1-about.pdf

The Mechanical Translation of the Torah

About the Hebrew Language and the

Mechanical Translation

Written by

Jeff A. Benner

Published by

Ancient Hebrew Research Center

Website

http://www.mechanical-translation.org

March 21, 2014

Contents Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................................... 3

The Ancient Hebrew Alphabet ...................................................................................................................... 4

The Ancient Hebrew Langauge ................................................................................................................... 16

Ancient Hebrew Philosophy ........................................................................................................................ 25

Ancient Hebrew Speech .............................................................................................................................. 34

Ancient Hebrew Styles of Writing ............................................................................................................... 37

History of the Torah .................................................................................................................................... 43

The Documentary Hypothesis ..................................................................................................................... 51

What is the Mechanical Translation ........................................................................................................... 54

Acknowledgments

A work of this size could never completed without the support of many people. I would first like to thank

my wife Denise and our children for the encouragement and support over the years. I would also like to

thank the following people who have provided of their valuable time to provide their suggestions and

support.

Holly Begley

Richard Conaway

LuAna Craig

Ken Finn

Steve Foisy

Devora Forsman

Kathy Hamlett

Gordon Hayes

Myhrrhleine Hunter

Jeanne M Irons

Tim Jones

Kathy Kindall

Jerry R Lambert

Paul Lurk

Edward MacIsaac

Terry Smith

Frances Stolz

Randy Talbot

Yvonne Todd

Lisa Anne Vallee

Lance Beard

Donnie Blankenship

Cheryl Bruno

Robert Fier

Steven M. Foisy

Janice Gonzalez

Rose Holiday

Sandra S. Keller

Frank R. Krueger

Duncan Law

Bridgett Magee

John Neff

Josh Nielson

Peter Roy

Mary Sellmar

Steve Wu

Janet Wyckoff

Kathy Nichols

Jim Carmichael

Issac Mozeson

The Mechanical Translation of the Torah About the Hebrew Language and the MT

© Jeff A. Benner www.mechanical-translation.org

The Ancient Hebrew Alphabet

Old Hebrew and the Samaritan Alphabet

א ב ג ד ה ו ז ח ט י כ ל מ נ ס ע פ צ ק ר ש תFigure 1 – The Modern Hebrew Alphabet

The mention of the Hebrew alphabet brings to mind the Hebrew letters that are familiar to many today that

are used in Torah scrolls, Hebrew Bibles and even in Modern Hebrew Books and Newspapers. However, history

suggests that these Hebrew letters are not the same Hebrew letters used in antiquity.

In 1854, Thomas Hartwell wrote; "The present Hebrew Characters, or Letters, are twenty two in number, and

of a square form: but the antiquity of these letters is a point that has been most severely contested by many

learned men."

Figure 2 – Judean Half Shekel (Image courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.)

Hartwell continues: "But the most decisive confirmation of this point is to be found in ancient Hebrew coins,

which were struck before the [Babylonian] captivity, and even engraven on all of them are manifestly the same

with the modern Samaritan."1

The Samaritans are, according to themselves, the descendants of the Northern Tribes of Israel that were not

sent into Assyrian captivity, and have continuously resided in the land of Israel.

Figure 3 – The Samaritan Torah Scroll

The Torah Scroll of the Samaritans use an alphabet that is very different from the one used on Jewish Torah

Scrolls. According to the Samaritans themselves and Hebrew scholars, this alphabet is the original "Old

Hebrew" alphabet.

1 Thomas Hartwell, An introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, Pub. 1854, Page 190



Even as far back as 1691, this connection between the Samaritan and the "Old" Hebrew alphabets was made

by Henry Dodwell; "[the Samaritans] still preserve [the Pentateuch] in the Old Hebrew characters."1

Humphrey Prideaux also writes in 1799; "And these five books [of the Samaritans] still have among them,

written in the old Hebrew or Phoenician character, which was in use among them before the Babylonish

captivity, and in which both these and all other scriptures were written, till Ezra transcribed them into that of

the Chaldeans."2

This same theory is presented in the 1831 edition of the Encyclopedia Americana; "During the Babylonish

captivity , they received from the Chaldees the square character in common use; and in the time Ezra, the old

Hebrew manuscripts were copied in Chaldee characters."3

Figure 4 – A portion of the Aleppo Codex

The Hebrew Torah (Pentateuch) was originally written with an alphabet similar to that of the Samaritans, but

after the Exile in Babylon it was transcribed with the Chaldean square alphabet, which was still used 1,000

years ago for the Aleppo Codex and is still used today in modern Hebrew.

Old Hebrew and the Phoenician Alphabet

Figure 5 – A portion of a text from a Phoenician inscription

While Prideaux noted that the Old Hebrew alphabet was the same as the Samaritan alphabet, he also pointed

out that it is identical to the Phoenician alphabet. When we compare the letters of these three alphabets, we

can see this similarity.

1 Henry Dodwell, A Discourse Concerning Sanchoniathon's Phoenician History, Pub. 1691, Page 118

2 Humphrey Prideaux, The Old and New Testament connected in the history of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations, Pub.

1799, Page 431 3 Encyclopedia Americana, Hebrew Language and Literature, Pub. 1831, Page 212



Figure 6 – The letter "beyt" in Old Hebrew, Samaritan and Phoenician

This is the letter beyt in the Old Hebrew.. the Samaritan… and the Phoenician. Note the close similarity of

each. Also note the similarities of the letter hey in each of these alphabets.

The 1831 edition of the Encyclopedia Americana also makes this connection between the Phoenician,

Samaritan and Hebrew alphabets; "[the Hebrews] written characters were the same as the Phoenician, to

which the letters of the Samaritan manuscripts approach the nearest."1

The Phoenicians lived north of the land of Israel centered around the Biblical cities of Sidon and Tyre, in

modern day Lebanon, between the 16th and 3rd Century BC.

The Phoenicians shared the same alphabet with the Hebrews and the Samaritans. It was also evident that the

Phoenicians and Hebrews spoke the same language as the "Foreign Quarterly Review" wrote in its 1838

publication; "The learned world had almost universally allowed that the Phoenician language was, with few

exceptions, identical with the Hebrew"2

While the origins of the Old Hebrew alphabet was widely accepted, this theory was based on a limited amount

of evidence as the "Foreign quarterly review" points out; "What is left [of Phoenician] consists of a few

inscriptions and coins…"3

Figure 7 – Sarcophagus found in Sidon with Phoenician inscription

The first major discovery connecting the Phoenician alphabet and language with Hebrew occurred on January

19th, 1855, when Turkish laborers accidently uncovered an ancient sarcophagus in Sidon, a Phoenician city. On

this sarcophagus was a lengthy inscription written in the Phoenician alphabet and language, which was found

to be identical to Hebrew with only a few exceptions.

1 Encyclopedia Americana, Hebrew Language and Literature, Pub. 1831, Page 212

2 The Foreign quarterly review, Phoenician Inscriptions, Pub. 1838, Page 446

3 The Foreign quarterly review, Phoenician Inscriptions, Pub. 1838, page 445



Old Hebrew Discoveries

Figure 8 – Meshe Stele inscription

The Meshe Stele, also called the Moabite Stone, was discovered in 1868 in the Biblical city of Dibon, the capital

of the Moabites. The inscription was written with the same letters as the Phoenician, old Hebrew and

Samaritan and it was discovered that Moabite language was also the same as Hebrew with some minor

variations.

Figure 9 – The Siloam Inscription

The Siloam Inscription, discovered in 1880, is written on the wall of Hezekiah's tunnel, which connects Gihon

spring to the Pool of Siloam in East Jerusalem. This Hebrew inscription was written in the same style as the

Phoenician and Moabite inscriptions.



Figure 10 – The Gezer Calendar

During the excavation of the city of Gezer, 30 miles from Jerusalem, a limestone tablet was discovered in 1908

with a Hebrew inscription written in the old Hebrew alphabet.

Figure 11 – A Lachish Ostracon

In 1935 eighteen ostraca (broken pottery fragments) were discovered in the ancient city of Lachish with

Hebrew writing in the old Hebrew alphabet.



Figure 12 – An Ammonite inscription

In 1966 an inscription was discovered in Amman Jordan with an Ammonite inscription whose alphabet and

language was also similar to Phoenician and Hebrew.

Figure 13 – The Tel Dan Inscription

The Tel-Dan Stele, discovered in northern Israel in 1993, is an Aramaic inscription using the same old Hebrew

script. This inscription also revealed another amazing fact.

Figure 14 – The phrases "king of Israel" (top) and "house of David" (bottom).



The inscription includes the phrase מלך ישראל (melek yisrael) meaning "king of Israel" and the line below reads

meaning "house of david." These phrases are extra-Biblical evidence confirming the (beyt david) בית דוד

existence of not only the nation of Israel, but also king David.

Old Hebrew to Greek and Aramaic

Figure 15 – The Greek Alphabet on ancient inscription

The old-Hebrew alphabet, also called paleo-Hebrew, was adopted by the Greeks around the 12th century BC.

Figure 16 – The first five letters of the Old Hebrew alphabet

The first five letters of the Hebrew alphabet are aleph, beyt, gimel, dalet and hey. These same letters, adopted

by the Greeks, became the alpha, beta, gamma, delta and E-psilon (meaning simple E).

Figure 17 – The first five letters of the Old Greek alphabet

While Hebrew is usually written from right to left, Greek was written left to right and the orientation of the

letters were reversed.

Figure 18 – The Modern Greek alphabet

Over the centuries, these ancient Greek letters evolved into their modern Greek forms.

Figure 19 – The Modern Roman alphabet



Our English alphabet is Roman, and because the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet, we are able to see our

own modern English alphabet in these ancient Hebrew turned Greek letters, the A, B, C, D and E.

The Aramaic Alphabet

As previously mentioned, the old Hebrew alphabet was used by all Semitic peoples including the Arameans

(also called the Chaldeans), but evolved independently from the Hebrew.

Figure 20 – 5

th Century B.C. Hebrew (Aramaic) alphabet

By the 5th century B.C., the time of the Israelites captivity in Aramea (or Babylon), it no longer resembled the

old Hebrew it came from and it is this Aramaic "square" script that Israel adopted during their captivity.

Figure 21 – The modern Hebrew (Aramaic) alphabet

This old Aramaic alphabet, now being used by the Israelites, continued to evolve into the modern letters we

are familiar with today.

Alphabet Origins

By the end of the 19th century, the translation of the Semitic alphabet was well established. The only mystery

was the origin of this alphabet as mentioned in "A Compendius and Complete Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to

the Old Testament" published in 1886.

-meaning a yoke (eleph) אלף is from (aleph) אלף The first letter in the Hebrew alphabet… Its name ,(aleph) ,א"

beast, ox or heifer; and it's oldest figure probably pictured a bovine head."1

The 1922 "New Larned History for Ready Reference, Reading and Research," in its entry for the letter "A," also

notes the suspected origins of the Hebrew alphabet. "A, the initial letter of the English and almost all other

alphabets… The Phoenicians called the letter "aleph" seemingly because of the resemblance of the character

to the head of an ox. Although nothing is known with any degree of certainty concerning the ultimate origin of

this letter.”2

What the editors of the "New Larned History" did not know, was that this mystery was solved just a few years

earlier by Sir William Flinders Petrie.

1 Benjamin Davies, Edward Cushing Mitchel, A Compendius and Complete Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old

Testament, Pub 1886, Page 1 2 The New Larned History for Ready Reference, Reading and Research, Pub. 1922, Page 1



The Proto-Semitic Alphabet

In 1905, a new discovery in the Sinai Peninsula changed the world's perception of the origins of this Semitic

alphabet.

Flinders Petrie, a renowned Egyptologist and pioneer in modern archeology, discovered inscriptions of

previously unknown symbols at Serabit el-Khadim.

Figure 22 – Ancient inscription from Serabit El-Khadim

Dr. Alan H. Gardiner, Another renowned Egyptologist, studied these inscriptions in detail. He discovered that

these Sinaitic inscriptions consisted of a total of thirty-two symbols. Because of the limited number of symbols

Dr. Gardiner determined that this was an alphabet.1

Gardiner was then able to easily identify this Sinaitic alphabet as Semitic because of the pictographic nature of

this alphabet. The name of each Hebrew letter is a Hebrew word with meaning.

The first letter of the Hebrew alphabet is called the aleph, a Hebrew word meaning "ox," The tenth letter is

called the yud or yad meaning "hand" and the sixteenth letter is the ayin, a word meaning "eye."

Figure 23 – Ancient Sinaitic letters

Dr. Gardiner found that the letters in these ancient Sinaitic inscriptions were pictures of the very names of the

Hebrew letters. The image of an ox head (left) was the letter aleph, the image of the hand (center) was the

letter yad and the image of an eye (right) was the letter ayin.

This relationship between the pictograph and the names of the Semitic letters, Dr. Gardiner proposed, proved

that this was the precursor to the previously known Phoenician/Old Hebrew alphabet.

1 The New Larned History for Ready Reference, Reading and Research: The Actual ..‎ - Page 225



Figure 24 – The L'Balt inscription

Once it was determined that the new script was Semitic, Dr. Gardiner, in 1916, was able to translate a portion

of one inscription. This inscription includes the letters lamed, beyt, ayin, lamed and tav, which form the Semitic

word לבעלת (l'balt), meaning "to the lady."1

Figure 25 – The Wadi El-Hhol inscription (Photograph by John Melzian of the West Semitic Research Project)

In 1999, John and Deborah Darnell were surveying ancient travel routes in the deserts of southern Egypt when

they came upon another set of inscriptions very similar to the Sinaitic inscriptions found by Petrie.

Dating the Semitic Alphabet

The inscriptions discovered in the past century and a half, have been accurately dated through the advances of

archeology. The original Semitic alphabet with its pictographic letters can be divided into three periods; Early,

Middle and Late.

The early Semitic alphabet existed between the 20th and 12th centuries B.C. However, note that the 20th

century date is based on the oldest inscriptions found thus far and it is possible that future discoveries may

push the date of the Semitic alphabet back even farther into history. To date, the Wadi El-Hhol inscriptions

found in southern Egypt, are the oldest Semitic inscriptions found and date to between the 19th and 20th

centuries B.C. The Sinaitic inscriptions from the Sinai peninsula date to about the 15th century B.C.

The middle Semitic alphabet, the Phoenician and old Hebrew, was in use between the 12th and 4th century

B.C. The Gezer calendar, Mesha Stele, Siloam inscription, the Lachish inscription and the Phoenician

sarcophagus date to this time period.

1 The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures By University of Chicago. Dept. of Semitic Languages and

Literatures (1919) Page 35 - the PSI proved the names of the Hebrew letters - aleph (ox) beyt (house) etc.



The late Semitic alphabet, the square Aramaic script, was in use between 4th century BC and into modern

times with the modern Hebrew alphabet that is used to this day. The majority of the scrolls from the Dead Sea

Caves is written in the late Semitic script and date to between the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. A few of the

scrolls found in the dead sea caves, such as the Leviticus scroll, uses the middle Semitic script showing that the

script did not fall out of use completely.

Figure 26 – Text from a Modern Hebrew Bible

The late Semitic script continued to be used for the works of the Talmud, the Masoretic Hebrew Bible as well

the printed Hebrew Bibles of today.

Ancient Hebrew Alphabet Chart

The following chart is the Ancient Hebrew Alphabet with each letter's name, the sound that letter represents,

a description of the picture and the meaning associated with that picture.

Aleph Ah. Eh Head of an ox strong, power, authority א

Beyt B, Bh (v) Tent floorplan family, house, in ב

Gimel G Foot gather, walk, carry ג

Dalet D Tent door move, hang, enter ד

Hey H Arms raised look, reveal, sigh ה

Waw W, O, U Tent peg add, secure, hook ו

Zayin Z Mattock food, cut, weapon ז

Hhet Hh Tent wall outside, divide, half ח

Tet T Clay basket surround, contain, mud ט

Yud Y, Ee Closed hand work, throw, worship י

Kaph K, Kh Open palm bend, allow, tame כ

Lamed L Shepherd staff teach, yoke, to, bind ל

Mem M Water chaos, mighty, blood מ

Nun N Sprouting seed continue, heir, son נ

Samehh S Thorn grab, hate, protect ס

Ayin Silent Eye watch, know, shade ע

Pey P, Ph Open mouth blow, scatter, edge פ

Tsade Ts Trail chase, hunt, path צ

Quph Q Horizon condense, circle, time ק

Resh R Head of a man first, beginning, top ר

Shin Sh Two front teeth sharp, press, eat, two ש

Tav T Crossed sticks mark, sign, signature ת



The Ancient Hebrew Langauge

Hebrew Roots

What do all of the words, astronaut, astrology, astronomy, asteroid, starlet, starfish, stellar and asterisk have

in common? They are all related to "stars" and each of these words is derived out of the ancient Greek word

"aster," meaning "star." These same types of connections between words can be found in the Hebrew

language, however, from our modern Western perspective, the connections between the words may not be as

apparent? We may understand the connection between hot and sun, but would we connect these two words

with bag, cheese, crave and shake? Most likely not, but someone from the ancient Near East, the land of the

Bible, most certainly would have.

Cheese, a craved delicacy of the ancient Near East, was made by placing the milk of a sheep or goat in a bag

made from the skin of a sheep or goat. The bag is then hung out in the heat of the sun, and shaken. The skins

of sheep and goats have a natural enzyme that is released when heated and shaken that separates the whey

(water) from the curds (cheese).

As we have demonstrated each of these words are culturally related, but in addition, they are all

etymologically related as they each come from the same root word חם (hham), meaning "hot."

hham Hot חם

hham’mah Sun חמה

hhey’met Skin-bag חמת

hhem’ah Cheese חמה

hha’mad To Crave חמד

hha’mas To Shake חמס

Each Hebrew word is related in meaning to other words, and these words are themselves related in meaning

to other words and roots. By studying related words and their histories, we can better define them within their

original context.

