Agricultural Agricultural Development: Development: What What

Comes After Comes After 'Modern Agriculture'? 'Modern Agriculture'?

College of Humanities & DevelopmentCollege of Humanities & Development

CAU, Beijing, March 6, 2009CAU, Beijing, March 6, 2009

Norman Uphoff, CIIFADNorman Uphoff, CIIFAD

‘‘Modern Agriculture’Modern Agriculture’Developed during 20Developed during 20thth century has century has been the most been the most successfulsuccessful system of system of production in history. However, it is production in history. However, it is also the most also the most stressfulstressful for natural for natural resources – for resources – for soil, water and airsoil, water and air

Between 1961 and 2001, when the Between 1961 and 2001, when the world’s world’s populationpopulation grew by grew by 100%100%, our , our totaltotal foodfood productionproduction was increased by was increased by 180%180% During this period, During this period, cereal production cereal production went up by went up by 130%130%, averting major food , averting major food shortfallsshortfalls

Question:Question: How advisable is it to How advisable is it to continue along our continue along our present present

technological pathtechnological path?? -- -- doing essentially doing essentially more of the samemore of the same? ? Or should we move in Or should we move in other directionsother directions??

‘‘Modern agriculture’ as developed and Modern agriculture’ as developed and practiced in latter third of 20th century practiced in latter third of 20th century culminated in culminated in ‘‘Green RevolutionGreen Revolution’’

Should it be Should it be extendedextended, even , even intensifiedintensified?? -- are there -- are there other, better alternativesother, better alternatives??The Green Revolution is losing The Green Revolution is losing

momentum; so consider momentum; so consider agroecological agroecological alternativesalternatives

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‘‘Modern Agriculture’Modern Agriculture’as developed during the 20th century as developed during the 20th century began in the began in the first halffirst half of the century of the century with the with the industrializationindustrialization of of agriculture:agriculture:

StandardizationStandardization of operations according of operations according to the best available scientific knowledgeto the best available scientific knowledge MechanizationMechanization of operations, making of operations, making larger scale of production possible, linked larger scale of production possible, linked withwith Labor-savingLabor-saving technologies that raised technologies that raised labor productivity and reduced the need for labor productivity and reduced the need for laborlabor Use of chemical inputsUse of chemical inputs to enhance soil to enhance soil fertility, achieve weed control & crop fertility, achieve weed control & crop protection – protection – agriculture as mechanical agriculture as mechanical processprocess

‘‘Modern Agriculture’Modern Agriculture’accelerated in the accelerated in the latter halflatter half of 20th of 20th century being increasingly shaped century being increasingly shaped according to according to scientific formulationsscientific formulations of of agriculture:agriculture:

Genetic potentials Genetic potentials were more were more emphasized; although there was a focus on emphasized; although there was a focus on breeding breeding in the 1st phase, this became in the 1st phase, this became major thrustmajor thrust, along with, along with Input-dependence --Input-dependence -- as breeding as breeding enhanced the enhanced the input-responsivenessinput-responsiveness of of genotypes -- alsogenotypes -- also Energy-intensityEnergy-intensity was greatly increased, was greatly increased, andand Capital-intensityCapital-intensity became greater with became greater with the continuing the continuing substitution of capital for substitution of capital for laborlabor leading to ever larger-scale leading to ever larger-scale operationsoperations

‘‘Modern Agriculture’Modern Agriculture’was widely expected to ‘was widely expected to ‘feed the feed the worldworld’ – to avoid famine and ’ – to avoid famine and promote developmentpromote development Fixation on Fixation on yieldyield took precedence took precedence over either over either efficiencyefficiency or or sustainabilitysustainability in resource usein resource use Total factor productivity Total factor productivity was was valued, but valued, but yieldyield has been main has been main yardstick of success, fixated on yardstick of success, fixated on total total productionproduction Low pricesLow prices were desired for political were desired for political and poverty-reduction reasons, but and poverty-reduction reasons, but these are these are disincentivesdisincentives for producers for producers

Basic features of ‘Modern Basic features of ‘Modern Agriculture’Agriculture’

MECHANIZATIONMECHANIZATION – land-extensive – land-extensive strategy, monoculture, capital- and strategy, monoculture, capital- and energy-intensive, plus labor-savingenergy-intensive, plus labor-saving

RELIANCE ON EXOGENOUS INPUTSRELIANCE ON EXOGENOUS INPUTS input-intensive, agrochemical solutionsinput-intensive, agrochemical solutions

