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ABA 635 Concept ABA 635 Concept FormationFormation

Caldwell CollegeCaldwell CollegeApplied Behavior Applied Behavior

AnalysisAnalysis

Dr. Ken ReeveDr. Ken Reeve

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In the beginning…In the beginning… A person learned a skill (or response or A person learned a skill (or response or

behavior)behavior) And it was goodAnd it was good And the almighty behavior analyst And the almighty behavior analyst

said…said…

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Let there be different Let there be different “contexts”… …“contexts”… … ……in which the behavior should and in which the behavior should and

should not occurshould not occur And the behavior analyst said, “let us And the behavior analyst said, “let us

now study stimulus control!”now study stimulus control!” And this begat the notions of And this begat the notions of

GeneralizationGeneralization DiscriminationDiscrimination Discriminative stimuliDiscriminative stimuli Prompts of all manner and kindsPrompts of all manner and kinds Simple and complex antecedent stimuliSimple and complex antecedent stimuli Prompt & Stimulus FadingPrompt & Stimulus Fading Errorless learning MORE>>Errorless learning MORE>>

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Relevant and irrelevant stimulus Relevant and irrelevant stimulus

characteristicscharacteristics Stimulus “features”Stimulus “features” Stimulus “dimensions”Stimulus “dimensions” Intra-, Inter-, and Extra-dimensional Intra-, Inter-, and Extra-dimensional

generalization and discriminationgeneralization and discrimination Simple and conditional discriminationsSimple and conditional discriminations Delayed match-to-sampleDelayed match-to-sample Tacting (Object labeling)Tacting (Object labeling) Multiple exemplar trainingMultiple exemplar training Over-selectivity problemsOver-selectivity problems Programming for generalization Programming for generalization

MORE>>>MORE>>>

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Concept formationConcept formation Perceptual (Natural, Fuzzy) categoriesPerceptual (Natural, Fuzzy) categories Relational classesRelational classes Equivalence classesEquivalence classes Relational Frame theoryRelational Frame theory Etc.Etc.

And the behavior analyst said, “We have a lot And the behavior analyst said, “We have a lot to study, folks!”to study, folks!”

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Stimulus ControlStimulus Control controlling stimuli = antecedent events controlling stimuli = antecedent events

that precede operant (or respondent) that precede operant (or respondent) behavior that behavior that affectaffect likelihood of likelihood of occurrence (we will mostly focus on occurrence (we will mostly focus on operant behavior)operant behavior)

A controlling stimulus (S) is said to alter A controlling stimulus (S) is said to alter the probability of an operant, in the sense the probability of an operant, in the sense that the response is more (or less) likely that the response is more (or less) likely to occur when the stimulus is present.to occur when the stimulus is present.

Discriminative stimulus (SDiscriminative stimulus (SDD) or (S+) -) or (S+) - a controlling stimulus that sets the a controlling stimulus that sets the occasion for reinforcement of an operant.occasion for reinforcement of an operant.

S-delta (SS-delta (SΔΔ) or (S-) or extinction ) or (S-) or extinction stimulus stimulus - a stimulus that sets the - a stimulus that sets the occasion for extinction of an operant.occasion for extinction of an operant.

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Emitted versus evokedEmitted versus evoked•Operants can and do occur in the absence of any eliciting stimulus (they are said to be “freely emitted”). •However, when an SD comes to control occurrences of an operant (to alter its probability of occurring), then we say that the SD evokes the operant. •The term evoke dictates that the operant is under the stimulus control of an antecedent stimulus.

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Differential Differential ReinforcementReinforcement

for for SSDD or S or SΔΔ When a person responds in one situation When a person responds in one situation

but not in another, we say that the but not in another, we say that the person demonstrates a discrimination person demonstrates a discrimination between the situations. between the situations.

simplest way to teach differential simplest way to teach differential responding (a/k/a discrimination) is to responding (a/k/a discrimination) is to reinforce an operant in one situation and reinforce an operant in one situation and withhold reinforcement in the otherwithhold reinforcement in the other

““Stimulus control” refers to a change in Stimulus control” refers to a change in behavior that occurs when either an Sbehavior that occurs when either an SDD or Sor SΔΔ is presented. is presented.

When SWhen SDD presented, probability of presented, probability of response increases; when Sresponse increases; when SΔΔ is is presented, probability of response presented, probability of response decreases.decreases.