Like a tree with its roots, trunk, branches and leaves, the Hebrew language is a system of roots and words,

where one word and its meaning is the foundation to a number of other words whose spelling and meaning

are related back to that one root.

As an example, the root מלך (M-L-K) means "rule." This root can be used as a verb meaning to rule, or as a

noun meaning a ruler, or king. Other nouns are created out of this root by adding other letters. By adding the

letter ה (H) to the end of the root, the word מלכה (malkah) is formed, which is a female ruler, a queen. By

adding a ו (U) to this feminine noun, the word מלוכה (malukhah) is formed meaning "royalty." By adding the

letters ות (UT) to the end of the root, the noun מלכות (malkut) is formed meaning the area ruled by the ruler,

the kingdom.

By studying the relationship between words and their roots we can better understand the meanings of these

words within their original context. Let's take 3 English words found in English translations of the Bible:



Maiden, Eternity and Secret. These three words are, from our interpretation, three much unrelated words. But

let us examine the Hebrew words behind these translations: עלמה (almah), עולם (olam) and תעלמה (te'almah).

Each of these words share the same three letters: ע (ayin),ל (lamed) and מ (mem) 1. Each of these words are

related as they come from the same root A-L-M. Rather than perceiving them as different and independent

words, we need to recognize that there meanings are related. By interpreting these words in context of their

root relationship, we are able to uncover their original meanings.

The root עלם (A-L-M) literally means beyond the horizon, that hazy distance that is difficult to see. By

extension it means to be out of sight, hidden from view. עלמה (almah) is the young woman that is hidden away

(protected) in the home. עולם (olam) is a place or time that is in the far distance and is hidden to us. תעלמה

(te'almah) is something that is hidden away.

Besides being able to find the common meaning in different words of the same root, we are also able to

distinguish between different meanings of words that come from different roots. For instance, there are two

Hebrew words translated as "moon." One is ירח (yere'ahh), which comes from a root meaning "to follow a

prescribed path" and is therefore used for the motion of the moon. The other is לבנה (lavanah), which comes

from a root meaning "to be white" and is therefore used for its bright appearance.

When we ignore the Hebraic definitions of the words in the Bible we miss much of what the text is attempting

to tell us.

Parent roots

All Hebrew linguists recognize that most Hebrew words are derived from a three-letter (triliteral) root.

However, there are some linguists who have suggested that these triliteral roots are themselves derived out of

a two-letter (biliteral or parent) root.

Rabbi Matityahu Clark, in his book Etymological Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew, records and organizes Rabbi

Samson Raphael Hirsch's commentaries of the Bible which relate to the Hebrew language. Rabbi Clark stated;

"The second major analytical tool in the Hirsch system we will call Gradational Variants. This involves five

special consonants: א (aleph), ה (hey), ו (waw), י (yud) and נ (nun). These consonants play a special role with

respect to roots whose third consonant is identical with the second… The new root form does not change the

basic meaning of the original root, but adds some nuances of meaning."2

Rabbi Clark then provides many of examples of these "Gradational Variants" including; the triliteral root צרר

(tsarar), which means "forcing, constraining, oppressing." As mentioned, the second and third consonants are

identical, the letter ר (resh). The Gradiant Variants of צרר )tsarar) are; נצר (natsar) - guarding or protecting; יצר

(yatsar) - forming or creating; צור (tsur) - fencing or enclosing.

The meaning of the triliteral root רדד (radad) is a "flattening down or submitting totally." The Gradiant

Variants are; רדה (radah) - ruling over or having dominion over; ירד (yarad) - going down; רוד (rud) – humbling.

1 The letter "mem" has two forms, ם when it appears at the end of a word, and מ when it appears anywhere else in a

word. 2 Rabbi Matityahu Clark, Etymological Dictionary of Biblical Hebrew, Pub. 2000, Page 295



Wilhelm Gesenius, one of the greatest Hebrew scholars of all time, wrote in his book Gesenius Hebrew

Grammar, "..a large number of triliteral stems really point to a biliteral base, which may be properly called a

root, since it forms the starting-point for several triliteral modifications of the same fundamental idea."1

Gesenius then cites the following example; "The biliteral root כר (K-R) is the root of כרר (K-R-R), אכר (A-K-R),

each being related to the idea of "digging." Another example he provides is the ,(K-R-H) כרה and (K-W-R) כור

biliteral root דך (D-K), the root of דכא (D-K-A), דכך (D-K-K), דוך (D-W-K) and דכה (D-K-H), each being related to

the idea of "striking" or "breaking."

Edward Horowitz states in his book How the Hebrew Language Grew, "Scholars are fairly convinced that back

of these three lettered roots lie old primitive two-lettered syllables. These two-lettered syllables represent

some simple primitive action or thing. It does seem quite clear that there existed a bi-literal or two-letter base

for many, if not most, of our three lettered roots."2

Horowitz then provides the following roots, גוז (G-W-Z), גזר (G-Z-R), גזע (G-Z-A), גזז (G-Z-Z) and גזה (G-Z-H),

each meaning to "cut," and all coming from the root גז (GZ) meaning. Horowitz noted, "Do not be surprised if

so many of these comparatively few two-lettered roots mean to cut, to split, to slit, or slice. After all,

everything that primitive man did in the way of making a living for himself and his family in some way or other

involved a cutting action."

Child Roots

While all 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet are consonants, four of them also served as vowels, much like our

letter "Y," which may be a vowel like in the word "fly," or a consonant like in the word "yellow." These four

letters are א (aleph), ה (hey), ו (vav) and י (yud).

When one of these vowels is placed in front, between or at the end of the parent root, a three letter or "child"

root is formed and will have a meaning that is related to the meaning of its parent root.

From the parent root אל (el), meaning strength and authority, comes the child root איל (ayil), meaning a

buck, the strong one of the flock. From the parent root בנ (ben), meaning son, comes the child root בנה

(banah), meaning to build, through the idea that the sons build a house, literally and figuratively. From the

parent root לכ (lakh), meaning walk, comes the child root הלכ (halakh), meaning a journey.

Adopted Roots

Another form of three letter, or "adopted root," is the addition of another consonant in front, between or at

the end of a parent root. Below are some adopted roots derived out of the parent root פר (par), a Hebrew

word meaning "bull."

parahh Break forth פרח

parakh Break apart פרך

paras Break in pieces פרס

paraq Break off פרק

parats Break open פרץ

1 Wilhelm Gesenius, Gesenius Hebrew Grammar, Pub. 1910, Page 100.

2 Edward Horowitz, How the Hebrew Language Grew, Pub. 1960, Page 299



Hebrew Words

Other words are then formed by attaching specific letters to a parent, child or adopted root.

Figure 27 – The parent root לך and its derivatives

For demonstration, let's begin with the parent root לך (lakh) meaning "walk." By adding the letter ה (h) to

the front the child root הלך (halakh) is formed and also means "walk." By adding the מ (m) to the front of

this child root, the noun מהלך (mahalakh) is formed and means "passage." By adding the letter ה (h) to the

end of this child root, the noun כההל (halakhah) is formed and means "custom" (a way of walking).

By adding the letter מ (m) to the front of the parent root לך (lakh), the adopted root מלך (melekh) is

formed and means "king," one who walks among the people. By adding the letter ה (h) to the end of this

adopted root, the noun מלכה (malkah) is formed and means "queen." By adding the letters ות (ut) to the

adopted root, the noun מלכות (malkut) is formed and means "kingdom."

Once we understand how to properly interpret and define Hebrew words based on their relationships to their

roots and the culture in which the words were used, we can then properly interpret Biblical passages from a

Hebraic perspective.

And showing mercy unto thousands of them that love me and keep my commandments. (Exodus 20:6)

Our normal understanding of the word "keep" within this verse is to "obey," however this is not the case. The

Hebrew verb used here is שמר (shamar), which literally means "to guard" or "to protect."

They will turn to other gods and serve them, and despise me and break my covenant. (Deuteronomy

31:20)

Similarly, our normal understanding of "break" within this verse is to "disobey," but again this is not the case.

The Hebrew verb here is פרר (parar) and means "to trample underfoot."

The "keeping" or "breaking" of the commandments of God is not about obedience and disobedience; it is

about one's attitude toward them. Will we guard and protect them as we would our family, or will we throw it

on the ground and trample them as we would garbage?



Hebrew Vocabulary

The Verb

A verb describes an action, such as the word “cut” in the sentence, “Jacob cut a tree.” The one performing the

action is called the subject. In this sentence, Jacob is the subject of the verb, the one doing the cutting. The

one receiving the action of the verb is called the object. In this sentence, the tree is the object of the verb, the

one being cut.

Verbs have a tense. In English, the three major tenses are past, present and future. The word “cut” is in the

past tense while “cutting” is the present tense and “will cut” is the future tense.

In Hebrew, the verb, subject, and object work much the same way, but with some slight differences.

While English verb tenses are related to time, Hebrew verb tenses are related to action and there are only two:

Perfect (a completed action) and imperfect (an incomplete action).

In English, the subject of the verb precedes the verb, but in Hebrew it follows the verb.

Most Hebrew verbs will identify the person (first, second or third), gender (masculine or feminine), and

number (singular or plural) of the subject of the verb, and in some instances the person, gender, and number

of the object.

Below are a few common verb conjugations of the Hebrew verb שמע (Sh-M-Ah1, Strong’s #8085). The bold

letters are the prefixes and suffixes which identify the tense, person, and gender of the subject of the verb.

Perfect Tense

מע יש shamatiy I heard ת

מע ש shamata you heard ת

מע shama he heard ש

ע מ shamah she heard הש

Imperfect Tense

מעא eshma I will hear ש

מעת tishma you will hear ש

מעי yishma he will hear ש

מעת tishma she will hear ש

1 I should note that Hebrew verb stems, such as שמע, are not actual words and cannot be pronounced until they are

conjugated. Therefore, I will simply transliterate each letter of the verb stems. For the verb stem שמע this will be “Sh” for the letter shin (ש), “M” for the letter mem (מ) and “Ah” for the letter ayin (ע).



Below are a few common suffixes (in bold letters) that identify the object of a verb.

ח ל יש shelahhaniy he sent me נ

ח ל shal'hhekha he sent you ךש

לח shelahho he sent him ו ש

Besides the “simple” verbs (called qal verbs) used above, seven other verb forms are used

that slightly change the meaning of the verb. However, we will only look at the three most

common. The niphil is the passive form and adds the prefixed letter נ (ni). The hiphil is the

causative form and adds the prefixed letter ה (hi) and the letter י (iy) as an infix. The Hitpa’el

is the reflexive form and adds the prefixed letters הת (hit).

Niphil שנ ד niq'dash he was special ק

Hiphil ה ד hiq'diysh שיק he caused to be

special

Hitpa'el ת hit'qa'desh שקד הhe made himself

special

A few other verb forms differ from those we have previously discussed. The first is the

infinitive verb, which does not include a tense (perfect or imperfect), subject or object of the

verb. It only identifies the action, such as “listen.” The second is the imperative, which like

the infinitive, does not include a tense or object, but it does identify the gender and number

of the subject as well as the action of the verb, but more as a command, such as “listen!”. The

third is the participle, which is used much like our present tense verbs in English, such as

“listening.” Below are examples of these verb forms.

Infinitive ע מ shamo listen ש

Imperative מע !shema listen ש

Participle ש מע shomey listening

The Noun

In our previous sentence, Jacob cut a tree, the words Jacob and tree are nouns. A noun is defined as a person,

place or thing and some common examples of Hebrew nouns include; בן (ben-son), מלך (melekh-king), ארץ

(erets-land), יד (yad-hand), חי (hhai-life) and עץ (eyts-tree). Proper nouns are names of specific persons and

places such as יעקב (Ya'aqov-Jacob) and מצרים (Mitsrayim-Egypt).



Every Hebrew noun is either masculine or feminine. An obvious masculine noun is איש (iysh-man) and an

obvious feminine noun would be אשה (iyshah-woman). As can be seen in this example, the suffix ה (ah) can

be added to a masculine noun to make it feminine. Another example is the word מלך (melek-king), a

masculine noun, whereas מלכה (mal'khah-queen) is the feminine form. However, some nouns cannot be

identified as masculine or feminine by a suffix, or lack of it. The word עץ (eyts-tree) is masculine while רוח

(ru'ahh-wind) is feminine. The gender of a noun is important, as will become evident in later lessons.

Masculine nouns are made plural by adding the ים (iym) suffix and feminine nouns are made plural by adding

the ות (ot) suffix.

Articles, Conjunctions and Prepositions

Specific letters are used in Hebrew to represent the article, conjunction, and preposition and are prefixed to

nouns (and sometimes verbs). Below are all of these prefixes (in bold) attached to the Hebrew noun ארץ

(erets, Strong’s #776).

Article ץה ha'arets the land אר

Conjunction ץו va'arets and a land אר

Preposition ץל la'arets to a land אר

Preposition ץב ר be'erets in a land א

Preposition ץמ ר me'erets from a land א

Preposition ץכ ר ke'erets like a land א

Adjectives

An adjective is a word that provides description to a noun. For instance, the Hebrew word טוב (good) is a

common adjective that can be found in the following phrase meaning “good day.”

(yom tov) יוםטוב

Notice that in Hebrew the adjective follows the noun which it describes. If the noun is prefixed by the article ה

(ha), then the adjective will be as well, such as we see in the next phrase meaning “the good mountain.”

רהטוב ה (hahar hatov) ה

The adjective will also match the gender of the noun. In the last two examples, the words יום and הר are

masculine nouns therefore; the masculine form טוב is used. The word ץ ר is a feminine word so the (land) א

feminine adjective ה ”.is used in the following phrase meaning “good land טוב

ה ץטוב ר (erets tovah) א



The adjective will also match the number (singular or plural) of the noun. In each of our previous examples, the

singular form of the word טוב is being used because the nouns it describes are singular. In the phrase,

meaning “good houses,” the word בית (house) is written in the plural form, therefore the adjective is as well.

ים יםטוב ת (batiym toviym) ב

The Alphabet and Language Connection

When we wish to find the definition of an English word we go to a dictionary. While this is also true with

Hebrew words, there are additional methods of determining the meaning of a Hebrew word. One such

method, which has been previously demonstrated, is to examine its roots which provide additional insight into

that word.

Because each letter has a meaning, the meaning of these letters will assist in providing the Hebraic meaning of

a word. Below are a few examples of parent roots whose meanings can be closely connected to the meanings

of the letters contained within these words.

a picture of an ox head representing strength. The second ,(aleph - A) א The first letter is the אב

letter is the ב (beyt - B), the picture of the tent or house where the family resides. When combined these

letters form a word meaning "the strength of the house," who is the "father."

a picture of an ox head representing strength. The second ,(aleph - A) א The first letter is the אם

letter, מ (mem - M) is a picture of water. The two letters give us the meaning of "strong water." The Hebrews

made glue by boiling animal skins in water. As the skin broke down, a sticky thick liquid formed at the surface

of the water. This thick liquid was removed and used as a binding agent - "strong water". This is the Hebrew

word AM meaning "mother", the one who "binds" the family together.

ח ,a picture of an ox head representing strength. The second letter ,(aleph - A) א The first letter is the אח

(hhet - Hh), is the picture of a tent wall. The wall is a wall of protection which protects what is inside from what

is outside. When combined these letters form the word AHh meaning "the strong wall" or "the strong

protector," and represents the "brother" as the protector of the family.

is (nun - N) נ ,a picture of a tent or house. The second letter ,(bet - B) ב The first letter is the בן

the picture of a seed. The seed is a new generation of life that will grow and produce a new generation

therefore, this letter can mean "to continue." When combined these two letters form the word BeN meaning

"to continue the house" and is the Hebrew word for a "son."

is the picture of ,(kaph - K) כ ,a picture of a staff. The second letter ,(lamed - L) ל The first letter is the לך

the palm of the hand. When the staff is placed in the palm one is going to go walk. The verb LaK means to walk

or to go.



is the ,(dalet - D) ד ,a picture of the head of a man. The second letter ,(resh - R) ר The first letter is the רד

picture of the tent door. The roof of the nomad's tent was low and one needed to stoop down to enter or exit

through the dooway and the verb RaD means to go down.

a picture of an eye representing the idea of experience. The ,(ayin - A) ע The first letter is the על

second letter, ל (lamed - L), is the picture of a staff but also represents a yoke as the staff on the shoulders.

When combined, these two letters form the word AL meaning to experience the yoke and as the yoke is lifted

up onto the shoulders this verb means to go up. When used as a noun this same two letter root means a yoke.

and is a picture of the rising or setting sun at the horizon meaning to (quph - Q) ק The first letter is the קח

come together, or gather, from the gathering of the light at the horizon. The second letter, ח (hhet - Hh), is the

picture of a wall which separates. Combined, these two letters form the word QaHh meaning to gather what is

separated, to take.

בש The first letter is the ש (shin - Sh), a picture of the teeth meaning to press. The second letter,

is the picture of the tent or home. Combined, these two letters form the word ShaB representing ,(beyt - B) ב

a pressing to the tent and means to return.

and is a picture of the rising or setting sun at the horizon meaning to (quph - Q) ק The first letter is the קר

come together, or gather, from the gathering of the light at the horizon. The second letter, ר (resh- R), is the

picture of the head of a man. Combined, these two letters form the word QaR, a gathering of men, and means

to meet or call out.

and is a picture of the tent door, used for going back and (dalet - D) ד The first letter is the דע

forth. The second letter, ע (ayin - A), is the picture of the eye. Combined, these two letters form the word

DA, the going back and forth movement of the eye in the sense of taking it all in and means to know.



Ancient Hebrew Philosophy

If you were to ask a Westerner, such as from the Americas or Europe, what they see in the picture above, they

would probably say "a deer." However, if you were to ask an Easterner, such as from Japan or China, what they

see, they will probably say "a grove." The difference is that the Western thinker focuses in on one point, while

the Eastern thinker looks at the whole of the image.