GENETIC ENHANCEMENTGENETIC ENHANCEMENT – focus on – focus on genetic modification and biotechnologygenetic modification and biotechnology

GLOBALIZATIONGLOBALIZATION – intl. division of labor, – intl. division of labor, driven by market forces; large driven by market forces; large production units; production units; capitalcapital becomes the becomes the dominant factor of production > dominant factor of production > landland

‘‘Post-Modern Agriculture’Post-Modern Agriculture’ Responds to new and Responds to new and

changing set of changing set of real-world real-world conditionsconditions

Will Will ‘re-biologize’‘re-biologize’ agriculture, agriculture, giving more emphasis to giving more emphasis to ecologicalecological perspectives and perspectives and microbiologicalmicrobiological knowledge knowledge

Will be more Will be more participatoryparticipatory, , less expert-driven, with more less expert-driven, with more concern for the concern for the environmentenvironment

New 21st Century New 21st Century Realities:Realities: Reduced Reduced per capita availabilityper capita availability of of

land & waterland & water for agricultural sectorfor agricultural sector PopulationPopulation continues to grow, esp. in LDCs continues to grow, esp. in LDCs Land degradationLand degradation and and urban expansionurban expansion are are

diminishing our area of arable landdiminishing our area of arable land Competing demands for Competing demands for waterwater are growing are growing

from industries and domestic consumptionfrom industries and domestic consumption Precipitation and surface flows of Precipitation and surface flows of WATERWATER are are

jeopardized by jeopardized by climate changeclimate change – both – both amount amount and predictability of water are at riskand predictability of water are at risk

Must improve Must improve land & water productivityland & water productivity ! !

New 21st Century New 21st Century Realities:Realities: EnergyEnergy costs costs are are increasingincreasing, and are , and are

unlikely to return to 20th century levelsunlikely to return to 20th century levels Diminishing returnsDiminishing returns to inputs to inputs are are

more and more evident, more and more evident, e.g., N use in Chinae.g., N use in China Agrochemical ‘treadmill’Agrochemical ‘treadmill’ presents an presents an

uncertain futureuncertain future Environmental qualityEnvironmental quality↓↓ -- soil, water, -- soil, water,

airair Yield stagnationYield stagnation with Green Revolutionwith Green Revolution Millions of poor householdsMillions of poor households are still are still

currently currently by-passed by GR technologyby-passed by GR technologyThese These not matters of opinionnot matters of opinion – REAL TRENDS – REAL TRENDS

World Grain Production and Fertilizer World Grain Production and Fertilizer Use, and Cumulative Increases by Use, and Cumulative Increases by

Decades Decades YearYear Grain Grain

produc-produc-tiontion

((mmt)mmt)

Increase Increase in in

productioproduction by n by

decade decade

Fertili-Fertili-zer usezer use(mmt) (mmt)

Increase Increase in in

fertilizer fertilizer use by use by decadedecade

19501950 631631 ---- 1414 ----

19611961 805805 +174+174 (28%)(28%)

3131 +17+17 (121%)(121%)

1969-71 1969-71 1,1161,116 +311+311 (39%)(39%)

6868 +37+37 (113%)(113%)

1979-811979-81 1,4421,442 +326+326 (29%)(29%)

116116 +48+48 (70%) (70%)

1989-911989-91 1,7321,732 +290+290 (20%)(20%)

140140 +24+24 (21%)(21%)

1999-011999-01 1,8851,885 +153+153 (9%) (9%) 138138 -2 -2 (-1.4%)(-1.4%)

Fortunately, there are new production Fortunately, there are new production opportunities that are opportunities that are breaking the rulesbreaking the rules of the ‘Green Revolution’ of the ‘Green Revolution’ – example of – example of the the System of Rice IntensificationSystem of Rice Intensification (SRI) (SRI)

SRI capitalizes upon what are referred to SRI capitalizes upon what are referred to as as GxE interactionsGxE interactions ( genetic potential x ( genetic potential x environment ) that result in environment ) that result in phenotypesphenotypes

By changing By changing management of plants, soil, management of plants, soil, water and nutrientswater and nutrients, SRI methods give , SRI methods give better phenotypesbetter phenotypes from any from any genotypegenotype

Agroecological approach reduces chemical Agroecological approach reduces chemical inputs, with no need to modify genesinputs, with no need to modify genes

MADAGASCAR: SRI field, traditional variety, 2003

Cambodian farmer inTakeo Province,

with rice plant grown from single seed

using SRI methodswith traditional variety

Nepalifarmer inMorangDistrict,with SRI

plant fromsingle seed

Tribal farmer in Jharkhand state of India, with a ‘rainfed’ SRI plant with 65 tillers (110-day variety)