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Stimulus Stimulus Generalization vs. Generalization vs.

DiscriminationDiscrimination DISCRIMINATION = target DISCRIMINATION = target

behavior occurs in one situation behavior occurs in one situation but not in anotherbut not in another

We discriminate “among settings, We discriminate “among settings, people, stimuli”people, stimuli”

GENERALIZATION = respond GENERALIZATION = respond similarly in different situationssimilarly in different situations

We “generalize across settings, We “generalize across settings, people, stimuli”people, stimuli”

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Stimulus Stimulus GeneralizationGeneralization

operant is emitted in presence of new operant is emitted in presence of new stimuli (called “transfer of control”)stimuli (called “transfer of control”)

new stimuli presumably share common new stimuli presumably share common properties with the original properties with the original discriminative stimulusdiscriminative stimulus

Generalization and discrimination refer Generalization and discrimination refer to differences in the precision of to differences in the precision of stimulus control.stimulus control.

Discrimination and generalization are Discrimination and generalization are inversely related (as one goes up the inversely related (as one goes up the other goes down)other goes down)

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Generalization GradientGeneralization Gradient A A generalization gradientgeneralization gradient shows shows

the relationship between the the relationship between the probability of response and probability of response and stimulus value.stimulus value.

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Studying Stimulus Studying Stimulus ControlControl

To study generalization gradients, the To study generalization gradients, the researcher may arrange the researcher may arrange the presentation of Spresentation of SDD or S or SΔΔ so that one so that one follows the other (called follows the other (called successive successive discrimination training)discrimination training)..

In alternative procedure, In alternative procedure, simultaneous discrimination,simultaneous discrimination, the S the SDD and the Sand the SΔΔ are presented at the same are presented at the same time and the organism responds to one time and the organism responds to one or the other. or the other.

In In conditional disctriminationconditional disctrimination, the , the presence of a “sample stimulus” presence of a “sample stimulus” dictates which of two or more dictates which of two or more “compariosn stimuli” organism should “compariosn stimuli” organism should select.select.

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Errorless Errorless Discrimination and Discrimination and

FadingFading When the SWhen the SDD and the S and the SΔΔ are are

alternately presented as in alternately presented as in successive discrimination, the successive discrimination, the organism initially makes many organism initially makes many errors. errors.

That is, person continues to respond That is, person continues to respond in the presence of the S in the presence of the SΔΔ because because generalization often occurs unless generalization often occurs unless you teach otherwise.you teach otherwise.

As discrimination training As discrimination training progresses, a differential response progresses, a differential response occurs to the Soccurs to the SDD and S and SΔΔ..

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Problems with “Regular” Problems with “Regular” DiscriminationDiscrimination

Training ProceduresTraining Procedures BASIC RESEARCH IN “REGULAR” BASIC RESEARCH IN “REGULAR”

DISCRIMINATION TRAINING: pigeon DISCRIMINATION TRAINING: pigeon taught to peck (R) a green key (taught to peck (R) a green key (SSDD) for ) for food (food (SSrr).).

Once behavior is well established, color Once behavior is well established, color on key is changed to blue (on key is changed to blue (SSΔΔ) and ) and pecking pecking notnot reinforced reinforced

blue and green colors are alternately blue and green colors are alternately presentedpresented

During early training sessions, onset of During early training sessions, onset of extinction will generate emotional extinction will generate emotional behavior that interferes with ongoing behavior that interferes with ongoing operant behavior. (Bird is Mad!)operant behavior. (Bird is Mad!)

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Problems with “Regular” Problems with “Regular” DiscriminationDiscrimination

Training ProceduresTraining Procedures Extinction is an aversive Extinction is an aversive

procedure! procedure! Pigeons flap their wings Pigeons flap their wings

aggressively and will work for an aggressively and will work for an opportunity to attack another bird opportunity to attack another bird during the presentation of Sduring the presentation of SΔΔ ! !

Birds will even peck a different key Birds will even peck a different key if pecking turns off the extinction if pecking turns off the extinction stimulus (Sstimulus (SΔ)Δ), implying that the , implying that the stimulus is aversive. (this is an stimulus is aversive. (this is an avoidance behavior!) avoidance behavior!)