Figure 28 – An experiment demonstrating the different between Western and Eastern thought

In an extensive study on these different forms of philosophy, a wide range of people from America, Canada

and Europe were asked if they thought the boy in the middle of the picture on the left was happy or sad, they

all said "happy." They were then asked if they thought the boy in the middle of the picture on the right was

happy or sad, they all said "happy." Then a wide range of people from Asia, including Japan and China, were

asked the same questions. When asked if the boy on the left was happy or sad, they all said "happy." When

they were asked if the boy on the right was happy or sad, they all said "sad."

Again, Western thinkers focus on one point, the boy in the middle. Eastern thinkers on the other hand focus on

the picture as a whole and because the majority of the children in the picture on the right were sad, their

answer was "sad," regardless of the smile on the boy in the middle.

The Psychology of the Ancient Hebrews is very different from our own and when we read the Bible we must

learn to read it from the Hebrew's perspective rather than our own.

When we use a word like "name," we focus in on how it is written and pronounced.

I will tell of thy name to my brethren; in the midst of the congregation I will praise thee. (Psalm 22:23)

What does it mean to "tell someone about another's name?" Does it mean to tell others how to write or

pronounce the name? From a Western perspective yes, but from a Hebraic perspective a name is much more

than its pronunciation; it is the character of the individual, his ethics, workmanship, attitude, dependability,

resourcefulness, compassion, honor, etc. When the Bible teaches us to "tell others the name of Yahweh," it

isn't telling us to teach others how to write or pronounce it correctly; it is telling us to teach Yahweh's

character.



Hebrew Culture

A language is always closely connected to the culture of the people using that language. This is not only true

for different languages, but for different cultures using the same language. We can never assume people from

one culture will always understand a people from another culture in the same way.

Take for example the word "rain." In an agricultural community, "rain" takes on a much different nuance than

in an urban setting.

Figure 29 – A goat hair tent of the Bedouin, modern day nomads of the Near East

[He] stretches out the heavens like a curtain, and spreads them like a tent to dwell in. (Isaiah 40:22)

The above passage from Isaiah is making an analogy between the heavens and a tent. In order to properly

understand this analogy, one must understand the unique quality of the tents of the Ancient Hebrews. These

tents were generally from woven black goat hair. When sitting inside the tent, it is very dark, but pin holes of

light can be seen coming through the panels and appear like the stars of the night sky. When it rains, the hair

fibers swell and seal the tent and the pin holes of light disappear, just as they do when the clouds come,

blocking the view of the stars. When an Ancient Hebrew looks up at the night sky he sees God's tent over him,

in the same way his tent covers over and protects his family.

In America, a biscuit is a soft raised bread, while in England it is a small hard flat cake, what we call in America

a cracker or cookie. When an American orders his first cup of coffee in Europe, he may be shocked at what he

is given and surprised at the small size of the coffee cup and the extreme potency of the coffee.

This is not only true for the many cultures of today, but even more so when we are translating ideas and

concepts from an Ancient culture to a modern one. We know today that a star a giant ball of gas burning at

millions of degrees, but ancient man did not have this understanding and we cannot use our modern definition

of a star for an ancient peoples understanding of what a star is.



The Language and Culture Connection

Benjamin Lee Whorf stated, in what has become known as the Whorf hypothesis, that; "language is not simply

a way of voicing ideas, but is the very thing which shapes those ideas."1 An example of this is how one

perceives of time. In our modern western culture we view time in the sense of the past, present and future, a

fixed and measurable progression time.

Other cultures, such as the Hopi Indians of North America, do not share this same perspective of time. To the

Hopis, there is what "is" (manifested) and what "is not yet" (unmanifested). Interestingly, the Ancient

Hebrews had a similar view of time. Like the Hopi language, the Ancient Hebrew language does not use past,

present and future tenses for verbs. Instead they use two tenses, one for a complete action (manifested) and

one for an incomplete action (unmanifested).

An individual, whose native language is Hopi, views time from the Hopi perspective, but if he is required to

adopt English he learns the English perspective of time. During the late 1800s, the United States forced the

Native Americans to adopt the English language and when a Hopi no longer functions within his native

language, the original cultural perspectives, such as time, is lost and replaced with the modern western

perspective of time. This same shift in perspectives can be seen throughout the Ancient Hebrew vocabulary.

Figure 30 – A tsiytsiyt

In Numbers 15:38 we read; "Speak to the sons of Israel and say to them, make tsiytsiyt on the corners of your

garment." The Hebrew word ציצית (tsiytsiyt) is a noun derived from the word ציץ (tsiyts).

1 Understanding the whole student, Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2007, page 34.



Figure 31 – A blossom

A ציץ (tsiyts) is the "blossom" of a tree, which in time will become a fruit. The tsiytsiyt then is a blossom, not in

appearance, but in function. The function of the tsiytsiyt is to be a reminder to the wearer to produce fruit,

fruit being the observance of the commands, as stated in verse 39, "remember the commandments," the

teachings of God, which according to Psalm 1:2,3, is like producing fruit.

Therefore, the word tsiytsiyt carries with it a cultural perspective which connects the blossoms of a tree with

the performance of a commandment.

This "concrete" Hebrew language continued to function as the Jewish people's native language until their

removal from the land after the Bar Kockba revolt in 135 AD, at which time they were dispersed into many

different nations. While the Jewish people continued to use the Hebrew language from then until now, it was

relegated to their religious lives alone. The language of the people around them, quite often this was Greek,

was adopted as the language for everyday use. At this point, Greek becomes the influential language in their

life and their perspectives of words and ideas are now determined by this dominant language.

The Hebrew word tsiytsiyt is now translated into the Greek word κρασπεδον, meaning "a decorative fringe or

thread." No longer is the tsiytsiyt attached to the idea of a "blossom," but instead simply as a "fringe." This

same shift in perception occurred each time a new language was adopted, whether it was Spanish, German or

English.

In 1948 Israel became a Jewish state and with that, Hebrew once again became the everyday language of the

Jewish people. While the language had been resurrected, the original cultural perspective of that language had

disappeared long ago and the Western influence on that language survived. Therefore, a tsiytsiyt, in the mind

of modern Orthodox Jews, is still a decorative fringe and no longer functionally related to a blossom.

This same change can be seen throughout the Hebrew language. For example, the Hebrew word תורה (torah),

which in the original Hebrew language meant a "journey," now in the Modern Hebrew language means

"doctrine." A כוהן (kohen), in the original language meant a base of the community, but in the Modern Hebrew

language means a "religious priest." The word קדוש (qadosh), which originally meant special, now in the

modern language means "holy."



The Agricultural aspect of the Hebrew Language

Figure 32 – Bedouins

The Ancient Hebrews were nomadic agriculturalists who migrated from pasture to pasture, watering hole to

watering hole. Their entire lives were spent in the wilderness and this lifestyle had a significant effect on their

language.

Some Hebrew words are obviously related to this agricultural lifestyle. For example, The Hebrew word אוהל

(ohel) is a tent, רועה (ro'eh) is a shepherd, and קציר (qatsir) is a harvest. Besides these obvious agricultural

words, many other words, which we would not relate to agriculture, are in fact rooted in some aspect of the

Nomadic culture. For instance, the Hebrew word חן (hhen), usually translated as "grace," is related to an

"oasis," a place of beauty, rest and comfort. Derived out of the word hhen come the words מחנה (mahhaneh)

meaning "camp," often pitched at an oasis.

Other Biblical words, which have lost their original agricultural meanings include; תורה (torah), which is usually

translated as "law," but literally means the "journey," מצוה (mitzvah), usually translated as "command," but

literally means the "directions for the journey," צדיק (tsadiyq), usually translated "righteous," but literally

means "traveling the path," and רשע (rasha), usually translated as "wicked," but literally means "lost from the

path."

East and West

Throughout the world there are two major branches of Philosophy, Western and Eastern. Western Philosophy

has its beginnings in the sixth century B.C. in Greece with such philosophers as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

Eastern Philosophy has its roots in the ancient past and was the philosophy of all ancient cultures of the Far

East (including China and Japan), Middle East (Including India and Babylon) and Near East (including Egypt and

Israel).

While there are many differences between the Western and Eastern schools of thought, one of the major

differences is the use of abstracts and concretes.

Figure 33 – Concrete (left) and abstract (right) art



Just as artwork may be created in the concrete or the abstract, words can also be created in the concrete or

the abstract. A concrete word, idea or concept is something that can be perceived by the five senses. It can be

seen, heard, smelled, tasted or touched. An abstract is something that cannot be perceived by the five senses.

As the Bible was written from an Eastern philosophical perspective, it is important that we recognize that we

cannot interpret it through our own Western philosophy. To do so, would place a meaning and interpretation

that may not be that of the original authors.

Thorleif Boman's monumental work, Hebrew thought compared with Greek, states; "The thinking of the Old

Testament is primitive and hence can be compared only with the thinking of other primitive peoples and not

with thinking as advanced as Plato's or Bergson's."1

Victor H. Matthews explains how the culture of the Hebrews can be studied in his book, Manners and Customs

of the Bible." One of the joys of studying the Bible is attempting to reconstruct the manners and customs of

the peoples of ancient times. The gulf of thousands of years can be bridged, at least in part, by insights into

their everyday life. These can be garnered through the close examination of the biblical narratives and through

the use of comparative written and physical remains from other ancient civilizations."2

George Adam Smith said; "..the Hebrews were mainly a doing and feeling people. Thus their language has few

abstract terms. Rather, "Hebrew may be called primarily a language of the senses. The words originally expressed

concrete or material things and movements or actions which struck the senses or started the emotions. Only

secondarily and in metaphor could they be used to denote abstract or metaphysical ideas."3

Concrete and Abstract Thought

The Eastern mind communicates with concrete words and concepts. Concrete thought is the

expression of concepts and ideas in ways that can be seen, touched, smelled, tasted and/or heard. All

five of the senses are used when speaking, hearing, writing and reading the Hebrew language. An

example of this can be found in Psalms 1:3;

“He is like a tree planted by streams of water, which yields its fruit in season, and whose leaf

does not wither”.

In this passage the author expresses his thoughts in concrete terms such as; tree, streams of water,

fruit and leaf.

Western thinkers are comfortable with abstract words and concepts. Abrstracts are the expressions

that cannot be seen, touched, smelled, tasted or heard. Examples of Abstract thought can be found in

Psalms 103:8; “The LORD is compassionate and gracious, Slow to anger, abounding in love”. The

words compassion, grace, anger and love are all abstract words, ideas that cannot be experienced by

the senses. Why do we find these abstract words in a passage of Hebrews who wrote in concretes?

1 Thorleif Boman, Hebrew thought compared with Greek, (Westminster Press, 1970)

2 Victor H. Matthews, Manners and Customs of the Bible, (Hendrickson, 1991)

3 George Adam Smith, The Hebrew Genius as Exhibited in the Old Testament, (1944 P.10.)



Actually, these are abstract English words used by the translatator to translate the original Hebrew

concrete words.

These same Concrete concepts of Eastern thought can also be found in Primitive cultures that exist today who

have not been influenced by our Modern Western culture. The linguist Dan Everett, discovered through his

research that the primitive Pirahã tribe in the Amazon did not use abstract perspectives, but instead concrete

ones. As an example, the Pirahã tribe call themselves the "straight heads" and outsiders are "crooked heads."

Interestingly, the Ancient Hebrew language uses this same style of speech. A literal translation of Proverbs

14:2 reads, "One who makes his walk straight will revere Yahweh, but the one who makes his path crooked is

worthless."

Everett also found that they had no concept of "left" and "right" (abstract terms of direction), but instead gave

direction in relation to the surrounding topography, as in "toward the river," or "toward the jungle."1 Again,

this is strikingly similar to the Ancient Hebrews' perspectives of direction. Exodus 38:9-13 describes the

direction of the court in relationship to the four sides of the Tabernacle. The Hebrew words used for these four

directions are;

meaning "The desert region" (south) – (negev) נגב meaning "The unknown region" (north) – (tzafon) צפון meaning "The Mediterranean Sea" (west) – (yam) ים meaning "the region of the rising sun" (east) – (qedem) קדם

Hebrew Descriptions

Figure 34 – An oak tree and a ram

In our minds we would never relate an oak tree to a ram or view them as the same. The reason being is that

we relate to features and appearances. However, the Hebrews relate to the function and in the case of the oak

and the ram, they function in the same way. An oak tree is a very hard wood and the horns and skull of a ram

are equally as hard. For this reason, the Hebrew word איל (ayil) is used for a ram (see Genesis 22:13) and an

oak (see Isaiah 1:29).

This is how you are to make it: the length of the ark three hundred cubits, its breadth fifty cubits, and

its height thirty cubits. (Genesis 6:15)

1 Dan Everett, Endangered Languages and Lost Knowledge, Long Now Foundation Seminar, March 20, 2009



From our Modern Western mindset, we assume that this passage is describing the "appearance" of the ark.

But this is not so, the dimensions are not given to tell us what it "looked like," but instead to tell us that it is

very large as it is going to hold a large number of animals.

Another major difference between the modern Western view and the ancient Eastern one is how something is

described. A westerner would describe a pencil in relationship to its appearance, such as long and yellow. An

ancient easterner on the other hand, would describe it by its function, such as "you write with it." Notice that

the western description uses adjectives, but the eastern description uses verbs. Biblical Hebrew rarely uses

adjectives; instead it much more prefers to use verbs.

Balance

Very few sermons in our Western synagogues and churches would include the passage "I [God] form

the light and create darkness, I make peace and I create evil, I am the LORD who does all of these"

(Isaiah 45:7) as our Western mind sees these two forces as opposing opposites while the Eastern

mind sees them both as equals and necessary for perfect balance. In the Western mind, God is only

good and therefore unable to create evil. The Eastern mind sees God as a perfect balance of all things

including good and evil.

Our western mind classifies all things in two categories, either it is "good" or it is "bad" (evil and bad

are translations for the same Hebrew word). One is to be sought, cherished and protected, the other

is to be rejected, spurned and discarded. Let us take light and darkness as an example. We see light as

good and darkness as bad. The idea of light brings to mind such things as God, truth and love.

Darkness on the other hand invokes Satan, lies and hate. To the Orientals, including the Hebrews,

both are equally necessary as one cannot exist without the other. In the Bible God is seen as a God of

light as well as darkness “And the people stood at a distance and Moses approached the heavy

darkness where God was.” (Exodus 20:21). If you stare at the sun, which is pure light, what happens?

You become blind. If you are standing in a sealed room with no light, what happens? You are again

blind. Therefore, both light and darkness are bad and yet, both are good. In order to see we must

block out some of the light as well as some of the darkness.

The two poles of a magnet are north and south. These two poles create balance, they are not morally

good or bad, but necessary ingredients of physics that compliment each other. Good and bad are

more like the north and south poles of a magnet than our Western conception of good and bad.

Can good exist without the bad? Absolutely not, how could you judge something to be good if you

cannot compare it to something bad? The same is true for all other concepts. Cold cannot exist

without heat, or short without tall, far without near, or large without small. Our western mind usually

ignores these extremes and seeks to always find the "good" or the “bad”. The Eastern mind is

continually seeking both the "good" and the "bad" in order to find the balance between the two.

Even Solomon recognized this when he said “Do not be overly righteous” (Ecclesiastes 7:16).



Throughout the scriptures this search for balance is found, yet ignored by Westerners who do not

understand the significance of balance.

Action

The Hebrews are active people and their vocabulary reflects this lifestyle. The Greek culture

recognizes words such as knee and gift as nouns which by themselves impart no action. But, in

Hebrew, just as in most Ancient languages1, there is very little distinction between nouns and verbs as

all words are related to an action. The Greek mind designates a knee and a gift as inanimate nouns

unrelated in meaning. The Hebrew mind sees the knee (ברך / B.R.K) as "the knee that bends" and a

gift (ברכה / berakah) as "what is brought with a bent knee".

Even the Hebrew nouns for father and mother are descriptive of action. The Hebrew word for father

is אב (av) and literally means "the one who gives strength to the family" and mother אם (em) means

"the one that binds the family together".

When we read the Ancient texts of the Hebrew Bible we must remember that the words used are

related to the Ancient Hebrew culture and thought. We need, therefore, to suppress our Western

Greek minds, leaving them for reading the Modern classics.

Past and future

Another example of differing cultural perspectives is how different cultures perceive time. In our modern

Western world we view the past as behind us and the future as ahead of us. In Biblical Hebrew, the word for

"yesterday" (the past) is תמול (temol), which comes from the root מול (mul) meaning "in front." The Biblical

Hebrew word for "tomorrow" (the future) is מחר (mahher), which comes from the root אחר (ahher) meaning

"in back." Therefore, from a Biblical Hebrew perspective, the past is in front and the future is behind. We see

time from the perspective of passing through it. As we have walked through the past, we see it as behind us

and the future, which we have not yet walked in, is in front of us. The Hebrews saw time from the perspective

of observance. The past is known and therefore can be seen (in front of the observer), but the future is not

known and therefore cannot be seen (behind the observer).

1 Giorgio Fano, The Origins and Nature of Language (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1992) 66



Ancient Hebrew Speech

Each culture has its own unique style of speech where words and phrases are used that are not

meant to be literal and can only be understood correctly if one is familiar with the style of speech

used. If these unique words and phrases are heard or read literally, a completely different meaning

will be assumed that was not intended by the author.

Idioms

An idiom is defined as a manner of expression peculiar to a given language, culture or people whose

meanings cannot be understood through the context of the words alone. We use idiomatic words and

phrases all the time without realizing that we are doing it. Below are just a few examples of idioms

peculiar to the English language of America involving parts of the body.