Punjabi farmer in India showing difference betweenrice plant phenotypes with SRI and non-SRI practices

Vietnamese farmer in Dông Trù village, Hanoi Province, holding up SRI& regular rice plants in front of their fields – after typhoon has passed

SRI

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Yellowleaf andsheathPanicle

Leaf

Sheath

Stem

47.9% 34.7%

“Non-Flooding Rice Farming Technology in Irrigated Paddy Field”Dr. Tao Longxing, China National Rice Research Institute, 2004

How are these changes How are these changes achieved?achieved?

By By different management practicesdifferent management practices for: for: PlantsPlants – – transplant transplant very young seedlings very young seedlings

8-15 days old; 8-15 days old; singlysingly -- 1 per hill, not more; -- 1 per hill, not more; quickly, gently, shallow; and quickly, gently, shallow; and widely spacedwidely spaced in in square patternsquare pattern, 25x25 cm apart or , 25x25 cm apart or widerwider

WaterWater – – no continuous floodingno continuous flooding of fields -- of fields -- apply minimum or alternate wetting/dryingapply minimum or alternate wetting/drying

SoilSoil – – good levelinggood leveling for water distribution; for water distribution; plus both plus both passive and activepassive and active soil aerationsoil aeration – – use rotary hoe to control weeds, aerate soiluse rotary hoe to control weeds, aerate soil

NutrientsNutrients – application of – application of as much as much compostcompost as possible,as possible, any biomass or organic matter any biomass or organic matter

Conoweeder used in Sri Lanka

Rotary-hoeweeding of

SRI rice paddies in

Madagascar

Careful transplanting of single, young seedlings, widely spaced

SRI CAN BE MECHANIZED: Costa Rican SRI with mechanized transplanting and

harvesting-- 8 t/ha yield in first season

SRI practices usually result SRI practices usually result in:in:

• HigherHigher yieldsyields by 50-100%, or by 50-100%, or moremore• Water reductionsWater reductions of 25-50% of 25-50%• No need forNo need for capital capital expenditureexpenditure • No reliance onNo reliance on agrochemical agrochemical inputsinputs• Pest and disease resistancePest and disease resistance • Drought and lodging toleranceDrought and lodging tolerance• Better Better grain qualitygrain quality• Lower Lower costs of productioncosts of production by10- by10-20%20%

Indonesian farmer inLombok Province

comparing riceplants

Evaluation of SRI in Evaluation of SRI in Indonesia:Indonesia:

Supervised by Nippon Koei TA team, Supervised by Nippon Koei TA team, over 9 seasons and across 3 provincesover 9 seasons and across 3 provinces

Monitoring of Monitoring of on-farm comparison trialson-farm comparison trials (N=12,133) on total of 9,429.1 ha(N=12,133) on total of 9,429.1 ha

Average SRI yieldAverage SRI yield = 7.61 t/ha vs. 4.27 = 7.61 t/ha vs. 4.27 t/ha t/ha (3.34 tons = 78% > farmer methods)(3.34 tons = 78% > farmer methods)

Water savingWater saving = 40% = 40% Fertilizer applicationsFertilizer applications reduced by 50% reduced by 50% Costs of productionCosts of production reduced by 20% reduced by 20% Net income:Net income: 6.2 m vs. 1.2 m 6.2 m vs. 1.2 m

Rupiahs/haRupiahs/ha

What What requirements/constraintsrequirements/constraints??

Water controlWater control – need for best results; – need for best results; may not be possible in some places; may not be possible in some places; improve with investment & organizationimprove with investment & organization

More laborMore labor during the learning phase; during the learning phase; but SRI can but SRI can even become even become labor-savinglabor-saving

Farmer skill and motivationFarmer skill and motivation – expect – expect experimentation and adaptation; experimentation and adaptation; improve human capital; need extension improve human capital; need extension system, but can spread farmer-to-system, but can spread farmer-to-farmerfarmer

BiomassBiomass supply supply – but can use fertilizer – but can use fertilizer Crop protectionCrop protection – may be necessary – may be necessary

Alternative PARADIGMS of Alternative PARADIGMS of Production Production

‘‘GREEN REVOLUTION’GREEN REVOLUTION’ was based on:was based on:(a) (a) Changing the Changing the genetic potentialgenetic potential of plants, andof plants, and

(b) Increasing the(b) Increasing the use of external inputsuse of external inputs -- -- more water, fertilizer, insecticides, etc.more water, fertilizer, insecticides, etc.

