1 about language the definition of language design features of language functions of language 2...

Linguistics: An Introduction

Cao NingSchool of English Language

Longdong University

1 1 About About LANGUAGELANGUAGE The definition of Language The definition of Language Design Features of Language Design Features of Language Functions of LanguageFunctions of Language

2 About 2 About LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS Main branches of linguisticsMain branches of linguistics Important distinctions in linguisticsImportant distinctions in linguistics

Key points in this unit

Does the animal have language?

LinguisticsLinguistics Linguistics, simply, is the study of language. Linguistics, simply, is the study of language.

Then, Then,

What is languages ?

Is language human specific ?

Do animals have language?

Language is Language is purely humanpurely human and non-instinctive and non-instinctive method of method of communicating ideas, emotions and communicating ideas, emotions and desiresdesires by means of voluntarily produced by means of voluntarily produced symbols (Sapir, 1921).symbols (Sapir, 1921).

Language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro, 1965).

The definition of Language

Language is a system of communication by sound, operating through the organs of speech, among members of a given community, and using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meaning (Pei, 1966)


The generally accepted definition: Language is a is a systemsystem of of arbitrary arbitrary vocal symbolsvocal symbols used for used for human human communication communication (Wardhaugh, 1972). (Wardhaugh, 1972).


ExplanationsExplanations

Firstly, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. “iblk”, “Been he wounded has” are unacceptable.

Secondly, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word ‘pen’ and the thing we use to write with.

ExplanationsExplanations

The fact that different language have different The fact that different language have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. arbitrary nature of language.

This also explain the symbolic nature of language: This also explain the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc, by convention. “A rose by objects, actions, ideas, etc, by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet” .(Romeo and any other name would smell as sweet” .(Romeo and Juliet)Juliet)

Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. All evidence points to the fact that writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms and that they are only attempts to capture sounds and meaning on paper. “children – spoken language – read and write”

Explanations

Design Features of Language refer to the

quintessential characteristics of human language,

which can distinguish any human language

system from any non-human language system.

They cover: Arbitrariness, Duality, Creativity,

Displacement, and Cultural transmission.

Design Design Features of Language of Language

Design Features of Design Features of LanguageLanguage

Arbitrariness This feature was first proposed by Saussure. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural

(logical, intrinsic) relationship to their meaning. “Different sounds are used to refer to the sameobject in different languages.”

tree

树

Baum

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

At lexical level:At lexical level: A rose by any other name would smell

as sweet (Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, 1594 )

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

at the syntactic level at the syntactic level language is not arbitrary at the syntactic language is not arbitrary at the syntactic

level.level. (a) He came in and sat down. (b) He sat down and came in. (c) He sat down after he came in..

How to understand

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness and convention?

Duality Language possess the property of having two

levels of structures:

Sounds (lower or basic level)

Meaning (higher level) Sounds are combined with one another to form

meaningful units such as words. The secondary units sounds are meaningless and the primary units have distinct and identifiable meaning.

Design Features of LanguageDesign Features of Language

Design Features of LanguageDesign Features of Language

Language can be used to send messages we have never said or heard before. Creativity is unique to human language. Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

Creativity

CreativityCreativity

Words can be used in new Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by can be instantly understood by people who have never come people who have never come across that usage before. across that usage before.

cool

Creativity

Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.

The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of /endless sentences.

“Limited rules can produce unlimited sentences.” (Chomsky,1958).

For instance: This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt

that lay in the house that Jack built.that lay in the house that Jack built. He bought a book He bought a book whichwhich was written by a teacher was written by a teacher

whowho taught in a school taught in a school whichwhich was known for its was known for its graduates graduates whowho ... ...

从前有座山从前有座山………………

Creativity

Creativity Users can understand and produce words or

sentences they have never heard before. Every day we sent messages that have never been sent before and understand novel messages.

Much of what we say and hear for the first time; yet there seems no problem of understanding.


DisplacementDisplacement Human languages enable their users Human languages enable their users

to symbolize objects, events and to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of time and space) at the moment of communication.communication.

Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us.


DisplacementDisplacement Animal communication is Animal communication is

normally under “immediate normally under “immediate stimulus control”. stimulus control”.

For instance, a warning cry of a For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger.bird instantly announces danger.

My master My master will be homewill be home

in a few days.in a few days.The honeybee's dance The honeybee's dance exhibits displacement exhibits displacement a little bit: he can a little bit: he can refer to a source of refer to a source of food, which is remote food, which is remote in time and space in time and space when he reports on it.when he reports on it. ×

DisplacementDisplacement

Human language is stimulus-free. What we Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.internal state.

Our language enables us to communicate Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.exist.

DisplacementDisplacement

Displacement benefits Displacement benefits human beings by giving us human beings by giving us the power to handle the power to handle generalizationsgeneralizations and and abstractionsabstractions..