I bent over backwards. (I tried everything.) Let me give you a hand. (Let me help.) I put my nose to the grindstone. (I worked hard.) I spilled his guts. (I told everything.) You’re pulling my leg. (You’re joking.) He’s shooting his mouth off. (He’s saying to much.) Break a leg. (Good luck.) My ears are burning. (Someone is talking about me.) My head is spinning (This is to much for me to think about.) I have a hollow leg. (I eat a lot.) I’m dragging my feet (I’m procrastinating.) I’m pulling my hair out. (I’m frustrated.) Hold your tongue. (Don't say anything.)

When someone from another culture hears or reads these idioms, there is no possible way to

comprehend the meaning unless an outside source is consulted for interpretation. To demonstrate

how difficult it is interpret an idiom, consider the following idiom from Mexico, "The farmer went into

the field and hung up his tennis shoes".

When we read this we see a farmer going out into the field and hanging his shoes up in a tree or

fence post or something like that. There is no possible way for us to understand this passage without

an outside source. The phrase "hung up his tennis shoes" is equivalent to our idiom "kicked the

bucket", in other words, he died.

Below are a few idioms found within the Torah.

face fell = sad (Genesis 4:5)

heart lifted up = proud (Deuteronomy 8.14)



knew no quiet in the belly = greedy (Job 20.20)

open the ear = inform (Job 33.16)

right hand = mighty (Psalms 89.13)

hide the face = refuse to answer (Ps 102.2)

bad eye = stingy (Proverbs 28.22)

good eye = generous (Proverbs 22.9)

hard forehead = stubborn (Ezekiel 3.7)

Euphamisms

A euphamism is the use of one word in place of another such as the common Euphamisms used today

in our culture.

dough = money

Just as in the case of idioms, the true meaning cannot be understood unless one is familiar with the

euphamism such as can be found in Psalms 24:7 which reads;

"Lift up your heads, O you gates"

How does a gate lift up its head? The word "gate" is a euphamism for a "judge". The cities in Israel

were often surrounded by walls. At the gates of these walls the judges would hold court. Hence, the

judges were called "gates".

Gender

All Hebrew nouns, verbs, adjectves and most pronouns identify gender, either masculine or feminine

such as we can see in the first two verses of Genesis.

In the beginning God (m.) created (m.) the sky (m.) and the land (f.) and the land (f.) was (f.)

empty and void and the Spirit (f.) of God (m.) hovered (f.) over the face (m.) of the deep (123.)

The identity of a words gender is essential in translation as well as interpretation. Take Genesis 4:7 as

an example.

ASV Genesis 4:7 If thou doest well, shall it not be lifted up? and if thou doest not well, sin coucheth at

the door: and unto thee shall be its desire, but do thou rule over it.

The most common interpretation of this verse is that Cain is told that he must control the sin. While

this verse is translated appropriately, this interpretation is incorrect becase the translation has erased

the genders of the verse. Below is the same verse but adding the gender according to the Hebrew.



KJV Genesis 4:7 If thou doest well, shalt thou not be accepted? and if thou doest not well, sin lieth at

the door. And unto thee shall be his desire, and thou shalt rule over him.

While the ASV uses the word "it" the Hebrew would literally be translated as "him" as seen in the KJV.

There is no "it" in Hebrew, all things are either a "him/he" or a "her/she". The verse sais that Cain is

to control "him", and since "sin" is a feminine word, sin cannot be the "him".



Ancient Hebrew Styles of Writing

Just as it is important to understand how the Hebrews thought and spoke, it is just as important to

know how they wrote. There style of writing is different than what we are used to, yet we attempt to

read the ancient Hebrew texts as if it was written by one of our contemporary writers. This will again

cause a mistranslation as well as misinterpretations of the text. Therefore, it is essential to learn the

unique styles of writing employed by the Hebrews in order to read the texts correctly.

Hebrew Poetry

As Hebrew poetry is written much differently than our own Western style of poetry, many do not

recognize the poetry which can cause problems when translating or interpreting these passages.

There are several different types of Hebrew poetry; parellel, 123 and 123.

Approximately 75% of the Tenach (Old Testement) is poetry. All of Psalms and Proverbs are Hebrew

poetry. Even the book of Genesis is full of Poetry. There are several reasons the Hebrews used poetry,

much of the Torah was sung and was easier to sing too, poetry and songs are easier to memorize

than straight texts, Parellel poetry (as in Genesis 1) emphasises something of great importance, as the

creation story is. The rabbies believed that if something is worth saying, it is worth saying

beautifully." There is much more poetry in the Bible than most realize because most people do not

understand it.

Parallelism

Parallelism is most commonly found in the book of Psalms and Proverbs but is found throughout the

whole of the Hebrew Bible. Parallelism is the expression of one idea in two or more different ways.

"Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light for my path". (Psalms 119:105)

The above example of a simple parallel and can be written in this manner;

Your word is;

1. a lamp to my feet

2. a light for my path

Here we see that the words "lamp" and "light" are paralleled as well as the words "my feet" and "my

path". Below is another example of this style of poetry.

"My son, my teachings you shall not forget and my commands your heart shall guard."

(Proverbs 3:1)



In this verse the words "my teachings" is paralleled with "my commands" and "you shall not forget" is

paralleled with "your heart shall gaurd" and can be written as follows.

My son;

1. my teachings you shall not forget

2. my commands your heart shall guard

Below is Psalm 15:1-3 broken down into its poetic sequences. In this example each thought is

represented by the letters A, B, C and D. Each expression of a thought is represented by the numbers

1 and 2.

A1. Lord, who may dwell in your sanctuary?

A2. Who may live on your holy hill?

B1. He whose walk is blameless

B2. and who does what is righteous.

C1. who speaks the truth from his heart

C2. and has no slander on his tongue.

D1. who does his neighbor no wrong

D2. and casts no slur on his fellow man.

Another common form of parallelism is the use of negatives where two opposing ideas are stated as

we see in Proverbs 11:19.

A1. Righteousness brings one to life

- A2. Pursuit of evil brings one to his death.

In Genesis 12:1 we can see the poetry of God's command to Abraham to leave his hometown in three

different ways.

Leave

a. from your land

b. and from your people

c. and from the house of your father

and go to the land I will show you.



And

In the Western style of writing, an account is broken up into sentences. Each thought is written and

closed with a period. The Eastern style of writing on the other hand continues a sentence dividing

each thought with the word "and". Below is a translation of Genesis 1:3-8 retaining the "and" as

found in the Hebrew.

and God said let there be light and there was light and God saw that the light was good and

God separated between the light and the darkness and God called the light day and the

darkness he called night and there was an evening and there was a morning a first day and

God said let there be an expanse between the water and let there be a separation between

the waters from the waters and God made the expanse and God separated between the

waters under the expanse and the waters above the expanse and it was so and God called the

expanse sky and it was evening and it was morning a second day.

The use of the word "and" within the text must be kept in mind when reading Biblical accounts as it

may influence the interpretation of the story. For example, in Exodus 17:7 we read;

And he called the name of the place Massah, and Meribah, because of the chiding of the

children of Israel, and because they tempted the LORD, saying, Is the LORD among us, or

not? (KJV)

In most translations this verse ends the paragraph and a new paragraph begins with verse 8.

Then came Amalek, and fought with Israel in Rephidim. (KJV)

The format of these two passages imply two separate events. But, if the word "and", as found in the

Hebrew, is inserted between the two, the passages become related, as we see here.

And he called the name of the place Massah, and Meribah, because of the chiding of the

children of Israel, and because they tempted the LORD, saying, Is the LORD among us, or

not? And Amalek came and fought with Israel in Rephidim.

When read the passage in this manner, it appears that Amalek came and attacked as a result of their

"chiding" and "tempting" of God.

While the removal of the word "and" can cause some misinterpretations of the text,

misinterpretations can also be made when it remains in the translation.

So he drove out the man; and he placed at the east of the garden of Eden Cherubims, and

a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life. (KJV - Genesis

3:24)



The use of the word "and" between "Cherubims" and "a flaming sword" suggest two objects guarding

the tree of life. Hebrew, on the other hand, will frequently use the word "and" between two

identifiers of the same thing such as in the following passages.

Hearken unto the voice of my cry, my King, and my God: for unto thee will I pray. (KJV -

Psalm 5:2)

In this passage, the words "king" and "God" are two names for one person. In the same manner the

words "Cherubim" and "flaming sword" are two words for the same thing. It should also be noted

that the Hebrew for Cherubim and sword are almost identical. This use of the word "and" will be

discussed further in the section "Hebrew Poetry".

Block logic

A Western writer records his story or account in a chronological fashion where time is always viewed

as a series of consecutive events that occur one after the other. This style of writing is called "step

logic" as events are recorded step by step.

As an example, the following story is written in step logic.

I got out of bed and went to the kitchen for my coffee and breakfast. After reading the

paper I drove to work. I read the daily reports and finalized the yearly report. I drove to the

restaurant for lunch with my wife. I attended a meeting with the office staff. I drove to the

market for our evening desert. At home we ate a leisurely dinner and ate our desert.

The story traces the events of the day from morning to evening in a chronological order. We have no

difficulty reading or comprehending this style of logic as we use it every day.

Now let us read the same story written in block logic. Not one word or sentence has been changed,

only the order in which the sentences are recorded.

I got out of bed and went to the kitchen for my coffee and breakfast. At home we ate a

leisurely dinner and ate our desert. After reading the paper. I read the daily reports and

finalized the yearly report. I attended a meeting with the office staff. I drove to the

restaurant for lunch with my wife. I drove to the market for our evening desert. I drove to

work.

The first thing we notice in this story is that we cannot determine the chronology of each event and

our minds are attempting to do this as we read it. But, the author is not trying to place the events in a

"step by step" chronology but instead grouping all like events in a series of related "blocks". The first

block of events are those that occurred at home. The second block describe the actions of reading

and working while the third are those events that involve driving.



Several examples of this block logic style of writing can be found in the creation story. The western

mind reads this account of the creation assuming that the author is describing events in a precise

chronological order. We can clearly see that this is not the authors intention when we compare the

events of the first day of creation with the the fourth day.

And God said, "Let there be light" and there was light. And God saw the light that it was

good and God separated between the light and the darkness. (Genesis 1:3, 4 - First Day)

And God said there will be lights in the expanse of the to separate between the day and

the night. (Genesis 1:14 - Fourth Day)

If God created light to separate light and darkness on the first day, why do we read of the creation of

light to separate day and on the fourth day?

If we compare the first three days of creation with the last three days of creation, we discover that

the author has divided the six days into two separate blocks. The first block of three days describe the

act of separating the heavens and the earth while the second block of three days describe the act of

filling the heavens and the earth.

Day 1 Separating light and darkness

Day 2 Separating water and sky

Day 3 Separating the land from water

Day 4 Filling the light with the sun and the darkness with the moon.

Day 5 Filling water with fish and the skies with birds

Day 6 Filling the land with plants and animals

Another example of block logic is the different Creation stories recorded in the first two chapters of

Genesis. The first block (Genesis 1:1-2:3) describes the "Creation" of the skies and the land, of which

the creation of man is only mentioned. The second block (Genesis 2:4-25) describes the "Creation" of

man, of which the creation of the skies and land are only mentioned. In essence, these two different

stories are of the same event but from differing perspectives.

Word Parallels - puns

In our modern style of writing, we would writing something like, “The painter painted a painting,” or

“The painter fainted from the pain.” However, the ancient Hebrew author searches for such

phrasings.

Gen 2:5 – adam (man) and adamah (ground)

Gen 2:25-3:1 – arum (naked) and arum (clever)



Gen 6:14 – gopher (gopher wood) and kopher (pitch)



History of the Torah

Oral Tradition

It is widely believed that the Torah was written by Moses. While this is the traditional origins of the

Judeo-Christian religions, there is no record in the Torah of its author. Whether the Torah was written

by Moses or another author, how did he know about the events of creation, the flood, and the

history of the Hebrew people? Two possibilities exist to explain this knowledge. One possibility is that

God had revealed the facts to him through divine inspiration. The other possibility is that the stories

and events were handed down from generation to generation and the author would have been very

familiar with these traditional stories and could have simply written them down.

In the Hebrew language, the Hebrew word דבר (davar) is used for a “thing,” something of substance.

KJV Exodus 22:9 For all manner of trespass, whether it be for ox, for ass, for sheep, for raiment, or for any manner of lost thing…

KJV Leviticus 5:2 Or if a soul touch any unclean thing…

KJV Leviticus 23:37 These are the feasts of the LORD, which ye shall proclaim to be holy convocations, to offer an offering made by fire unto the LORD, a burnt offering, and a meat offering, a sacrifice, and drink offerings, every thing upon his day:

KJV Numbers 18:7 Therefore thou and thy sons with thee shall keep your priest's office for every thing of the altar…

This same Hebrew word is also used for an action or an important event.

Genesis 18:14 Is any thing too hard for the LORD?...

KJV Exodus 12:24 And ye shall observe this thing (referring to the Passover) for an ordinance to thee and to thy sons for ever.

KJV Numbers 32:20 And Moses said unto them, If ye will do this thing, if ye will go armed before the LORD to war,

KJV Deuteronomy 23:9 When the host goeth forth against thine enemies, then keep thee from every wicked thing.

From this we can conclude that actions were perceived as things of substance, much in the same way

as physical objects. The word דבר is also used for “words” as seen in the following passages.

KJV Genesis 15:1 After these things the word of the LORD came unto Abram in a vision…



KJV Genesis 44:2 …And he did according to the word that Joseph had spoken.

KJV Exodus 14:12 Is not this the word that we did tell thee in Egypt…

KJV Numbers 11:23 …thou shalt see now whether my word shall come to pass unto thee or not.

In our Western culture, the written word carries much more weight than the oral word and all official

documents, contracts and agreements are written to record specific events. While it may seem

strange, or even impossible, in our culture, the opposite was true in the ancient Hebrew cultures, the

oral word carried more weight them then the written word as the oral word was considered

something of substance. This concept is clearly demonstrated in the Genesis chapter 27. Isaac is

about to give his blessing to his eldest son, Esau, before he dies. Esau’s younger brother, Jacob,

deceives his father by impersonating Esau and Isaac gives his blessing to Jacob. When Esau comes to

his father to receive his blessing Isaac tells him, “Your brother came with treachery and has taken

away your blessing.” Esau then begs his father for the blessing, but Isaac states that he had already

given it Jacob and he will be blessed because of it. The “words” of Isaac were given Jacob and he

could not take them back, no more than if he had tried to take back a stone that he had thrown into

the sea.

The ancients placed much weight on the oral traditions which were handed down from generation to

generation. The stories and traditions were spoken from father to son and memorized with complete

accuracy. The written document could be lost or destroyed but the story lived forever in the mind

and could never be lost or destroyed. It would have been these stories that Moses would have heard

since childhood and long ago put to memory.

The Original Manuscripts

Figure 35 – Hebrew manuscript, 11th

C A.D. (Image courtesy of Schøyen Collection)

The original manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, which would have been written on animal skins or papyrus, have

long since deteriorated and what remains today are copies from these original autographs.



In the digital age, electronic copies are perfect representations of the original. However, in ancient times,

making a copy of a manuscript was much more tedious and not as precise and this allowed for human

intervention or error.

Oldest Known Copies of Biblical Texts

Figure 36 – Silver scroll discovered in Ketef Hinnom

In a tomb at Ketef Hinnom in Israel, the oldest text of the Hebrew Bible was discovered. The text, inscribed on

a silver scroll in the old Hebrew script dating to the 7th Century B.C., is the Aaronic blessing, which begins,

"yeverekh'kha YHWH Vayishmarekha" (May Yahweh bless you and keep you).

Figure 37 – The Nash Papyrus

Another very old fragment of the Hebrew Bible is the Nash Papyrus, discovered in Egypt in 1898. The fragment

includes the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:2-17) and the Sh'ma (Deuteronomy 5:6-21) and is dated to the

2nd Century B.C.

Very few ancient texts of the Hebrew Bible have been found and are very rare, that is until 1947 when the

discovery of a depository of scrolls in the Dead Sea Caves provided us with a library of ancient manuscripts of

the Hebrew Bible.

The Dead Sea Scrolls

Between 1947 and 1956, ancient scrolls and fragments of the Hebrew Bible were discovered in caves near the

Dead Sea dating to the 1st Century B.C. and the 1st Century A.D.



Figure 38 – Dead Sea Scroll fragment, (Photograph courtesy of Petros Koutoupis)

The manuscripts discovered in the Dead Sea Caves include; all of the Canonical Books of the Hebrew Bible with

the exception of the book of Esther, non-Canonical Books such as Enoch, Jubilees, Tobit and Sirach as well as

Psalms that are not part of the 150 Psalms in the Canonical Bible, and Sectarian Books such as, the Community

Rule, the War Scroll, the Damascus Document and commentaries on books of the Bible.

There are several different theories on the origin of these texts. The predominating theory is that the scrolls were the work of a Jewish sect called the Essenes who, it is

believed, resided in nearby Qumran and that the scrolls were hidden away in the caves to protect them from

the advancing Roman army.

Other theories for the writers of the scrolls include Early Messianics (often called Christians) or Zadokite

Priests.

A newer theory, is that the scrolls were from various libraries and synagogues, in Jerusalem, about 15 miles

from the caves.

The Isaiah Scroll

Figure 39 – A section of the Isaiah Scroll

The most famous of the scrolls found within the Dead Sea Caves is the Isaiah Scroll. While most of the scrolls

are fragmented, deteriorating or incomplete, the Isaiah scroll is the only complete scroll found.



Figure 40 – Torah Scroll

The life of a scroll depends on its handling and storage, but can be in use by a community for several hundred

years. Some Torah Scrolls still in use in synagogues today are over 500 years old.

The Isaiah scroll from the Dead Sea Caves has been dated to around 200 B.C. Isaiah wrote his original scroll

around 700 B.C. and may have been in use up until around 200 B.C. This means that is possible for the Isaiah

Scroll from the Dead Sea Caves to be a copy made directly from Isaiah's original scroll.

The Isaiah scroll, as well as many other scrolls and fragments from the Dead Sea, are currently on stored and

on display in Jerusalem at the Shrine of the Book.