AGROECOLOGY AGROECOLOGY (SRI) (SRI) changes the way that changes the way that plants, soil, water and nutrientsplants, soil, water and nutrients are managed:are managed:

(a) Promoting(a) Promoting the growth of root systemsthe growth of root systems andand

(b) Enhancing the (b) Enhancing the abundance and diversityabundance and diversity of of soil organismssoil organisms to better enlist their benefitsto better enlist their benefits

These changes give These changes give better PHENOTYPESbetter PHENOTYPES – also with – also with other cropsother crops in addition to ricein addition to rice

SWI wheat crop in Poland before going into winter dormancy

Finger millet in India: on right: local variety and traditional mgmt;

center: improved variety with same mgmt; on left: improved variety with SRI mgmt

Reported yields of 125-235 t/ha compared with usual 65 t/ha

SRI concepts and methods

adapted to sugar cane (left)

in Andhra Pradesh, India

Extensions of SRI to Other Crops: Extensions of SRI to Other Crops: Uttarakhand / Himachal Pradesh, India Uttarakhand / Himachal Pradesh, India Crop No. of

Farmers

Area (ha)

Grain Yield (t/ha)

%Incr.

2006 Conv. SRI

Rajma 5 0.4 1.4 2.0 43Manduwa

5 0.4 1.8 2.4 33

Wheat Resear-ch

Farm

5.0 1.6 2.2 38

2007

Rajma 113 2.26

1.8 3.0 67

Manduwa

43 0.8 1.5 2.4 60

Wheat (Irrig.)

25 0.23

2.2 4.3 95

Wheat (Unirrig.)

25 0.09

1.6 2.6 63

Rajma (kidney beans)

Manduwa (millet)

Agroecological ‘secret’ can be Agroecological ‘secret’ can be foundfound

in the in the rootsroots and in and in soil organismssoil organisms Rice roots that are Rice roots that are continuously floodedcontinuously flooded

(growing in anaerobic soil conditions) (growing in anaerobic soil conditions) are are 78% degenerated78% degenerated by flowering phase by flowering phase (start of reproduction) (start of reproduction) (Kar et al., 1974)(Kar et al., 1974)

Also, roots of flooded rice remain mostly Also, roots of flooded rice remain mostly in in top 10-20 cmtop 10-20 cm (Kronzucker et al., 1997)(Kronzucker et al., 1997)

Roots growing in unflooded, aerobic soil Roots growing in unflooded, aerobic soil grow larger, deeper and retain their grow larger, deeper and retain their healthy white coloration – black or brown healthy white coloration – black or brown color is indicative of necrosis (dying color is indicative of necrosis (dying back)back)

IRAN: SRI roots and normal

(flooded) roots: note

difference in color

as well as size

Cuba – Two plants of the same age(52 DAP) and same variety (VN 2084)

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N uptake (kg/ha)

Gra

in y

ield

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/ha

)

Grain yield SRI (kg/ha)

Grainyield Conv

(kg/ha)

Poly.:Grain yield

SRI (kg/ha)

Poly.: Grain yield

Conv. (kg/ha)

Rice grain yield response to N uptake

Regression relationship between N uptake and grain yield for SRI and

conventional methods (Barison, 2003) – same relation for P and K

Soil biotaSoil biota are not visible like are not visible like rootsroots

But they provide But they provide many valuable servicesmany valuable services:: Improved Improved soil structure/functionsoil structure/function – worms, etc.– worms, etc. NitrogenNitrogen fixation and fixation and phosphorusphosphorus

solubilizationsolubilization various kinds of bacteria various kinds of bacteria (Turner/Haygarth, 2001)(Turner/Haygarth, 2001)

Nutrient cyclingNutrient cycling, especially N, especially N – – microbes, microbes, protozoa and nematodes protozoa and nematodes (Bonkowski, 2004)(Bonkowski, 2004)

Acquisition of Acquisition of water and Pwater and P – – mycorrhizal fungimycorrhizal fungi PhytohormonePhytohormone production production – – bacterial, fungibacterial, fungi Induced systemic resistanceInduced systemic resistance – – many microbesmany microbes

‘‘Ascending Migration of Endophytic Ascending Migration of Endophytic Rhizobia, from Roots and Leaves, inside Rhizobia, from Roots and Leaves, inside Rice Plants and Assessment of Benefits to Rice Plants and Assessment of Benefits to