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Problems with “Regular” Problems with “Regular” DiscriminationDiscrimination

Training ProceduresTraining Procedures Because “emotional behavior” is elicited Because “emotional behavior” is elicited

by the frustrating trial and error, by the frustrating trial and error, discriminative responding takes a long discriminative responding takes a long time to develop!time to develop!

So…is there a better option?So…is there a better option?

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Yes: Errorless Yes: Errorless DiscriminationDiscrimination

Here, the teacher does not allow the organism Here, the teacher does not allow the organism to make mistakes by responding to the to make mistakes by responding to the extinction stimulus Sextinction stimulus SΔΔ..

Errorless discrimination involves gradually Errorless discrimination involves gradually introducing the Sintroducing the SΔΔ initially at a very weak initially at a very weak “intensity” so that responding to it is very low “intensity” so that responding to it is very low in probability. Thus, person is actually in probability. Thus, person is actually practicing NOT responding to it.practicing NOT responding to it.

Over repeated trials, intensity of the SOver repeated trials, intensity of the SΔ Δ

gradually increased. gradually increased. Eventually SEventually SΔΔ is presented in full intensity is presented in full intensity

and the person will not respond to it. and the person will not respond to it. So, a discrimination between the So, a discrimination between the ((SSDD)) and the and the

SSΔΔ was acquired without the errors of was acquired without the errors of responding to the Sresponding to the SΔΔ..

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FADINGFADING When some stimulus ALREADY occasions a When some stimulus ALREADY occasions a

response, but we want to have a DIFFERENT response, but we want to have a DIFFERENT stimulus occasion the response, then we stimulus occasion the response, then we might use a FADING PROCEDUREmight use a FADING PROCEDURE

PROMPT = an “artificial” PROMPT = an “artificial” SSDD that we use to that we use to make a behavior likely to occur when the make a behavior likely to occur when the

“natural” “natural” SSDD is ineffective is ineffective We then gradually reduce (FADE OUT) the We then gradually reduce (FADE OUT) the

prompt so that the control of the behavior prompt so that the control of the behavior

transfers to the “natural” transfers to the “natural” SSDD

Sometimes we FADE IN the “natural” Sometimes we FADE IN the “natural” SSDD

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More on FADINGMore on FADING Sometimes we can “morph” an “artificial” Sometimes we can “morph” an “artificial” SSDD

into the “natural” into the “natural” SSDD

This can be done with morphing software.This can be done with morphing software. Often done where a picture is morphed into a Often done where a picture is morphed into a

word over successive trials so that the word word over successive trials so that the word will control a verbal label such as CAT.will control a verbal label such as CAT.

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COMPLEX STIMULUS COMPLEX STIMULUS CONTROLCONTROL

Refers to situations in which the behavioral Refers to situations in which the behavioral function of an antecedent stimulus changes function of an antecedent stimulus changes depending on the presence of another depending on the presence of another stimulus.stimulus.

That is, in some situations, a stimulus might That is, in some situations, a stimulus might be an Sbe an SDD and in other situations the S and in other situations the SΔΔ

This is called CONDITIONAL This is called CONDITIONAL DISCRIMINATION LEARNING because the DISCRIMINATION LEARNING because the correct response is “conditional on” correct response is “conditional on” (dependent on) another antecedent(dependent on) another antecedent

A CONDITIONAL DISCRIMINATION is an “IF-A CONDITIONAL DISCRIMINATION is an “IF-THEN” ruleTHEN” rule

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CONDITIONAL CONDITIONAL DISCRIMINATION = DISCRIMINATION =

MATCHING TO SAMPLEMATCHING TO SAMPLE Because in conditional discrimination training, Because in conditional discrimination training,

the conditional stimulus is referred to as a the conditional stimulus is referred to as a SAMPLE and the choices we respond to are SAMPLE and the choices we respond to are called COMPARISON STIMULI, this is also called called COMPARISON STIMULI, this is also called MATCHING TO SAMPLE (MTS) because you are MATCHING TO SAMPLE (MTS) because you are trying to make the correct response in the trying to make the correct response in the presence of the samplepresence of the sample

Did you know? A multiple-choice exam question Did you know? A multiple-choice exam question is a type of matching to sample or conditional is a type of matching to sample or conditional discrimination trial!discrimination trial!