The Aleppo Codex

Figure 41 – A page from the Aleppo Codex



Up until the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest existing complete Hebrew Bible was the Aleppo

codex, also called the Masoretic text, which was written in the 10th Century C.E., a thousand years after the

Dead Sea Scrolls. For centuries, this text has been the foundation for Jewish and Christian translators.

The major difference between the Aleppo Codex and the Dead Sea Scrolls is the addition of the vowel

pointings in the Aleppo Codex to the Hebrew words. These pointings provide the vowel sounds that are not

present in the Hebrew language and were probably inserted into the text to standardize pronunciation.

Figure 42 – The name ישראל (Israel) in a Dead Sea Scroll (left) and the Aleppo Codex (right)

The name ישראל (yis'ra'el – Israel), is spelled in Hebrew with five letters; י (yud-Y), ש (sin-S), ר (resh-R), א

(aleph) and ל (lamed-L), and can be transliterated as Y-S-R-L. Only these five letters are used in the Dead Sea

Scrolls, but in the Aleppo codex, vowel pointings, in the form of dots and dashes are placed above and below

each letter to represent the vowel sounds (i, a and e), providing the pronunciation YiSReL.

While the Masoretic text and the Dead Sea Scrolls were transcribed a thousand years apart, they are amazingly

similar proving that the copying methods employed by the Jewish scribes over the centuries are very

sophisticated and successful. However, there are some differences; some are simple variations of a reading,

while others are much more complex.

Besides the addition of the vowel pointings, other changes have occurred in the Hebrew text after making

copies of copies. One of the more dramatic changes is the accidental removal of whole verses.

Figure 43 – A portion of Psalm 145 from the Aleppo Codex

Psalm 145 is an acrostic psalm where each verse begins with the next letter of the Hebrew alphabet. In the

Aleppo Codex the first verse begins with the letter aleph, the second with the beyt, the third with the gimel,

and so on. Verse 13 begins with the letter מ (mem-top highlighted letter), the 13th letter of the Hebrew

alphabet, the next verse begins with the letter ס (samech-bottom highlighted letter), the 15th letter of the

Hebrew alphabet. There is no verse beginning with the 14th letter נ (nun).



Figure 44 – A portion of Psalm 145 from the Dead Sea Scrolls

When we examine Psalm 145 from the Dead Sea Scrolls, we find between the verse beginning with the מ

(mem-top) and the verse beginning with the ס (samech-bottom), the verse beginning with the letter נ (nun-

center). This verse, missing from the Aleppo Codex, and all modern Hebrew Bibles that are copied from this

codex, but found in the Dead Sea Scrolls reads, נאמן אלוהים בדבריו וחסיד בכול מעשיו (God is faithful in his

words, and gracious in all his deeds).

This is why Psalm 145:13 reads differently in the King James Version and the modern versions such as the

Revised Standard Version. The King James Version was written prior to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls,

while the Revised Standard Version, and other modern versions, were written afterward and often incorporate

what has been found in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Ancient Translations

As the Jewish people began to spread out beyond Israel, they adopted the language of their new neighbors.

This necessitated the need for translations of the Bible in their new languages in order for them to continue

reading the Bible. While there have been many translations of the Hebrew Bible into many different languages,

the three most widely used in ancient times are the Latin, Aramaic and Greek.

Figure 45 – A portion of an Aramaic Targum (Image courtesy of Schøyen Collection)

Of the many Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible, there are three principle ones. Targum Onkelos is an

Aramaic translation of the first five books of the Bible. It was written in the 1st Century A.D. by Onkelos, a

Roman convert to Judaism. Targum Jonathon is an Aramaic translation of the Prophets. It was written in the

1st Century B.C. by Jonathon Ben Uziel, a student of Hillel the Elder, the famous Jewish teacher and religious

leader.



Figure 46 - A portion of the Aramaic Peshitta

The Peshitta is an Aramaic translation of the entire Hebrew Bible that was written around the 2nd Century A.D.

The Peshitta also includes an Aramaic New Testament that was written around the 5th Century A.D.

Figure 47 – A portion of the Greek Septuagint

The Septuagint is a Greek translation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Torah, written by Jewish

scholars in the 3rd Century B.C. the remainder of the Hebrew Bible, the writings and the prophets were

translated by unknown translators between the 2nd and 1st Centuries B.C.

Figure 48 – A portion of the Latin Vulgate

The Latin Vulgate, consisting of the Hebrew Bible as well as the New Testament, was written by Jerome, a

Christian priest and apologist, in the 5th Century A.D.



The Documentary Hypothesis

The majority of the Bible scholars and students today, within both Christianity and Judaism, will without a

doubt, identify Moses as the author of the Torah, the first five books of the Bible. However, literary analysis

shows that the Torah was not written by one person, but is a compilation of multiple strands of tradition by

multiple authors, which were woven together to produce the Torah that we have today.

It should be noted that nowhere within the text of the Torah is the author of the Torah identified and the idea

that Moses wrote the Torah is strictly a traditional view.

Passages written by someone other than Moses

And Moses was an hundred and twenty years old when he died: his eye was not dim, nor his natural force abated. And the children of Israel wept for Moses in the plains of Moab thirty days: so the days of weeping and mourning for Moses were ended. And Joshua the son of Nun was full of the spirit of wisdom; for Moses had laid his hands upon him: and the children of Israel hearkened unto him, and did as the LORD commanded Moses. And there arose not a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the LORD knew face to face, In all the signs and the wonders, which the LORD sent him to do in the land of Egypt to Pharaoh, and to all his servants, and to all his land, And in all that mighty hand, and in all the great terror which Moses shewed in the sight of all Israel. (Deuteronomy 34:7-12, KJV)

It is obvious that Moses did not write this account; therefore we know that this portion was written by

someone else. Is it not then possible that other portions may have been written by someone other than

Moses?

And these are the kings that reigned in the land of Edom, before there reigned any king over the children of Israel. (Genesis 36:31, KJV)

During the lifetime of Moses no king resided over Israel. The author of this passage is writing about the kings of

Israel from the viewpoint that they are facts of history. The author lived during, or after, the time of the kings

of Israel.

And Rachel died, and was buried in the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem. (Genesis 35:19, KJV)

As the city of Ephrath was not known as "Bethlehem" until long after Moses, the three words “which is

Bethlehem” (hee beyt lehem in Hebrew) were obviously written by someone other than Moses. Granted, we

are only speaking of three words, but if three words from the Torah can be written by someone other than

Moses, then why not six words or one hundred words?



Duplicate passages of one event by separate authors

When the people saw the thunder and lightning and heard the trumpet and saw the mountain in smoke, they trembled with fear. They stayed at a distance (Exodus 20:18, NASB)

Then Moses led the people out of the camp to meet with God, and they stood at the foot of the mountain. Mount Sinai was covered with smoke, because the LORD descended on it in fire. The smoke billowed up from it like smoke from a furnace, the whole mountain trembled violently (Exodus 19:17-18, NASB)

In the first account Israel sees the thunder and lightning and stays at a distance from the mountain. But, in the

second account they go up to the mountain and see the smoke and fire. It appears that while two different

authors wrote these two accounts they were combined into one story by one known as a redactor. This person

took the various stories known at the time and attempted to place them all into one story. For this reason we

see many of the same stories repeated at different times. While it is usually understood that these are two

different stories occurring at two different times, they may be one story written by two different authors and

combined into one story by the redactor.

Conflicting passages of separate authors

And Abram (Abraham) said to the king of Sodom, "I lifted up my hand to Yahweh, El Elyon, possessor of heaven and earth. (Genesis 14:22, NASB)

And I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac and to Jacob as El Shaddai, and my name Yahweh I did not make known to them. (Exodus 6:3, NASB)

In the Genesis passage Abraham invokes the name Yahweh but according to the Exodus passage God did not

reveal his name Yahweh to Abraham.

The Lord your God who goes before you on your way, to seek out a place for you to encamp, in fire by night and cloud by day, to show you the way in which you should go. (Deuteronomy 1:33, NASB)

Then he said, "Please do not leave us, inasmuch as you [Hobab] know where we should camp in the wilderness, and you will be as eyes for us. (Numbers 10:31, NASB)

In the Deuteronomy passage Moses tells the people that God will be their guide through the wilderness

showing them which way to go an where to camp. But, in the Numbers passage Moses beseeches his father-in-

law Hobab to go with them so that he can show them where to go and where to camp in the wilderness

because he is familiar with the area.

Jethro, the priest of Midian, Moses' father-in-law, heard of all that God had done for Moses and for Israel his people, how the LORD had brought Israel out of Egypt. (Exodus 18:1, RSV)



And Moses said to Hobab the son of Reuel the Midianite, Moses' father-in-law, "We are setting out for the place of which the LORD said, `I will give it to you'; come with us, and we will do you good; for the LORD has promised good to Israel." (Numbers 10:29, RSV)

In Exodus 18, Moses’ father in law is called Jethro, while in Numbers 10 he is called Hobab.

Style of Writing

We all speak and write differently and the styles of writing can be compared to determine the authors of

different texts. As an example from English, one might say "I talked to mom," while another person might say

"I spoke to my mother." We can easily see that these two phrases are from two different people.

We frequently see these same variations in writing style within the text of the Torah. For instance, in Numbers

21:16 we read which means "Yahweh said to Moses." But in Exodus (amar yhwh l'mosheh) למשה יהוה אמר

4:30 we find the phrase ".which means "Yahweh spoke unto Moses (diber yhwh el mosheh) משה אל יהוה דבר

These differences in writing style are found throughout the text and in fact, we can even see the writing of one

person throughout the text that is intermixed with the styles of writing from another person, a result of the

redactor splicing together separate accounts into one.



What is the Mechanical Translation

Consumerism in the Bible Business

In December of 2006 "The New Yorker" published the article "The Good Book Business" which stated; "The

familiar observation that the Bible is the best-selling book of all time obscures a more startling fact: the Bible is

the best-selling book of the year, every year… This is an intensely competitive business… Every year, Nelson

Bible executives analyze their product line for shortcomings, scrutinize the competition's offerings, and talk

with consumers, retailers, and pastors about their needs."

In short, the translating and printing of Bibles is "Big Business." In the world of consumerism, it is the

producer's primary objective to offer a product that appeal to the consumer. For this reason a translation is

required to conform to the buyer's expectations. If a Bible is published that does not conform to the buyers

expectations, even if it is more accurate, it will not sell. For this reason, we must be willing to do our own

investigations into the meaning and interpretation of the text.

The Original Language

Many theological discussions, teachings and debates use phrases like "The Bible says," or "God says." From a

technical point of view, the problem with these statements is that it assumes the Bible was written in English,

which of course we all know is not true.

The Bible does not say, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth." A more accurate statement

would be, "The Bible says, בראשית ברא אלהים את השמים ואת הארץ (bereshiyt bara elohiym et hashamayim

v'et ha'arets), which is often translated and interpreted as, In the beginning God created the heavens and the

earth."

While this may sound trivial, it is in fact a very important issue as many theological differences, divisions and

arguments are based on faulty interpretations of the text that could easily be resolved by examining the

original language of the Bible. Once the Hebrew text is recognized, its meanings and interpretations can then

be discussed properly.

As one example, the Hebrew word ראשית (reshiyt) is translated as "beginning" in Genesis 1:1 in the King James

Version. But the King James Version also translates this same Hebrew word as "chief" (1 Samuel 15:21) and

"principle thing" (Proverbs 4:7). The Hebrew word ראשית (reshiyt) may be interpreted as "beginning," but it's

more literal meaning is "height," as in the height or beginning of an event, the height of someone in rank or

the height of importance.

Rather than attempting an interpretation from the English, one should at the least be attempting to

understand the text from its Hebraic origin. This can be achieved through the use of an English Bible and a

Concordance, where the student is able to find the Hebrew word used in the text that lies behind the English.

When using this tool, it quickly becomes evident that the English translators of the text were not very

consistent in how they translated Hebrew words.

For instance, the Hebrew word נפש (nephesh) is usually translated in the KJV as soul, but also as; appetite,

beast, body, breath, creature, dead, desire, ghost, heart, life, lust, man, mind, person, pleasure, self, thing and

will.



The Hebrew verb נתן (N-T-N) means "to give" but is also translated with a wide variety of English words

including; add, aloud, apply, appoint, ascribe, assign, avenge, bestow, bring, cast, cause, charge, come,

commit, consider, count, cry, deliver, direct, distribute, do, fasten, forth, frame, get, grant, hang, have, heal,

heed, lay, leave, left, lend, let, lift, make, occupy, offer, ordain, over, oversight, pay, perform, place, plant, pour,

present, print, pull, put, recompense, requite, restore, send, set, shoot, show, sing, sit, slander, strike, submit,

suffer, take, thrust, tie, trade, turn, utter, weep, willingly, withdrew, would, yell, and yield.

While it is true that one English word cannot translate one Hebrew word perfectly and some translational

liberties are necessary, this should only be done out of necessity and the change should be noted in a footnote

to aid the student with proper understanding and interpretation.

The Inadequacy of a translation

The English vocabulary and its definitions are very inadequate in conveying the meanings of Hebrew words. In

the following passages, from the KJV, we find the word "teach," an English word meaning "to impart

knowledge or skill through instruction."

Exodus 18:20; And thou shalt teach them ordinances and laws, and shalt shew them the way wherein they must walk, and the work that they must do.

Exodus 24:12; And the LORD said unto Moses, Come up to me into the mount, and be there: and I will give thee tables of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written; that thou mayest teach them.

Deuteronomy 4:1; Now therefore hearken, O Israel, unto the statutes and unto the judgments, which I teach you, for to do them, that ye may live, and go in and possess the land which the LORD God of your fathers giveth you.

Deuteronomy 4:9; Only take heed to thyself, and keep thy soul diligently, lest thou forget the things which thine eyes have seen, and lest they depart from thy heart all the days of thy life: but teach them thy sons, and thy sons' sons;

Deuteronomy 6:7; And thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up.

Job 33:33; If not, hearken unto me: hold thy peace, and I shall teach thee wisdom.

Each use of the word "teach" in these six passages is the English translation of six different Hebrew words,

each with its own unique meaning.

Exodus 24:12; ירה (yarah) – To point out the direction to go

Exodus 18:20; 2094) זהר (zahar) – To advise caution

Deuteronomy 4:1; למד (lamad) – To urge to go in a specific direction

Deuteronomy 4:9; ידע (yada) – To provide experience

Deuteronomy 6:7; שמן (shaman) – To sharpen



Job 33:33; אלף (alaph) – To show through example

The original meaning of these six Hebrew words are completely erased and lost when they are simply

translated as "teach," demonstrating the need of going beyond the simple translations.

Is a Mechanical Translation Possible?

I have been told that a word for word translation is not possible as each word can have several meanings and

the context will determine how each word is to be translated. I have found that this is not exactly true and it is

possible to translate each word the same each time it occurs. However, the problem is that we need to

understand the Hebrew vocabulary from an Hebraic perspective. To demonstrate this philosophy, let me use

the English word "branch" as an example.

What is a branch? I suppose that most of us would think of the "branch" of a tree such as in the sentence

below.

The bird landed on the branch.

Now examine the word "branch." in the following sentence.

The bank said there is a branch on 1st Street.

Notice that the same word is used, but the context shows a different application for this word. The word

"branch" can also be used a the "branch" of a river, a family line or a "branch" of science.

The literal meaning of the word "branch" is a division or section.

The Hebrew word for a "branch" is מטה(mateh, Strong's #4294) and is used in the following passages.

Exodus 31:2 - The son of Hur, from the branch [tribe] of Judah

Isaiah 9:3(4) - For you have broken the yoke of his burden, and the branch [yoke] of his shoulder

Exodus 4:17 - and you will take this branch [staff] in your hand

Now let's look at a Hebrew word where the connections may not be as obvious. Each of the following passages

have the Hebrew word איל (ayil, Strong's #352)meaning, someone or something that is strong and large in

stature, a "buck."

Exodus 29:16 - and you will slaughter the buck [a male from the sheep or goats]

Ezekiel 40:16 - and their bucks [posts] within the gate

Isaiah 61:3 - they will be called bucks [trees] of righteousness, a planting of YHWH

Exodus 15:15 - the bucks [chiefs] of Moab



As demonstrated, a "Mechanical," word for word, translation is possible, but it will require the reader to learn

the vocabulary of that translation from an Hebraic perspective rather than from an English perspective.

Redefining Biblical Words

Objective

Hebrew words must be defined from within their original Hebraic culture and context. This study will examine

how Hebrew words are defined in mainstream translations, to see if they have remained true to the Hebrew

text.

A Hebrew Word Study

KJV Genesis 6:5 And GOD saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually.

KJV Psalm 40:8 I delight to do thy will, O my God; Yea, thy law is within my heart.

RSV Exodus 23:9 "You shall not oppress a stranger; you know the heart of a stranger, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt.

KJV Jeremiah 9:8 Their tongue is as an arrow shot out; it speaketh deceit: one speaketh peaceably to his neighbour with his mouth, but in heart he layeth his wait.

RSV Psalm 7:9 O let the evil of the wicked come to an end, but establish thou the righteous, thou who triest the minds and hearts, thou righteous God.

When doing a word study, such as we are doing here with the word "heart," we are assuming that the Hebrew

word behind each English word "heart" is the same. Is this true? By simply using a concordance we can easily

check each of these translations to see what Hebrew word lies beneath the word "heart." What we find in

Genesis 6:5 is the Hebrew word lev, which does mean "heart." In Psalm 40:8 we find the Hebrew word me'ah

meaning the "gut." In Exodus 23:9 it is the word nephesh meaning "being" or "person." In Jeremiah 9:8 it is

qerev meaning the "insides." In Psalm 7:9 it is kil'yah meaning "kidneys."