Cultural transmission Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. Language is culturally transmitted. It is passed

on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.


Topics for Topics for discussiondiscussion

No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.

- Bertrand Russell A rose by other name would smell as sweet. – Shakespeare He bought a book which was written by a teacher

who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who …

/tr/, /a/, /n/, /s/, /l/, /ei/, /t/- translate – translate a novel- translate a novel by Lu Xun

Do we have

language?

QuestionsQuestions What if there were no language?What if there were no language?

What function does language play in daily life? What function does language play in daily life?

language language functionsfunctions

IdeationalIdeational function ( a model of experience as function ( a model of experience as well as logical relations)well as logical relations) ；；

Interpersonal Interpersonal function (to establish and function (to establish and maintain social relationships )maintain social relationships ) ；；

TextualTextual function (to creates relevance to function (to creates relevance to context).context).

Metafunctions of Language proposed by Halliday

language functionslanguage functions

InformativeInformative InterpersonalInterpersonal PerformativePerformative EmotiveEmotive Phatic communionPhatic communion RecreationalRecreational MetalingualMetalingual

Functions of Functions of LanguageLanguage

Informative Language is used to convey messages, that is to

inform somebody of some information. Declarative sentences are employed to realize the

function. One of the features of this function is the proposition

has the true or false value, e.g. Water boils at 90ºC. Water boils at 100ºC.

Interpersonal By far the most important sociological use of By far the most important sociological use of

language, and by which people establish and language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a societymaintain their status in a society, “polite expressions, humble words”, expression of identity.

For example, the ways in which people address For example, the ways in which people address others (others (Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny), and refer ), and refer to themselves (to themselves (yours, your obedient servantyours, your obedient servant ) indicate ) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.the various grades of interpersonal relations.

Functions of LanguageFunctions of Language

Interpersonal In the framework of In the framework of functional grammarfunctional grammar, ,

it is concerned with interaction between it is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.about.

Functions of Functions of Language

Performative function This concept originates from the philosophical This concept originates from the philosophical

study of language represented by Austin and study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the back-bone Searle, whose theory now forms the back-bone of pragmatics. For example, of pragmatics. For example,

– I now declare the meeting open. I now declare the meeting open. – I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow.

Functions of Functions of Language

Performative function

It is to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. (formal and ritualized)


– For example, in Chinese For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the or a plate the host or the people present are likely to people present are likely to say say 岁岁平安岁岁平安 as a means of as a means of controlling the invisible controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel forces which the believers feel might affect their lives might affect their lives adversely. adversely.

The performative function can extend to the The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.religious occasions.

Emotive function

to change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something: swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, （ e.g., My God, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Ow… ）


Phatic communion It refers to the social interaction of language.

Small, seemingly meaningless topic to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content, “health, weather”

Expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.


Phatic communion We all use such small, seemingly meaningless We all use such small, seemingly meaningless

expressions to maintain a comfortable expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving relationship between people without involving any factual content.any factual content.

Good morning, God bless you, Nice Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, helloday, hello

吃饭了吗？到哪里去？吃饭了吗？到哪里去？ Greetings, farewells, and comments on the Greetings, farewells, and comments on the

weather in English and on clothing in Chineseweather in English and on clothing in Chinese

Recreational function To use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a

baby’s babbling, a chanter’s chanting, verbal dueling, poetry writing.

To take one example, the well-known movie 《刘三姐》 features a scene of “ 对歌” (song dueling) mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language.


Metalingual function Language can be used to talk about itself. metalanguage ( 元语言；纯理语言 ) ： certain kinds of

linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies, e.g. approving, formal, non technical, old-fashioned; [u] , [c], etc.


Functions of Language InformativeInformative Hello, do you know …?Hello, do you know …?

I heard that …I heard that …

With language people can express With language people can express themselves and communicate with others.themselves and communicate with others.

Inter-personalInter-personal Dear sir, Dear professor, John, yours, Dear sir, Dear professor, John, yours, your obedient servantyour obedient servant

By language people establish and maintain By language people establish and maintain their social status in a society.their social status in a society.

PerformativePerformative Marriage ceremonies, the sentence of a Marriage ceremonies, the sentence of a criminal, sui sui ping an (to break a criminal, sui sui ping an (to break a bowl on Spring Festival)bowl on Spring Festival)

People use language to change social status People use language to change social status or control the reality on some special or control the reality on some special occasionsoccasions

EmotiveEmotive Oh, my God! What a sight.Oh, my God! What a sight.

And hurrah!And hurrah!

Language can be used to get rid of the Language can be used to get rid of the nervous energy when we are under stressnervous energy when we are under stress

PhaticPhatic Good morning! Thank you.Good morning! Thank you.

