumulators filled, hoppers loaded, etc.) and eventually the startup process begins – running
product while performing adjustments and bringing the quality and speed up to standard. This
process takes time, time that can be reduced through SMED.
Goals
Reduce inventory and improve cash flow
Reduce lot sizes and improve lead time
Reduce impact on equipment utilization and increase OEE
Reduce scrap rates and improve quality
Decrease changeover duration so that improve throughput and capacity
Increase daily model change and improve flexibility
Improve customer satisfaction and decrease costs so that become more competitive
By all means, utilise labor and energy effectively
Ensure standardization at each changeover and thus avoid individual solutions and
chaos.
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12. Wire EDM and CMM.
Electrical Discharge Machining
Electric discharge machining (EDM), sometimes colloquially also referred to as spark
machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking orwire erosion, is a manufacturing process
whereby a desired shape is obtained using electrical discharges (sparks). Material is removed
from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring current discharges between
two electrodes, separated by a dielectric liquid and subject to an electricvoltage. One of the
electrodes is called the tool-electrode, or simply the ‗tool‘ or ‗electrode‘, while the other is
called the workpiece-electrode, or ‗workpiece‘.
When the distance between the two electrodes is reduced, the intensity of the electric field in
the volume between the electrodes becomes greater than the strength of the dielectric (at least
in some point(s)), which breaks, allowing current to flow between the two electrodes. This
phenomenon is the same as the breakdown of a capacitor (condenser) (see also breakdown
voltage). As a result, material is removed from both the electrodes. Once the current flow
stops (or it is stopped – depending on the type of generator), new liquid dielectric is usually
conveyed into the inter-electrode volume enabling the solid particles (debris) to be carried
away and the insulating properties of the dielectric to be restored. Adding new liquid
dielectric in the inter-electrode volume is commonly referred to as flushing. Also, after a
current flow, a difference of potential between the two electrodes is restored to what it was
before the breakdown, so that a new liquid dielectric breakdown can occur.
Electrical Discharge Machining
Wire-cut EDM
The wire-cut type of machine arose in the 1960s for the purpose of making tools (dies) from
hardened steel. The earliest numerical controlled (NC) machines were conversions of
punched-tape vertical milling machines. The first commercially available NC machine built
as a wire-cut EDM machine was manufactured in the USSR in 1967. Machines that could
optically follow lines on a master drawing were developed by David H. Dulebohn's group in
the 1960s at Andrew Engineering Company for milling and grinding machines. Master drawings were later produced by computer numerical controlled (CNC) plotters for greater
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accuracy. A wire-cut EDM machine using the CNC drawing plotter and optical line follower
techniques was produced in 1974. Dulebohn later used the same plotter CNC program to
directly control the EDM machine, and the first CNC EDM machine was produced in 1976.
Coordinate Measuring Machine
A coordinate measuring machine is a 3D device for measuring the physical geometrical
characteristics of an object. This machine may be manually controlled by an operator or it
may be computer controlled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third
moving axis of this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light,
amongst others. A machine which takes readings in six degrees of freedom and displays these
readings in mathematical form is known as a CMM.
Coordinate Measuring Machine
Description
The typical 3 "bridge" CMM is composed of three axes, an X, Y and Z. These axes are
orthogonal to each other in a typical three dimensional coordinate system. Each axis has a
scale system that indicates the location of that axis. The machine will read the input from the
touch probe, as directed by the operator or programmer. The machine then uses the X,Y,Z
coordinates of each of these points to determine size and position with micrometre precision
typically.A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is also a device used in manufacturing and
assembly processes to test a part or assembly against the design intent. By precisely recording
the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the target, points are generated which can then be analyzed
via regression algorithms for the construction of features. These points are collected by using
a probe that is positioned manually by an operator or automatically via Direct Computer
Control (DCC). DCC CMMs can be programmed to repeatedly measure identical parts, thus
a CMM is a specialized form of industrial robot.
PartsCoordinate-measuring machines include three main components:
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The main structure which include three axes of motion
Probing system
Data collection and reduction system - typically includes a machine controller, desktop
computer and application software.
UsesThey are often used for:free-standing, handheld and portable.