Each of these Hebrew words has a specific meaning which the translators have chosen to ignore and just

translate all five of these Hebrew words as "heart." Because the Hebrew bible is Hebraic in origin, it is written

from a very Hebraic perspective. Our own Greco-Roman culture is very different from the Hebrew culture and

we do not think in Hebraic terms. For this reason, the translators have removed the Hebraicness of the text

and have converted it into one that is more in-line with our Greco-Roman thought. While this may seem trivial,

it changes the meaning the original author had intended.

Now, let's use the concordance to look up verses that do you use the Hebrew word lev, meaning heart, to see

if the translators have translated this word consistently. In each of the verses below, the underlined word is

the translator's translation of the Hebrew word lev.

Genesis 31:20 And Jacob stole away unawares to Laban the Syrian, in that he told him not that he fled.



Exodus 9:21 And he that regarded not the word of Jehovah left his servants and his cattle in the field.

Numbers 16:28 And Moses said, Hereby ye shall know that Jehovah hath sent me to do all these works; for I have not done them of mine own mind.

Job 36:5 Behold, God is mighty, and despiseth not any: He is mighty in strength of understanding.

Psalm 83:5 For they have consulted together with one consent; Against thee do they make a covenant:

Proverbs 19:8 He that getteth wisdom loveth his own soul: He that keepeth understanding shall find good.

Again, the translators have ignored the original text, erased its original Hebraicness and replaced it with words

more fitting to Greco-Roman thought. What exactly is the meaning of the Hebrew word lev?

RSV Psalm 7:9 O let the evil of the wicked come to an end, but establish thou the righteous, thou who triest the minds and hearts, thou righteous God.

In the above verse, the Hebrew word lev is translated as "mind." While we usually equate the "heart" with

emotions, Hebraicly, it means the "mind." Also found in the above verse, is the word "hearts," which we

already found to be the Hebrew word kil'yah, meaning the "kidneys." In Hebraic thought, the kidneys are the

seat of "emotions."

Addition of words to "fix" the text

KJV Genesis 4:1 ...I have gotten a man from the LORD.

RSV Genesis 4:1 ...I have gotten a man with the help of the LORD."

In this verse, from two different translations, the underlined words have been added to the text and do not

appear in the original Hebrew text. The literal rendering of this verse, from the Hebrew is, "I have gotten a man

with the LORD." The Hebrew text implies that Hhawa (Eve) had relations with YHWH (the LORD), but it is

possible that the Hebrew text is in error (not all that uncommon). It is my opinion that the translator should, at

the least, footnote the addition of any words inserted into the text.

RSV Genesis 32:1-4 Jacob went on his way and the angels of God met him; and when Jacob saw them he said, "This is God's army!" So he called the name of that place Mahanaim. And Jacob sent messengers before him to Esau his brother in the land of Seir, the country of Edom,instructing them, "Thus you shall say to my lord Esau: Thus says your servant Jacob, `I have sojourned with Laban, and stayed until now;

In this passage, Jacob comes across "angels." Then, he sends off "messengers" to meet with his brother. From

this translation we would never have realized that the "angels" Jacob met, are the very same "messengers" he



sends to his brother. The Hebrew word behind both of these English words is malakh, literally meaning

messengers.

Greek Influence on translations

We are all familiar with the name "Moses," however, the pronunciation of this name comes from the Greek

Septuagint (a 2,000 year old translation of the Hebrew Bible). The correct Hebrew pronunciation is Mosheh.

Another example of this is the name "Eve," again from the Greek Septuagint. The Hebrew pronunciation is

Hhawa.

Did you know that the word "manna" never occurs in the Hebrew Bible? The word manna, for the bread-like

substance that was given to the Israelites while in the wilderness, is actually called mahn. The term "manna"

comes from; you guessed it, the Greek Septuagint.

This use of the Greek Septuagint is not limited to names only, but the translations themselves.

RSV Genesis 4:8 Cain said to Abel his brother, "Let us go out to the field." And when they were in the field, Cain rose up against his brother Abel, and killed him.

The underlined part of this verse is not found in the Hebrew Bible, but comes from the Greek Septuagint. In

reality, the Hebrew text is missing what Cain said to his brother. Again, it is my opinion that translator should

at least add a footnote stating that this phrase is from the Septuagint and is not found in the Hebrew text.

RSV Genesis 25:27 When the boys grew up, Esau was a skilful hunter, a man of the field, while Jacob was a quiet man, dwelling in tents.

RSV Job 1:1 There was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job; and that man was blameless and upright, one who feared God, and turned away from evil.

In Genesis 25:27, we read that Jacob was a "quiet" man (other translations have simple or plain). In Job 1:1, we

read that Job was a "blameless" man. From this translation we conclude that the character of Jacob is different

from Job. However, the Hebrew word behind both of these words, quiet and blameless, is the word tam,

literally meaning "mature."

Other examples

ASV Exodus 34:28 And he was there with Jehovah forty days and forty nights; he did neither eat bread, nor drink water. And he wrote upon the tables the words of the covenant, the ten commandments.

The Hebrew translation of "ten commandments" is "mitsvot eser." However, this is not what we find behind

the phrase "ten commandments." In the Hebrew text it is "aseret hadevariym" which literally means "ten of

the words" or "ten of the matters."

RSV Leviticus 19:28 You shall not make any cuttings in your flesh on account of the dead or tattoo any marks upon you: I am the LORD.



The Hebrew word for "dead" is mot, but this is not the Hebrew word here, it is nephesh meaning "being" or

"person."

ASV Exodus 25:17 And thou shalt make a mercy-seat of pure gold: two cubits and a half shall be the length thereof, and a cubit and a half the breadth thereof.

The Hebrew word translated as "mercy-seat" is kaphoret, which simply means a "covering" or "lid."

RSV Exodus 4:3 And he said, "Cast it on the ground." So he cast it on the ground, and it became a serpent; and Moses fled from it.

RSV Exodus 7:9 "When Pharaoh says to you, `Prove yourselves by working a miracle,' then you shall say to Aaron, `Take your rod and cast it down before Pharaoh, that it may become a serpent.'

The Hebrew translated as "serpent" in Exodus 4:3 is nahhash, but in Exodus 7:9 it is the word taniyn. The

reader is not informed that different Hebrew words are being translated as serpent. Is this significant? Maybe,

maybe not.

RSV Genesis 14:20 and blessed be God Most High, who has delivered your enemies into your hand!" And Abram gave him a tenth of everything.

In this translation, the translator has inserted the word/name Abram when it does not appear in the original

text. The original simply states, "and he gave him a tenth." The "he" is not identified, and may be either

Melchizedek or Abram. The RSV translation "fixes" this problem by telling you it is Abram.

Uncovering the orignal meaning of Hebrew words

One of the major differences betwen our own Greco-Roman thought and the thought of the Ancient Hebrews,

is that we commonly use abstract terms and thought while the Ancient Hebrews did not, but instead, thought

and used terms that are concrete in nature. The following verse will easily demonstrate this difference.

KJV Exodus 17:14 And the LORD said unto Moses, Write this for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua

This is a Greco-Roman translation of the Hebrew which literally reads, "and YHWH said to Mosheh, write this

remembrance in the scroll and place it in the ears of Yehoshu'a." Notice the difference? The literal translation

of the Hebrew has Mosheh placing the scroll that was written upon, into the ear of Yeshoshu'a. While this is

not meant to be taken literally, but figuratively, it clearly demonstrates how the Ancient Hebrews thought and

wrote, from a concrete persective.

RSV 1 Samuel 20:34 And Jonathan rose from the table in fierce anger

This verse is another example where the translation uses an abstract phrase to translate the original concrete

Hebrew. The literal translation of this verse is, "And Jonathon rose from the table with his nose of fire."



One of the main focuses of the Ancient Hebrew Lexicon of the Bible is to restore the original concrete meaning

of Hebrew words. While many different methods are used to uncover the original concrete meaning, the two

major ones are context and roots. Let's look at context first.

KJV Habakkuk 2:4 Behold, his soul which is lifted up is not upright in him: but the just shall live by his faith.

The word "faith" is an abstract word. The Hebrew behind this word is "emunah." If we examine other passages

that use this Hebrew word, and the context that it is used in, we can find its original concrete meaning.

KJV Exodus 17:12 But Moses' hands were heavy; and they took a stone, and put it under him, and he sat thereon; and Aaron and Hur stayed up his hands, the one on the one side, and the other on the other side; and his hands were steady until the going down of the sun.

The word "steady" is the Hebrew word emunah and provides us the context to understand this word from an

Hebraic concrete perspective - steady or firm.

The second method examines the root of the word.

KJV Exodus 31:14 Ye shall keep the sabbath therefore; for it is holy unto you

What is "holy?" We usually assume it means something that is religiously pure. However, the word holy, and

this definition, are abstract concepts. The Hebrew word is qodesh which comes from the verbal root qadash. In

most cases, this verb is translated as "sanctified," another abstract term. The following verse uses this verb,

but through context, provides us with a concrete meaning to the word.

RSV 2 Sam 8:10-11 ...And Joram brought with him articles of silver, of gold, and of bronze; these also King David dedicated to the LORD.

Here, the verb qadash is translated as "dedicated," which means to "set something aside for a special purpose

or function." From this, we learn that the concrete meaning of qodesh is something that is "set aside for a

special purpose."

The mainstream translations have defined Biblical words away from their original Hebraic meaning toward a

Greek perspective. The "Mechanical Translation" is redefining Biblical words away from their Greek

perspective back to their original Hebraic meaning.

Is Strong's Dictionary enough?

For those who do not know Hebrew, the only tool available for studying the Hebrew text of the Bible is

Strong's Hebrew Dictionary. While this dictionary is a valuable resource, it has many limitations.

In the King James Version of Exodus 3:16 we read, "The LORD God of your fathers... appeared unto me..." A

person might read this and ask, "How can the LORD 'appear' to someone when he has no form?" This person



then takes out his Strong's Dictionary and looks up the word "appear" in this verse and finds the following

entry.

H7200 ראה

Translations - see 879, look 104, behold 83, shew 68, appear

66, consider 22, seer 12, spy 6, respect 5, perceive 5, provide

4, regard 4, enjoy 4, lo 3, foreseeth 2, heed 2, misc 74; 1313

The reader then sees that the Hebrew word ra'ah, Strong's #H7200, means "see" and "look." Armed with this

bit of "knowledge," the reader then retranslates this verse as, "And the LORD God of your fathers... looked

unto me..." and then says, "ah-ha, the LORD didn't 'appear' to him, the LORD 'saw' him." But to confirm his

theory, he goes back a few verses and reads Exodus 3:4, "And when the LORD saw that he turned aside..."

Taking out his trusty Strong's Dictionary he looks up the word "saw" and finds the following entry.

H7200 ראה

Translations - see 879, look 104, behold 83, shew 68, appear

66, consider 22, seer 12, spy 6, respect 5, perceive 5, provide

4, regard 4, enjoy 4, lo 3, foreseeth 2, heed 2, misc 74; 1313

He then says, "There it is, the Hebrew word translated as 'saw' is the very same Hebrew word ra'ah!"

Have you ever heard the expression, "A little knowledge is a dangerous thing?" Well, this applies in this

situation. What this reader is not aware of, is that Hebrew verbs can take on different forms and these forms

are not identified in Strong's Dictionary. In Exodus 3:4 the Hebrew verb ra'ah is written וירא(vai'yar), which

is the simple form of the verb and means "and he saw." But in Exodus 3:16 it is written as נראה(nir'ah),

which is the passive form of the verb and means "and he was seen" or "and he appeared." According to the

verb form of this Hebrew word in Exodus 3:16, the LORD is not the one "seeing," he is the one that "was seen."

All of the resources available for going into this depth of Hebrew study require the reader to have at least a

basic knowledge of Hebrew, shutting out all those who wish to go deeper into the text, but are unable to do

so. That is until now. The Mechanical Translation is designed to provide the reader who has no background in

Hebrew the ability to study the Hebrew language at this depth.

The following is the Mechanical Translation of the word "see" in Exodus 3:4.

and~he~will~SEE Now the Mechanical Translation of the word "appear" in Exodus 3:16.

he~did~be~SEE The word "be" in this translation indicates to the reader that this verb is in the passive form. Whenever a verb

is written in the passive form, the word "be" will be there before the verb; whenever a verb is written in the

causative form, the word "make" will be there; and whenever a verb is written in the reflexive form, the word

"self" will be there. Now the reader has the ability to view the Hebrew text without even knowing how to read

Hebrew.



What is a Mechanical Translation?

The Mechanical Translation of the Hebrew Bible project began in 2005 with the publication of Mr. Benner's

Ancient Hebrew Lexicon of the Bible. This lexicon laid the foundation for a translation of the Hebrew Bible

where each word would be translated faithfully according to its original linguistic and cultural perspective. Mr.

Benner's vision of this translation included a translation that;

1. eliminates personal and religious bias on the part of the translator,

2. translates each Hebrew word, prefix and suffix, exactly the same way, every time it occurred in the

text,

3. could be read and understood by the average person who does not have any prior knowledge of the

Hebrew language,

4. includes a dictionary of each word used in the translation as well as a concordance, and

5. could be used as a tool by those who are learning to read Biblical Hebrew.

To better understand the philosophies and methodologies of this translational project, let's take a closer look at each of the points above.

Personal and Religious Bias

It has been argued that it is impossible to eliminate bias into any translation, especially one of a religious

nature. However, Mr. Benner has developed a method that almost completely removes the possibility of any

personal or religious bias within the translation. This is achieved through a two-fold process.

The first process is through the Lexicon. Each translation and definition of each word in the lexicon is chosen

based primarily on its etymology (what is the words meaning based on its relationship to other words and

roots), context (how is the word used throughout the Bible) and culture (What did the word mean to those

who lived within that culture).

The second part of the process simply involves replacing the Hebrew word, prefix or suffix with its

corresponding English word from the Lexicon. This method of translation also has the unique quality that if the

reader disagrees with the translation of a Hebrew word, he can simply replace that word with his own and as

the translation is accompanied with a concordance, finding the location of each occurrence of that word is

fairly simple.

A word for word translation

Every translation to date, including interlinears and literal translations, translates the Hebrew text according to

context. The problem with this is that the context can be interpreted differently based upon the translators

personal opinions of what that context is. In contrast, a word for word, prefix for prefix and suffix for suffix

translation is very mechanical and prevents the translator from "fixing" the text.

One advantage to this method of translation is that the reader is able to see the text in its pure and original

Hebrew format. However, there is one major drawback to this method of translation. Hebrew syntax (sentence

structure and style) is very different from English syntax and a reader that has no background in Hebrew syntax

would be completely lost in the translation. To alleviate this problem, the "mechanical" translation is

accompanied with a "revised mechanical" translation.



Easily read and understood

The "revised mechanical" translation re-arranges the words of the "mechanical" translation into more readable

and understandable English syntax. This method of translation is common among other translations but the

changes are invisible to the reader. With the "mechanical" and "revised mechanical" translations side by side,

the reader is able to see the changes that are made.

There are times when the "revised mechanical" translation is difficult to read and may not make perfect sense,

but this is due to the fact that the Hebrew structure of a given sentence is sometimes difficult to read itself.

While most other translations "fix" the text so that it will always be read easily, this translation preserves the

difficulties. It is the opinion of the author of this translation, that those who will be interested in this

translation, will be willing to put in the extra effort to understand a difficult passage.

A dictionary and concordance

No one English word can fully convey the meaning of one Hebrew word. For this reason, the translation will

include a dictionary that will more finely define each word within its linguistic, contextual and cultural setting.

In addition, for in-depth study of the words in the Bible, a concordance will be included that will identify the

location of each word within the text.

A tool for learning Hebrew

Learning Hebrew is much more than memorizing the meaning of Hebrew words. It involves learning to

recognize prefixes and suffixes attached to a word (common Hebrew, much more so than English), verb

conjugations (which include subject, tense, gender, number, mood, voice and sometimes the object of the

verb) and syntax. When reading the Hebrew text of the Bible, the reader will come across words which will be

difficult to decipher. The reader can check the "mechanical" translation to help assist with deciphering the

word. The reader is also able to check the "revised mechanical" translation if he is unable to determine the

meaning of the sentence itself.

Comparisons between the MT and other translations

The major advantage to the Mechanical Translation for the student of the Bible is that it

consistently translates each Hebrew word in the exact same way each time it occurs in the

text. This allows the reader to see the Hebrew text, without even knowing Hebrew, in its

pure form void from any personal interpretation being interjected into the text. Below are a

few examples from the book of Genesis comparing the Mechanical Translation (MT) and the

Revised Mechanical Translation (RMT) with Young’s Literal Translation (YLT), King James

Version (KJV), the Revised Standard Version (RSV) and the Stone’s Edition Tenach (SET).

Genesis 1:1

MT: in~Summit he~did~Fatten "Elohiym [Powers]" At the~Sky~s2 and~At the~Land



RMT: in the summit "Elohiym [Powers]" fattened the sky and the land,

YLT: In the beginning of God's preparing the heavens and the earth

KJV: In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.

RSV: In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.

SET: In the beginning of God’s creating the heavens and the earth.

Hebrew words related to "time" are also used for "space." Therefore, the Hebrew word reshiyt, derived from

the word rosh, can mean the head, top or beginning of space or time. The MT uses the word "summit" to

translate this word as it better describes the original meaning of the Hebrew. Psalm 111:10 reads "The fear of

YHWH is the reshiyt of wisdom." The more Hebraic meaning of this is that "the fear of YHWH" is the summit, or

height, of wisdom.

The Hebrew verb bara is usually translated as "create." However, the idea of "creation" is an abstract word

which would be a foreign concept to the Ancient Hebrews. This very same verb is used in 1 Samuel 2:29 where

it is translated correctly as "fat." The Hebrew concrete meaning of this word is to make something fat or to fill

it up. The context of this verse is Elohiym’s "filling" up of the skies with the sun, moon, stars and birds, the

water with fish and taniyn (an unknown serpent like creature) and the earth with plants, animals and man. We

also read in verse two that Elohiym "filled" the skies and the land because "the land was empty." Only the

Young’s Literal Translation uses the word "preparing," closer to the Hebraic meaning of this word, to translate

the word bara.