God bless you.God bless you.

language is used to maintain a comfortable language is used to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without relationship between people without involving any factual contentinvolving any factual content

RecreationalRecreational Tip tongue, poetry writing gives people Tip tongue, poetry writing gives people the pleasure of using language.the pleasure of using language.

People use language for the sheer of joy.People use language for the sheer of joy.

Meta-lingualMeta-lingual book---- number of printed or written book---- number of printed or written sheets of paper bound together in a sheets of paper bound together in a cover.cover.

People use language to talk about language People use language to talk about language itself.itself.

LinguisticsLinguistics Linguistics can be defined as Linguistics can be defined as the scientific the scientific

or or systematic study of language study of language. It is a . It is a science in the sense that it scientifically science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of studies the rules, systems and principles of human languages.human languages.

Linguistics has two main purposes One is that it studies the nature of language One is that it studies the nature of language

and tries to establish a theory of language and tries to establish a theory of language and describes languages in the light of the and describes languages in the light of the theory established. theory established.

The other is that it examines all the forms of The other is that it examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.functions it performs in human life.

AboutAbout LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS Main Main branchesbranches of linguistics of linguistics Phonetics Phonetics PhonologyPhonology MorphologyMorphology SyntaxSyntax SemanticsSemantics PragmaticsPragmatics

MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics

PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics AnthropologicalAnthropological ComputationalComputational

Scope of linguistics

Microlinguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics.

Macrolinguistics includes sociolinguistics,

Psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, stylistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, applied linguistics,etc.

Core Core branches of Linguistics of Linguistics

LinguisticsLinguistics

LanguageLanguage

Sounds words sentences Sounds words sentences meaningmeaning

Phonetics/phonology morphology syntax Phonetics/phonology morphology syntax semantics/pragmaticssemantics/pragmatics

Macrolinguistics（ Peripheral branches ）

Psycholinguistics: Language + psychology Sociolinguistics: Language + society Anthropological linguistics: Language + anthropology Computational linguistics: Language + computer

MicrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds. It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received.

Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language, it studies the ways speech sounds are organized. It can be seen as the functional phonetics of a particular language.

Morphology is the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemes. It can be considered as the grammar of words as syntax is the grammar of sentences.

Microlinguistics Syntax deals with the combination of words into

phrases, clauses and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence construction.

Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects. Words have several types of meaning.

Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. It deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. PRAGMATICS =MEANING-SEMANTICS.

Macrolinguistics Socilinguistics studies the relations between

language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language.

Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition, comprehension and production of language.

Neurolingistics is the study of language processing and language representation in the brain. It typically studies the disturbances of language comprehension and production caused by the damage of certain areas of the brain.

MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics Stylistics is the study of how literary effects can be

related to linguistic features. It usually refers to the study of written language, including literary text, but it also investigates spoken language sometimes.

Discourse analysis, or text linguistics, is the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used. It deals with how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units.

Computational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer.

Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.

Applied linguistics is primarily concerned with the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience.

MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics

Descriptive vs. prescriptive （描述和规定） If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the

language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i. e., to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

Important distinctions in Important distinctions in linguisticslinguistics

Descriptive vs. prescriptiveDescriptive vs. prescriptive

Don't say X.

People don't say X. The first is a prescriptive command, while

the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how

things ought to be and describing how things are.

Most modern linguistics is descriptive. It attempts to describe what people actually say. Traditional grammars told people how to use a language.

As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive.

Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.

Language changes and develops. The changes should be observed and described. This does not deny that languages have rules.

Descriptive vs. Descriptive vs. prescriptiveprescriptive

Synchronic vs. Diachronic Language can be studied at a given point in time or over

time. When we study language at one particular time /at some

point of time in history, it is called synchronic linguistics.

When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.

Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.


Synchronic Linguistics

Diachronic／ Historical

Linguistics

Langue vs. Parole The distinction made by Swiss linguist F. de Saussure

in the early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared

by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.

Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.


Competence vs. Performance Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late

1950’s. Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of

his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in

linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set

of rules about his language, this enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.


Then, what’s the distinction between Chomsky’s and Saussure’s

Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual.

Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.


Etic vs. Emic The two terms originate from the American linguist

Pike’s （派克） distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Etic is related to an approach to the study of a

particular language or culture that is general, non-structural and objective in its perspective.

Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviorally inconsequential, differentiations, just as was often the case with phonetic vs. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.


Emic is related to an approach to the study of a particular language or culture in terms of its internal elements and their functioning rather than in terms of any existing external scheme.

That is to say, an emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.


1 about language the definition of language design features of language functions of language 2...

Documents

different language

study of language

elements of language

definition of language

arbitrary nature of

language human specific

symbolic nature of language

nonhuman language system