Rice Growth Physiology’Rice Growth Physiology’Rhizob-ium test strain

Total plant root

volume/pot (cm3)

Shoot dry weight/ pot (g)

Net photo-synthetic

rate (μmol-2 s-1)

Water utilization efficiency

Area (cm2) of flag leaf

Grain yield/ pot (g)

Ac-ORS571 210 ± 36A 63 ± 2A 16.42 ± 1.39A 3.62 ± 0.17BC 17.64 ± 4.94ABC 86 ± 5A

SM-1021 180 ± 26A 67 ± 5A 14.99 ± 1.64B 4.02 ± 0.19AB 20.03 ± 3.92A 86 ± 4A

SM-1002 168 ± 8AB 52 ± 4BC 13.70 ± 0.73B 4.15 ± 0.32A 19.58 ± 4.47AB 61 ± 4B

R1-2370 175 ± 23A 61 ± 8AB 13.85 ± 0.38B 3.36 ± 0.41C 18.98 ± 4.49AB 64 ± 9B

Mh-93 193 ± 16A 67 ± 4A 13.86 ± 0.76B 3.18 ± 0.25CD 16.79 ± 3.43BC 77 ± 5A

Control 130 ± 10B 47 ± 6C 10.23 ± 1.03C 2.77 ± 0.69D 15.24 ± 4.0C 51 ± 4C

Feng Chi et al., Applied and Envir. Microbiology, 71 (2005), 7271-7278

Economic Evaluation (US$/ha) Economic Evaluation (US$/ha) Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ. Agric. Univ.

(N=100)(N=100)

ConventionConventional practicesal practices

SRI SRI practicespractices

Income from grain Income from grain

(Rs. 5.00 / kg)(Rs. 5.00 / kg) $ 659$ 659 $ 870$ 870

IIncome from strawncome from straw

(Rs. 0.25 / kg)(Rs. 0.25 / kg)$ 49$ 49 $ 63$ 63

Gross returnGross return $ 708$ 708 $ 933$ 933- minus costs - minus costs of cultivation of cultivation - $ 466- $ 466 - $ 414- $ 414

Net return/haNet return/ha $ 242$ 242 $ 519$ 519Water savingWater saving ---- 40-50%40-50%

Incidence of Diseases and Incidence of Diseases and PestsPests

Average of trial data (8 provinces) from Average of trial data (8 provinces) from Vietnam National IPM Program, 2005- Vietnam National IPM Program, 2005-

20062006Spring season Summer season

SRIPlots

FarmerPlots

Differ-ence

SRIPlots

FarmerPlots

Differ-ence

Sheath blight

6.7% 18.1% 63.0% 5.2% 19.8% 73.7%

Leaf blight

-- -- -- 8.6% 36.3% 76.5%

Small leaf folder*

63.4* 107.7* 41.1% 61.8* 122.3* 49.5%

Brown plant hopper*

542* 1,440* 62.4% 545* 3,214* 83.0%

AVERAGE 55.5% 70.7%* Insects/m2

Sri Lanka rice fields: same variety, same irrigation system, and same drought : standard methods (left), SRI (right)

Agroecological Strategy:Agroecological Strategy: Smaller-scale intensive operationsSmaller-scale intensive operations

Achieve greater resource-efficiencyAchieve greater resource-efficiency

Energy-saving and energy-efficiencyEnergy-saving and energy-efficiency Capitalize on synergies and symbiosesCapitalize on synergies and symbioses

Mobilize Mobilize endogenous biological endogenous biological processes and potentialprocesses and potential in plants and soilin plants and soil

Foster greater resistance to Foster greater resistance to biotic biotic and abiotic stressesand abiotic stresses as new strategy as new strategy Seek to “Seek to “climate-proofclimate-proof” our agriculture” our agriculture

Agroecological AlternativesAgroecological Alternatives Make greater use of Make greater use of organic inputsorganic inputs to to

maintain soil fertilitymaintain soil fertility Don’t feed the plant -- feed the soil, Don’t feed the plant -- feed the soil,

and get the soil to feed the plantand get the soil to feed the plant

More emphasis on More emphasis on local production local production and consumptionand consumption Reduce energy requirementsReduce energy requirements Generate local purchasing powerGenerate local purchasing power

Support Support healthhealth of soil, plants, people of soil, plants, people

THANK YOUTHANK YOU

E-mail address:E-mail address:

ntu1@cornell.eduntu1@cornell.edu

SRI home page: SRI home page: http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/