The YLT and SET translate the verb bara as a participle (…ing) where the Hebrew is not.

Genesis 2:7

MT: and~he~will~Mold "YHWH [He exists]" "Elohiym [Powers]" At the~Human Powder From the~Ground

and~he~will~Exhale in~Nose~s2~him Breath Life~s and~he~will~Exist the~Human to~Being Life

RMT: and "YHWH [He exists]" of "Elohiym [Powers]" molded the human of powder from the ground and he exhaled in

his nostrils a breath of life and the human existed for a being of life,

YLT: And Jehovah God formeth the man -- dust from the ground, and breatheth into his nostrils breath of life,

and the man becometh a living creature.

KJV: And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of

life; and man became a living soul.

RSV: then the LORD God formed man of dust from the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of

life; and man became a living being.

SET: And HASHEM God formed the man of dust from the ground, and He blew into his nostrils the soul of life;

and man became a living being.



The name YHWH literally means "he exists" and is derived from the Hebrew verb hawah meaning to "exist."

However, the KJV and RSV translate the name YHWH as "the LORD" when the Hebrew word has no connection

to the meaning of the word "lord." The SET also replaces the name YHWH with the word HASHEM (a Hebrew

word meaning "the name").

The Hebrew YHWH Elohiym is always translated as "LORD God" (KJV, RSV), "Jehovah God" (YLT) or "HASHEM

God" (SET) in the standard translations. In Hebrew grammar, two nouns placed together are in the construct

state. For instance, in Psalm 24:10 the Hebrew phrase YHWH tseva’ot (the same structure as YHWH Elohiym) is

correctly translated in its construct state-"LORD of Hosts." The MT chooses to translate YHWH Elohiym in the

same manner-"YHWH of Elohiym."

The KJV and RSV translate the Hebrew nephesh hhayah as "living soul" in this verse while in Genesis 1:24 they

translate this very same phrase as "living creature." The SET translates this phrase as "living being" here but as

also translates it as "living creature" in Genesis 1:24. Only the YLT remains consistent in how this phrase is

translated in these two verses.

Genesis 2:17

MT: and~from~Tree the~Discernment Functional and~Dysfunctional Not you(ms)~will~Eat From~him

Given.that in~Day you(ms)~>~Eat From~him >~Die you(ms)~will~Die

RMT: and from the tree of the discernment of function and dysfunction you will not eat from him given that in

the day you eat from him a dying you will die,

YLT: and of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, thou dost not eat of it, for in the day of thine eating of it --

dying thou dost die.'

KJV: But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest

thereof thou shalt surely die.

RSV: but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you

shall die.

SET: but of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Bad, you must not eat thereof; for on the day you eat of it,

you shall surely die.

The English words "good" and "evil" (or bad) do not completely convey the Hebraic meaning of the word tov

and ra which are more related to the function of a person, place or thing rather than their appearance or

morality as implied in the English.

Genesis 3:15

MT: and~Hostility i~did~Set.down Between~you(ms) and~Between the~Woman and~Between Seed~you(ms)

and~Between Seed~her He he~will~Fall.upon~you(ms) Head and~You(ms) you(ms)~will~Fall.upon~him

Heel



RMT: and hostility I sat down between you and the woman and between your seed and her seed, he will fall

upon you a head and you will fall upon him a heel,

YLT: and enmity I put between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed; he doth bruise thee

-- the head, and thou dost bruise him -- the heel.'

KJV: And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed; it shall bruise

thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel.

RSV: I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your seed and her seed; he shall bruise your

head, and you shall bruise his heel

SET: I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring. He will

pound your head, and you will bite his heel.

The literal meaning of the second half of this verse is that "the seed of the woman will drop a head on the

serpent and the serpent will drop a heel on the seed of the woman," which is the complete opposite of the

reading in the KJV, RSV and the SET.

The Hebrew verb shuph (fall upon) is used twice in this verse. The SET translates this verb as "pound" in one

place and "bite" in another.

Genesis 4:1

MT: and~the~Human he~had~Know At "Hhawah [Living]" Woman~him and~she~will~Conceive

and~she~will~Bring.forth At "Qayin [Acquired]" and~she~will~Say i~did~Purchase Man At "YHWH [He exists]"

RMT: and the human had known "Hhawah [Living]" his woman and she conceived and she brought forth "Qayin [Acquired]" and she said, I purchased a man with "YHWH [He exists]",

YLT: And the man knew Eve his wife, and she conceiveth and beareth Cain, and saith, `I have gotten a man by

Jehovah;'

KJV: And Adam knew Eve his wife; and she conceived, and bare Cain, and said, I have gotten a man from the

LORD.

RSV: Now Adam knew Eve his wife, and she conceived and bore Cain, saying, "I have gotten a man with the

help of the LORD."

SET: Now the man had known his wife Eve, and she conceived and bore Cain, saying, "I have acquired a man

with HASHEM."

The Hebrew verb qanah means to "acquire something through a purchase or exchange" and not simply "get"

as other translations have implied.



The name "Eve" comes directly from the Greek Septuagint (2,000 year old Greek translation of the Hebrew

Bible) and not the Hebrew text which is Hhawa (or Hhava). This is true for most all names such as the name

Seth which comes from the Greek but is Shet in the Hebrew) and Moses from the Greek where it is Mosheh in

the Hebrew.

The KJV has added the word "from," the RSV the word "help" and Young’s the word "by" to the text, which do

not appear in the Hebrew, in order to "fix" the text so that it reads more favorably. The Hebrew text can only

be translated two ways, "I have purchased a man with YHWH" or "I have purchased the man YHWH."

The KJV employs the use of italics, supposedly to indicate when an English word has been added to the text for

clarification. However, I have not found this to be very consistent. In this verse the word "from" has been

added to the text by the translators but it is not italicized.

Genesis 4:7

MT: ?~Not If you(ms)~will~make~Do.well >~Lift.up and~If Not you(ms)~will~make~Do.well to~Opening Error

Stretch.out~ing(ms) and~To~you(ms) Following~him and~You(ms) you(ms)~will~Regulate in~him

RMT: if you cause it to be done well, will it not be lifted up and if you do not cause it to be done well, an

opening of error is stretching out and to you is his following and you will regulate in him,

YLT: Is there not, if thou dost well, acceptance? and if thou dost not well, at the opening a sin-offering is

crouching, and unto thee its desire, and thou rulest over it.'

KJV: If thou doest well, shalt thou not be accepted? and if thou doest not well, sin lieth at the door. And unto

thee shall be his desire, and thou shalt rule over him.

RSV: If you do well, will you not be accepted? And if you do not do well, sin is couching at the door; its desire

is for you, but you must master it

SET: Surely, if you improve yourself, you will be forgiven. But if you do not improve yourself, sin rests at the

door. Its desire is toward you, yet you can conquer it.

In the Young’s, RSV and the SET, the word "it" (neutral gender) is used implying that the "it" is "sin." However,

the Hebrew behind the English word "it" is the masculine pronoun-him. the Hebrew word hhatat (translated as

sin, error in the MT) is a feminine word, therefore, the "it" (masculine) cannot be "sin" (feminine). The likely

identity of "him" is Cain’s brother (The Hebrew text of Genesis 3:16 reads, from the RMT, "and to your man is

your following and he will regulate in you," identical, with the exception of the pronouns, to this verse.)

Genesis 12:8

MT: and~he~will~Advance from~There the~Hill~unto from~East to~"Beyt-El [House of El]" and~he~will~Stretch

Tent~her "Beyt-El [House of El]" from~Sea and~the~"Ay [Heap of ruins]" from~East and~he~will~Build There Altar

to~"YHWH [He exists]" and~he~will~Call.out in~Title "YHWH [He exists]"



RMT: and he advanced from there unto the hill, from the east to "Beyt-El [House of El]" and he stretched her tent,

"Beyt-El [House of El]" was from the sea and "Ay [Heap of ruins]" was from the east and he built there an altar to

"YHWH [He exists]" and he called out in the title of "YHWH [He exists]",

YLT: And he removeth from thence towards a mountain at the east of Beth-El, and stretcheth out the tent

(Beth-El at the west, and Hai at the east), and he buildeth there an altar to Jehovah, and preacheth in the

name of Jehovah.

KJV: And he removed from thence unto a mountain on the east of Bethel, and pitched his tent, having Bethel

on the west, and Hai on the east: and there he builded an altar unto the LORD, and called upon the name

of the LORD.

RSV: Thence he removed to the mountain on the east of Bethel, and pitched his tent, with Bethel on the west

and Ai on the east; and there he built an altar to the LORD and called on the name of the LORD.

SET: From there he relocated to the mountain east of Beth-el and pitched his tent, with Beth-el on the west

and Ai on the east; and he built there an altar to HASHEM and invoked HASHEM by name.

The Hebrew word ahaloh is not grammatically correct. This pronunciation only comes from the Masoretic

Hebrew text which has added the nikkudot (vowel pointings) to Hebrew words. The original spelling of this

word is a-h-l-h and can only be pronounced as ahalah. Ahalah can be translated in two ways, "unto the tent"

(which does not fit with the context of the passage) or "her tent." In the modern day Bedouin tribes of the

Near East, which live very much the same as in the days of Abraham, the tent always belongs to the wife. It

appears that this custom was also in use in the days of Abraham as the passage literally identifies the tent as

"her tent."

The MT footnote to this verse reads; The phrase "he called out in the title" may also be translated as "he met

with the title." All Hebrew names are titles in the sense that the name identifies the personality or character of

an individual. The "title," or "character" of YHWH, may be his representative (such as "the messenger of

YHWH"). There are two meanings behind the word verb qara, one is to "call out" and the other is "to meet" (in

the sense of calling someone out to meet with him). Therefore, a possible interpretation of this verse is that

Abraham "met with a representative (messenger) of YHWH.

Genesis 20:17, 18

MT: and~he~will~self~Plead "Avraham [Father lifted]" To the~"Elohiym [Powers]" and~he~will~Heal "Elohiym [Powers]"

At "Aviymelekh [My father is king]" and~At Woman~him and~Bondwoman~s~him

and~they(m)~will~Bring.forth Given.that >~Stop he~did~Stop "YHWH [He exists]" Round.about All Bowels

to~House "Aviymelekh [My father is king]" Upon Word "Sarah [Noblewoman]" Woman "Avraham [Father lifted]"

RMT: and "Avraham [Father lifted]" pleaded to the "Elohiym [Powers]" and "Elohiym [Powers]" healed "Aviymelekh [My

father is king]" and his woman and his bondwomen and they brought forth, given that "YHWH [He exists]"

stopped round about all the bowels to the house of "Aviymelekh [My father is king]" because of "Sarah [Noblewoman]" the woman of "Avraham [Father lifted]",



YLT: And Abraham prayeth unto God, and God healeth Abimelech and his wife, and his handmaids, and they

bear: for Jehovah restraining had restrained every womb of the house of Abimelech, because of Sarah,

Abraham's wife.

KJV: So Abraham prayed unto God: and God healed Abimelech, and his wife, and his maidservants; and they

bare children. For the LORD had fast closed up all the wombs of the house of Abimelech, because of

Sarah Abraham's wife.

RSV: Then Abraham prayed to God; and God healed Abimelech, and also healed his wife and female slaves so

that they bore children. For the LORD had closed all the wombs of the house of Abimelech because of

Sarah, Abraham's wife.

SET: Abraham prayed to God, and God healed Abimelech, his wife, and his maids, and they were relieved; for

HASHEM had completely restrained every orifice of the household of Abimelech, because of Sarah, the

wife of Abraham.

According to Young’s, the KJV and the RSV, the illness YHWH placed on Aviymelekh, his wife and her

bondwomen was that their wombs were restrained and they bore (KJV and RSV add the word "children" which

is not in the Hebrew text). The first problem with this interpretation is that Aviymelekh, who doesn’t have a

womb and is not able to bear "children," was also stricken with this illness. The second problem is that

according to verse 7, this illness would kill them. While the Hebrew verb yalad is usually used in the context of

"bringing forth (bearing) children," the literal meaning of this verb is simply to "bring forth." The Hebrew text

literally states that their bowels could not "bring forth, most likely, they were suffering from constipation.

Genesis 25:27

MT: and~they(m)~will~Magnify the~Young.man~s and~he~will~Exist "Esav [Doing]" Man Know~ing(ms) Game

Man Field and~"Ya'aqov [He restrains]" Man Mature Settle~ing(ms) Tent~s

RMT: and the young men magnified and "Esav [Doing]" existed a man knowing game and a man of the field and

"Ya'aqov [He restrains]" was a man of maturity a settler of tents,

YLT: And the youths grew, and Esau is a man acquainted [with] hunting, a man of the field; and Jacob [is] a plain

man, inhabiting tents;

KJV: And the boys grew: and Esau was a cunning hunter, a man of the field; and Jacob was a plain man,

dwelling in tents.

RSV: When the boys grew up, Esau was a skilful hunter, a man of the field, while Jacob was a quiet man,

dwelling in tents.

SET: The lads grew up and Esau became one who knows hunting, a man of the field; but Jacob was a

wholesome man, abiding in tents.



The Hebrew word to describe the character of Jacob is tamiym. This same word is used in Job 1:1 to describe

the character of Job. However, while the YLT, KJV and RSV translate this word as "plain" or "quiet" man, these

same translations translate this word "perfect" or "blameless" for the character of Job.

Example of how the MT enhances the text

The Aaronic Blessing

Now that we have a basic understanding of Hebrew philosophy, vocabulary, language and the alphabet, we

can now begin to interpret the Bible from an Ancient Hebrew perspective rather than from a Western one.

Most people are familiar with the English translation of the Aaronic blessing.

The LORD bless you and keep you: The LORD make his face to shine upon you, and be gracious to you:

The LORD lift up his countenance upon you, and give you peace. (Numbers 6:24-26 RSV)

Notice that many of the words in this translation are abstract; bless, keep, gracious, countenance, grant and

peace. Each of the Hebrew words behind the English in this passage is filled with images that are lost when

translated into the English language. When we examine each of these words from their original cultural and

linguistic perspectives, the message in this passage comes alive.

Bless

The Hebrew verb ברך (Barakh, Strong's #1288) means to kneel as seen in Genesis 24:11. However, when

written in the piel form, such as it is in Aaronic blessing, it means to show respect (usually translated as bless).

However, as "respect" is an abstract word, we need to uncover its original concrete meaning, which we can do

by examining other words related to this verb. One such related word is the noun ברך (berekh, Strong's #1288)

meaning "knee." Another related Hebrew word is ברכה (berakhah, Strong's #1293) meaning a gift or present.

From this we can see the concrete meaning behind the piel form of the verb barak. It is to bring a gift to

another while kneeling out of respect. The extended meaning of this word is to do or give something of value

to another. Elohiym "respects" us by providing for our needs and we in turn "respect" Elohiym by giving him of

ourselves as his servants.

Keep

The Hebrews were a nomadic people raising livestock. It would not be uncommon for a shepherd to be out

with his flock, away from the camp, over the night. In order to protect the flock, the shepherd would construct

a corral of thorn bushes. The shepherd would then guard over the flock and the corral would be a hedge of

protection around them. The Hebrew word for a thorn is שמיר (shamiyr, Strong's #8068) and derived from the

verb שמר (shamar, Strong's #8104), which literally means to guard and protect and is the word used in the

Aaronic blessing.

Face

In the painting above you can "read" the faces of each of the people within the painting. The face reflects the

many different moods, emotions, and thoughts of the person. The Hebrew word פנים (paniym, Strong's

#6440), means "face," but is always written in the plural form (the ים suffix identifies this word as plural),



reflecting this idea of multiple faces of each person. This word can also mean “presence” or the “wholeness of

being” of an individual.

Shine

The word אור (or, Strong's #215), as a noun means "light" and as a verb, as it is used here, means to "give

light" or "shine" and is equated with bringing about order as light illuminates or reveals what has been dark.

Gracious

Most theologians will define “grace” as “unmerited favor,” but notice the abstractness of these words. The

Hebrew verb translated as gracious in the Aaronic blessing is the verb חנן (hhanan, Strong's #2603) and is

often paralleled with other Hebrew words meaning healing, help, being lifted up, finding refuge, strength and

rescue. From a concrete Hebraic perspective this verb means to “provide protection.” Where does one run to

for protection? The camp, which in Hebrew is חנה (hanah, Strong's #2583), a word related to חנן (hhanan).

Grant

The Hebrew verb שים (siym, Strong's #7760), literally means to "set down in a fixed and arranged

place."

Peace

When we hear the word peace we usually associate this to mean an absence of war or strife. However, the

Hebrew word שלום (shalom, Strong's #7965) has a very different meaning. The root of this word is שלם

(shalam, Strong's #7999) and is usually used in the context of making restitution. When a person has caused

another to become deficient in some way, such as a loss of livestock, it is the responsibility of the person who

created the deficiency to restore what has been taken, lost or stolen. The verb shalam literally means to make

whole or complete. The noun shalom has the more literal meaning of being in a state of wholeness, or being

without deficiency.

A Hebraic interpretation of the Aaronic Blessing

With the Hebraic understanding of each of these Hebrew words, we can better understand the true meaning

of the Aaronic blessing as it was understood by the Ancient Hebrews.

YHWH will kneel before you presenting gifts and will guard you with a hedge of protection.

YHWH will illuminate the wholeness of his being toward you bringing order and he will give you comfort and sustenance.

YHWH will lift up his wholeness of being and look upon you and he will set in place all you need to be whole and complete.



The Hebrew Language

The language of the Ancient Hebrews is closely related to their agricultural and nomadic lifestyle. Each word

must be understood through this culture rather than from our own modern western Greco-Roman culture. As

an example, the Hebrew word hwum mitsvah is usually translated as a command or commandment in most

other translations but Hebraicly means the directions given to guide one on the journey. Hence, this word will

be translated in the MT as “direction.”