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EXAMPLE OF EXAMPLE OF CONDITIONAL CONDITIONAL

DISCRIMINATIONDISCRIMINATIONFor a child, the stimulus of MOMMY For a child, the stimulus of MOMMY

being present is usually an being present is usually an SSDD for for talking to hertalking to her

But WHAT IF mommy and the child are But WHAT IF mommy and the child are in church or temple?in church or temple?

Note that the correct response to Note that the correct response to mommy (being quiet) is conditional mommy (being quiet) is conditional on (dependent on) the setting in this on (dependent on) the setting in this case.case.

What instructions would REVERSE the What instructions would REVERSE the behavioral functions of the stimuli?behavioral functions of the stimuli?

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Traditional cognitive psychology talks Traditional cognitive psychology talks about the internal mental rules about the internal mental rules defining what things “go together” defining what things “go together” and why; they assert that the mental and why; they assert that the mental rule controls behaviorrule controls behavior

Behavior analysts refer to concepts Behavior analysts refer to concepts as “sets of stimuli that occasion a as “sets of stimuli that occasion a common response”common response”

Those “sets of stimuli” can be Those “sets of stimuli” can be incredibly complex such as exemplars incredibly complex such as exemplars of “immoral conduct”of “immoral conduct”

The “common response” can also be The “common response” can also be complexcomplex

Concept FormationConcept Formation

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Behavior analysts identify the Behavior analysts identify the characteristics of the stimuli in the characteristics of the stimuli in the “concept” that controls the behavior“concept” that controls the behavior ““One does not One does not havehave a concept, just as a concept, just as

one does not have extinction – rather, one does not have extinction – rather, one demonstrates conceptual behavior, one demonstrates conceptual behavior, by acting in a certain way” (by acting in a certain way” (Keller & Keller & Schoenfeld, 1950, Schoenfeld, 1950, p. 154).p. 154).

Behavior analysts examine how Behavior analysts examine how training (discrimination training, training (discrimination training, programming for generalization) programming for generalization) affects the likelihood of stimulus affects the likelihood of stimulus classes (see work of Reeve, haha!)classes (see work of Reeve, haha!)

Concept = stimulus Concept = stimulus classclass

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PERCEPTUAL CLASS = stimuli in PERCEPTUAL CLASS = stimuli in the set share some physical the set share some physical characteristicscharacteristics

RELATIONAL CLASS = stimuli in RELATIONAL CLASS = stimuli in the set share some abstract the set share some abstract relationship, such as examples of relationship, such as examples of “bigger than.” “bigger than.”

EQUIVALENCE CLASS = stimuli do EQUIVALENCE CLASS = stimuli do NOT share any physical NOT share any physical characteristics. Stimuli belong characteristics. Stimuli belong together just because society says together just because society says so.so. Example: 1 = one = spoken word Example: 1 = one = spoken word

“One”“One”

Stimulus Class TypesStimulus Class Types

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Non-Human Studies on Non-Human Studies on Natural Concept Natural Concept

FormationFormation Herrnstein - PigeonsHerrnstein - Pigeons Pigeons can learn to form concepts of a Pigeons can learn to form concepts of a

person as discriminated from non-person as discriminated from non-persons, i.e., statues, mannequins, etc., persons, i.e., statues, mannequins, etc., a specific person from others, etc. The a specific person from others, etc. The abstract stimulus class of “person” abstract stimulus class of “person” readily learned.readily learned.

Pigeons can learn to form natural Pigeons can learn to form natural concepts of persons, trees, fish, etc., concepts of persons, trees, fish, etc., with a high degree of accuracy. with a high degree of accuracy. Artificial concepts such as buildings Artificial concepts such as buildings also learned. also learned.

Pigeons appear to respond to two-Pigeons appear to respond to two-dimensions objects (photographs) as dimensions objects (photographs) as representations of three dimensional representations of three dimensional objectsobjects

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Benefits of Conceptual Benefits of Conceptual BehaviorBehavior

Something for nothingSomething for nothing New behavior occurs without training (behavior is New behavior occurs without training (behavior is

“emergent”)“emergent”) Reduced teaching loadReduced teaching load

Less need to explicitly teach to everythingLess need to explicitly teach to everything EconomicalEconomical

Saves time and effortSaves time and effort ““Psychic” power!Psychic” power!

If you learn a concept, you can make predictions If you learn a concept, you can make predictions about something even if you’ve never encountered about something even if you’ve never encountered that specific something beforethat specific something before