Hebraic thought differs from our own process of thinking in that the Hebrews were concrete thinkers in

contrast to our own abstract way of thinking. Concrete thought relates all words, concepts and ideas to

something that can be sensed by the five senses. For instance, the Hebrew word Pa aph is the nose, or

nostrils, but is the same word for anger since one who is angry will flare the nostrils.

At times you are going to come across a word in this translation that seems to make absolutely no sense. This

is mostly due to the differences between our modern Greco-Roman perspective of thought and the ancient

Hebrew’s perspective of thought. Also keep in mind that each Hebrew word is translated exactly the same way

every time, so there will be instances when the word seems out of context. What you will need to do is study

that word and the context which it is used in, so you can better understand its Hebraic meaning. Once this has

been done the word, and the verse itself, will come to life in ways never before perceived. A good example of

this is found in the very first verse of Genesis where most translations will have “In the beginning God

created.” The Revised Mechanical Translation reads “In the summit Elohiym fattened.” The Hebrew word

tysar reshiyt literally means the head or top of a place or time, what is prominent. The Hebrew word arb

bara literally means to fatten but with the extended idea of filling up. In context, the first chapter of Genesis is

about importance of the filling up of the heavens and the earth, not its creation within a span of time (an

abstract idea that is foreign to Hebraic thinking).

Hebrew words, verbs, nouns, adjectives, etc., are best defined through a visual action. The Hebrew root bqe is

used for the noun eqev meaning the heel, the verb aqav meaning to restrain in the sense of grabbing the heel

to hold one back and the adjective eyqev meaning because, or since, through the concept of one idea in a

sentence on the heel of another idea within the sentence.

The Hebrew word ta et (translated as “At” in the MT) is frequently found in the Hebrew text to identify the

direct object of a verb by preceding it. Since there is no English equivalent for this grammatical tool this word

will not be translated in the RMT. However, this word is used in the text on occasion to mean “with” or “at.”

Because the original Hebrew text does not include any punctuation such as periods and quotations, the MT

will not include these either. The only exception to this is the use of the comma which will be used in the RMT

to separate phrases where the grammar of the sentence requires a separation as well as at the end of a

thought.

A combination of Hebrew words, prefixes and/or suffixes are occasionally used to convey one idea. The

Hebrew phrase Nk le al ken literally means “upon so” but is translated in the RMT as “therefore.”

Some Hebrew idioms are found in the Bible. An idiom is a word, or phrase used in a sense that is not meant to

be taken literally. An example of a Hebrew idiom is the phrase “bone of the day” (7:13), an idiom meaning

“noontime.”



Hebrew Names

In our western culture we are comfortable using names, such as Noah or Adam, as simple identifiers with no

actual meaning attached to the name. But, this is not the case with Hebrew names where each name is a word,

or a combination of words, with a meaning. For instance, the name rbe ever (see 10:21) is usually

transliterated as Ever or Eber but, is a Hebrew word meaning “cross over.” The MT and the RMT will represent

this name as “Ever [cross over]”.

An individual descended from Ever is identified as yrbe eevriy (see 14:13) where the suffix y iy means “one

of.” The MT will translate this name as ‘“Ever [cross over]”~of’ and the RMT as ‘one of “Ever [cross over]”.’ A

people descended from Ever is identified as Myrbe eevriym (see 40:15) where the suffix My iym identifies the

name as a plural meaning “ones of.” The MT will translate this name as ‘“Ever [cross over]”~s’ and the RMT as

‘ones of “Ever [cross over]”.’

The common pronunciation of the word Pharoah comes from the Greek translation called the Septuagint. In

the Hebrew text this is pronounced Paroh (pah-roh).

Appendix E includes a guide for pronouncing transliterated Hebrew names.

The Names of God

The name Jehovah/Yahweh is written in Hebrew with four letters - hwhy yhwh. These four letters, as a

Hebrew word, is the third person, masculine, singular, imperfect tense of the verb hwh hawah and literally

means “he exists” and would be transliterated as “yihweh” or “yehuwh.” However, because of the strong

controversy over the actual pronunciation of the name this translation will represent this name as “YHWH [he

exists]”.’

The Hebrew word Myhla elohiym, commonly translated as “God” in most modern translations, is a masculine

plural word meaning “powers.” This word is used in 1:1 as the subject of the verb arb bara meaning “he

fattened” where the “he” identifies the subject of the verb as a masculine singular. Because of this conflict of

number where the verb identifies the subject as a singular but the subject being a plural word, it is apparent

that the word Myhla elohiym is a proper name and not a noun and is therefore translated as “Elohiym

[Powers]”. However, when this word is written in the Hebrew as yhla elohey (identified as a construct due to

the missing M), such as in 9:26, it is apparently being used as a noun rather than a proper name and will be

translated as “powers of...”

The Hebrew words ynda adonai (meaning “my lords”, see 15:2) and yds shaddai (meaning “my breasts”, see

17:1) are frequently used for God and will also be treated as proper names.

Hebrew words

Some Hebrew words are always written in the plural (e.g. faces and waters). This idiomatic form does not

always imply that the word is plural and will usually be translated in the singular in the RMT.

Some words have various nuances of meaning. In most cases the context will help define the nuance, but in

some cases the nuance cannot be determined. For instance, in 4:26 the word “pierced” can be interpreted as

“begin” or “profane;” but, the context does not make clear which nuance is intended.



In the MT, words written with a period between them represent one Hebrew word. For instance, the Hebrew

word Mwht tehom (1:2) means a deep sea and will be represented by “Deep.sea” in the MT but will be written

as “deep sea” in the RMT.

The English translation chosen for each Hebrew word was chosen based on two criteria. First the translation

had to be close in meaning to the Hebrew (although keep in mind the dictionary will more precisely define this

word) and secondly it was to be a unique word that was not used for any other word. As an example, the

Hebrew words Mwq qum and Mwr rum both mean to “raise” so the meaning of “rise” has been assigned to

Mwq qum and “raise” to Mwr rum.

Most Hebrew words can be used in a literal or figurative application which will usually be defined by the

context it is used. For instance, the word hand can literally refer to the hand as in 22:6. But, this same word is

used in 9:2 figuratively to mean “at hand” or “in possession.”

While the RMT strives to translate each Hebrew word exactly the same way each time it appears, there will be

times where the context of the passage or English sentence structure will require the word to be translated

differently. For instance, in 4:25 the MT has the phrase “Seed Other Under.” The word “Other” can also be

translated as “another” and the word “Under” can also be translated as “in place of.” Therefore this phrase is

translated in the RMT as “another seed in place of.” A complete list of words with their alternate translations

are available in Appendix C.

Intensity of a word can be expressed by repeating a word in the Hebrew text. For instance, in 7:19 the word

“many” is repeated to express a “great many.” In these cases the RMT will translate the two words only once

and add the word “great” or other adjective to express this intensity.

Questions are usually formed in the text by using such words as “what,” “where,” “if,” etc but, the Hebrew

language can also form the text into a question by using the “interrogative hey” (in the Hebrew this is

represented by the letter h h as a prefix and will be translated in the MT as “?~”). For instance, the phrase

“Not He he~did~say” would be translated in the RMT as “he did not say” but in 20:5 this phrase is written as

“?~Not He he~did~say” and is translated as “did he not say” in the RMT.

A noun followed by a pronoun such as the “Hand~him” in 3:22 would literally be translated as “hand of him”

but the RMT will translate this as “his hand.”

Hebrew Verbs

Hebrew verbs can be easily identified by their prefixes or suffixes attached to the verb. Each verb will be

preceded by did~, will~, had~, !~ or >~ or followed by ~ing or ~ed.

Hebrew verbs have two tenses, perfect (a completed action, identified in the MT with the prefix “did~”) and

imperfect (an incomplete action, identified in the MT with the prefix “will~”). In addition, most Hebrew verbs

will identify the number and gender of the subject of the verb. As an example, the Hebrew verb rma amar is a

verb meaning “to say” and is in the perfect tense and identifies the subject of the verb as first person,

masculine singular. The MT will translate this verb as “he~did~say” and the RMT will translate it as “he said.”

The Hebrew verb rmat tomer is again the verb meaning “to say” but is in the imperfect tense and identifies

the subject of the verb as second person, masculine singular. The MT will translate this verb as “you~will~say”

and the RMT will translate it as “you will say.”



Hebrew verbs, whose tenses are related to action (completed and incomplete), must be converted to English

verbs related to time (past, present and future) when being translated. In most cases the perfect tense

(completed action) is translated into the past tense English verbs and imperfect tense (incomplete action) is

translated into present or future tense English verbs. However, in some cases this style of translating will not

accurately convey the meaning of the Hebrew. For instance, in 22:2 the word “you(ms)~did~Love” is written in

the perfect tense meaning a completed action but, if translated into English as “you loved” (past tense), it

would imply that he was no longer loved. Therefore, in this instance, the verb will be translated as “you love”

(present tense). Also see 29:5, 37:3 and 48:19 for other examples of this.

When the prefix “and~” is added to a verb the tense is usually reversed. For instance, the verb “he~will~Say”

would be translated in the RMT as “he will say” but the verb “and~he~will~Say” will be translated in the RMT

as “and he said.”

The subject of the verb will usually follow the verb. For instance, ba rma amar av will be written in the MT as

“he~did~say Father” and translated as “father said” in the RMT. In some cases the subject of the verb will

precede the verb instead. This is the past perfect tense of the verb (see 3:13). When this occurs, the MT will

use the prefix “had~” instead of “did~.”

Emphasis is often placed on a Hebrew verb by writing it twice. The RMT will translate this verb once and add

an adverb such as quickly, greatly, completely or surely before it.

The Piel form of verbs, identified in the MT with the prefix “much~,” is an intensive form of the verb and is

usually translated in the RMT with an adverb.

Verb participles, identified by “~ing” in the MT, identifies an action or one of action. As an example, the

participle “Feed-ing” may be translated in the RMT as “feeding” (see 37:2) or “feeder” (one who feeds, a

shepherd or herdsman, see 13:7).

Each Hebrew verb can be written with different moods and voices. For example, The active voice of the verb

har ra’ah means to “see” but, the passive voice, identified by the prefix “be~”, means “be seen” but is

translated as “appeared” in the RMT. As another example, the simple mood of the verb awb bo means to

“come” but, the causative mood, identified by the prefix “make~”, means “make come” but, is translated as

“bring” in the RMT.

Hebrew gender

All Hebrew nouns are either masculine or feminine. The dictionary will identify masculine nouns with [masc]

and feminine nouns as [fem]. Some nouns can be either masculine or feminine, called common nouns and will

be identified with [com].

All Hebrew pronouns will be translated as “he” or “she.” This may appear strange at first as a word like

“ground,” a feminine word, will be identified as a “she” (see 4:12). This is an important issue as knowing the

correct gender of a pronoun can influence interpretation. A classic example is found in 4:7 where most

translations read “...sin is crouching at the door; its desire is for you.” It is usually assumed the word “its” is

referring to the word “sin” but, knowing that the word “sin” is a feminine word and “its” is a masculine

pronoun we discover that the word “its” cannot be referring to the “sin.”



Hebrew genders should not be viewed in the same manner we view gender. For instance the word “beast” is a

feminine word and any pronoun associated with this word will be a “she” with no regard to the actual gender

of the beast.

Hebrew grammar uses the masculine form of nouns and pronouns for a group of mixed genders. For instance,

in 36:25 the “sons” (masculine plural) of Anah are identified as Dishon (a male) and Ahalivamah (a female).

Hebrew numbers

There are two different types of plurals in Hebrew, simple plural and double plural. The word “Hundred” is a

singular word and refers to “one hundred.” The simple plural “Hundred~s” refers to a number of hundreds

such as in the phrase “Three Hundred~s” (this would be translated as “three hundred” in the RMT). When the

same word is written in the double plural “Hundred~s2,” its translation would be “two hundred.”

When a Hebrew number is written in the simple plural form it is multiplied by ten. For instance, the word

“Three~s” would mean thirty. The only exception is the plural form of ten (“Ten~s”) which means twenty.

Words

Hebrew words, including nouns, adjectives, prepositions, etc., are written in all upper case letters. If two

English words are used to translate a single Hebrew word, a dash (-) will be placed between the two words.

Each Hebrew word translation is listed in the dictionary which follows the book of Exodus. Hebrew words will

frequently include one or two prefixes. Prefixes are written in all lower case letters and are followed by the

tilde (~). Some words will include a suffix, which is also written in all lower case letters, and is preceded by the

tilde (~). The dictionary also includes a list of all the prefixes and suffixes found in the Mechanical Translation.

Below are examples of words with prefixes and suffixes, which appear in the Mechanical Translation.

Hebrew Prefix Word Suffix Mech. Trans.

the~ DRY-GROUND the~DRY-GROUND היבשה

like~ WHICH like~WHICH כאשר

HAND ~you(ms) HAND~you(ms) ידך

and~ SON ~s and~SON~s ובנים

Verbs

Hebrew Verbs are written in all upper case letters and are underlined for easy identification. Each Hebrew verb

translation is listed in the dictionary, which follows the book of Exodus, and is also underlined. Verbs may also

include a prefix as well as a suffix. Hebrew verb conjugations identify such aspects as the gender and number

of the subject (he, she, they, etc), gender and number of the object (him, her, you, etc.), the tense (did, will),

and verb form (make, be, etc.). The translations of these aspects are written in all lower case and in italics. The

dictionary also includes a list of all the conjugations and their meanings. Below are examples of verbs with

prefixes, suffixes and conjugations, which appear in the Mechanical Translation.

Hebrew Prefix Conj. Verb Suffix Mech. Trans.

he~will~ SAY he~ will~ SAY יאמר



~and~ you(ms)~did~ SAFE-GUARD and~ you(ms) ושמרת

did~ SAFE-GUARD

~much~ SPEAK ~you(ms) >~ much~ SPEAK~< דברך

you(ms)

Names

Each name in the Mechanical Translation is a transliteration of the Hebrew and begins with an upper case

letter. The Mechanical Translation of the name appears in brackets and written in superscript. Each Hebrew

name is listed in the dictionary following the book of Exodus. Names may also include prefixes and suffixes

such as can be seen in the examples below.

Hebrew Prefix Name Meaning Suffix Mech. Trans.

in~ Mits'rayim STRAIT~s2 in~ “Mits'rayim במצריםSTRAIT~ s2

”

Sukhot BOOTH~s ~unto Sukhot סכתהBOOTH~ s”~

unto

Transliteration of Hebrew into English

The following is a chart showing the English letters that are used to transliterate the Hebrew consonants and

vowels.

Consonants

Silent א

t ט

ph ףפ

b ב

y י

p פ

v ב

k כ

ts ץצ

g ג

kh ךכ

q ק

d ד

l ל

r ר

h ה

m םמ

sh ש

v ו

n ןנ

s ש

z ז

s ס

t ת

hh ח

Silent ע

Vowels

e א e א o ו

a א a א u ו



1 e א 2a א

3 a א

o א i א

u א ey א

Pronunciation of transliterated Hebrew words

Because Hebrew letters are pronounced a little differently than English, the following are the Hebrew

pronunciation of the letters and letter combinations used in the transliteration of Hebrew words.

a like the "a" in father m like the "m" in me ai like the "ai" in aisle n like the "n" in no b like the "b" in boy o like the "o" in cold d like the "d" in dog p like the "p" in pie e like the "e" in egg ph like the "ph" in phone ey like the "ey" in grey q like the "k" in kite g like the "g" in go r like the "r" in road h like the "h" in hello s like the "s" in sit hh like the "ch" in the name Bach sh like the "sh" in shine i like the "i" in machine t like the "t" in tie iy like the "i" in machine u like the "u" in tune k like the "k" in kite v like the "v" in vine kh like the "ch" in the name Bach y like the "y" in yellow l like the "l" in lake z like the "z" in zebra

The Revised Mechanical Translation

The Hebrew verb אמר (amar) is translated as “he~did~SAY” in the Mechanical Translation, where the word

“he” identifies the gender (masculine) and number (singular) of the subject of the verb and the word “did”

identifies the tense (perfect, similar to the English past tense) of the verb. This word is translated as “he said”

in the Revised Mechanical Translation. The dropping of the word “did” and the change from “say” to “said” are

not identified by any code. When the prefix “and~” is attached to a verb, the tense of the verb is reversed. So,

the verb ואמר (wa'omar) would be translated in the Mechanical Translation as “and~he~did~SAY,” but as “and

he will say” in the Revised Mechanical Translation. The word “did” is changed to “will” because of the prefixed

letter meaning “and,” but is not identified by any code. Below are a few examples of how a verb and its subject

would be translated in the Mechanical Translation and the Revised Mechanical Translation.

Mech. Trans. Revised Mech. Trans.

he~did~HELP Elohiym Elohiym helped

and~he~did~HELP Elohiym and Elohiym will help

Elohiym he~did~HELP Elohiym |had| helped

he~will~HELP Elohiym Elohiym will help

1 The letter .is not part of the vowel, but is used only to show the placement of the vowel pointing (aleph) א

2 In some cases this vowel is used as a syllable break, represented by an apostrophe, and is silent.

3 On some rare occasions, this vowel pointing is pronounced “o.”



and~he~will~HELP Elohiym and Elohiym helped

Punctuation

The original Hebrew text does not include any punctuation. However, it is necessary to add comas in the

Revised Mechanical Translation in order to show breaks in the sentences which are implied through the

grammar of the Hebrew. In addition, the question mark (?) is added for sentences that are constructed in the

interrogative form.

Names

As previously discussed, Hebrew names are written in the Mechanical Translation as “Yisra'el he~will~TURN-

ASIDE~+~MIGHTY-ONE”. The only change between the Mechanical Translation and the Revised Mechanical is the

Revised Mechanical Translation of the meaning of the name, which will appear as “Yisra'el He turns El aside”.

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