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1. Coastal restoration and its Development 1.1 Pathway to nature restoration (1) Japan and its coasts

Japan is an island nation blessed with a surround of diverse natural marine environments. In order to utilize such waters in sophisticated and effective ways, it is crucial to properly address environmental issues such as seawater contamination and pollution as well as the degradation of the natural environment.

The Japanese archipelago stretches 3,000km from north to south, spanning the subtropical climate zone to the tropical zone. It’s also fringed with lengthy coastlines, some as long as approximately 35,000km, far exceeding the lengths of the coastlines of the United Kingdom both in length per square kilometer and per capita. These geographic characteristics of Japan provide coastal areas with various topographic features that include sandy beaches, reed communities, tidal flats, rocky shores and coral reefs, which are home to a diverse range of living organisms.

As mountains and hills cover approximately 70% of the nation, economic functions concerning population and production are concentrated in the coastal flat areas, with these areas being the most vital zones for various sorts of human activities. Among all, waterfront areas, which are centered around ports, have high population densities, and thus have been intensively and highly developed for land use. Major towns are located by the sea, and industries that support our daily life, such as fisheries, manufacturing and commerce are also concentrated in coastal areas. The bigger cities of Japan fronting busy waters such as Tokyo Bay, Osaka Bay, Ise Bay and Seto Inland Sea, are among the world’s most intensively utilized bay areas.

As described above, diverse activities in our lives are based on the sea and the coasts. This also indicates that the coastal areas have undergone a rapid-development during and after postwar reconstruction, and thus turned into the zones for industrial and distribution purposes. The remarkable economic growth has come at a cost, wherein coastal areas have come to encounter environmental problems as witnessed in water pollution triggered by the industrial waste water discharge, as well as the disappearance of sandy beaches and tidal flats by reclamation projects. The concerns over the marine environment were highlighted by pollution-related illnesses represented by Minamata disease, which came to light during a high-growth period of the Japanese economy. The seawater

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contamination by poisonous substances posed serious concerns to society. Concerted efforts by the government, municipalities and residents along the coast, however, managed to thwart this contamination by such poisonous substances, and by the early 1970’s no longer posed a major threat.

Instead, the wastewater from households has raised major water pollution concerns. Problems including the occurrence of red tide, caused by the excessive organic matter in discharged domestic wastewaters known as eutrophication, as well as the water quality deterioration induced by organic sediment deposition on the sea floor, have drawn attention in enclosed coastal waters. To tackle these problems, efforts have been made both onshore and inshore, including an attempt to reduce the pollution load in terrestrial runoff or remove organic sediment from the sea.

In recent years, people’s awareness of environment issues has shown a substantial change, as can be seen in a wide variety of environmental conservation and restoration efforts in place around the nation, and not forgetting to mention the voluntary involvement of residents in local clean-up programs. This chapter features various movements in environmental efforts undertaken during the past decade, as well as natural and societal backgrounds for the increasing demand to restore natural ecosystems, including the sea. In other words, the pathway to nature restoration is hereby presented. (2) Environmental measures taken at home and abroad Various measures and efforts for environmental conservation and sustainable development have been taken at home and abroad in an attempt to preserve ecosystems and biological diversity. In recent years, people’s attention to the environment and measures for it has increased significantly, both domestically and internationally. The need for global, environmental conservation as well as affording consideration to the environment, have become a shared awareness around the world since the Earth Summit in 1992. In 1992, the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with approximately 20,000 participants from about 180 nations, including NGOs and media staff. This summit was designed to explore the concrete measures needed for global environmental conservation and sustainable development. The discussion was focused on how to pursue both

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environmental preservation and economic development. In the conference, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development was adopted, which states, “Human beings are at the center of concerns for sustainable development. In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development”. Agenda 21, which laid down the comprehensive plan of action for sustainable development, was also adopted. Such international movements also activated the efforts in Japan towards the establishment of a system that enables the coexistence of environmental protection and development, which in turn saw the introduction of the Basic Environment Law in 1993. The Basic Environment Law states our responsibility for future generations, stipulating the framework for environmental policies which ensure the benefit of a sound and rich natural environment for both present and future generations. The Law also highlights the needs for a social structural transformation that would reduce as much as possible the load of socio-economic activities on the environment. Also of paramount importance is the need for international collaboration to attain these goals. The focus is also directed towards the need for economic measures, the promotion of recycling programs, the designation of a public national holiday (Environment Day), the support for environmental education, and the importance of cooperation with private organizations. Based on this Law, the Basic Environment Plan was introduced in 1994 and further revised in 2000. Along with the attempts regarding environmental issues, global efforts towards conservation of ecosystems and protection of rare species have been made through international treaties on ecological conservation. Wetlands and tidal flats are important habitats and stopovers for birds migrating globally, including water birds. With this view in mind, the International Conference on the Conservation of Wetlands and Waterfowl was held in Ramsar, Iran in 1971 and The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was concluded. The mission of this convention is to promote the conservation of wetlands of international importance as waterfowl habitats as well as the plants and animals inhabiting them. The Convention requires contracting parties to make a commitment to designate at least one wetland site in the nation that meets the Ramsar Criteria and register it at the convention secretariat and thereby protect the listed sites in accordance with the guidelines stipulated in the Convention. In 2002, there were 133 contracting parties to the Convention with 1,229 sites

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having been designated, spanning approximately 10,590,000 ha. In Japan, Kushiro Wetland was the first area nationwide to be designated as wetland. There are now 13 designated sites, including Yatsu Wetland (Chiba Prefecture) and Fujimae Wetland (Aichi Prefecture). In Europe, the Conservation of Wild Birds (1979) and the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (1992) were put into effect, designating 8% and 14% part of Europe, respectively. The Convention on Biological Diversity was also adopted at the time of the Earth Summit in Rio. Contracting nations must formulate strategies for biological diversity, promote the conversation of diverse species and ecosystems, and conduct monitoring for evaluation. As of February 2002, there were 182 contracting parties. In Japan, the National Strategies on Biological Diversity of Japan was formulated in 1995, and revised in 2002 in accordance with an article stipulated in it. The new strategy, the National Biodiversity Strategy of Japan, was authorized at a cabinet meeting in 2002. Among such movements, the Europe meeting has set up more concrete goals, represented by the 2001’s Swedish resolution on “reverse the decline in biological diversity by 2010”. (3) Environmental measures taken in the sea (coastal areas) Environmental measures in port and harbor policies have begun to focus their attention on more comprehensive approaches, in the wake of the development of strategies including; designation of Eco-port, revision of the Harbor Law, as well as the conservation and creation of tidal flats and seaweed and seagrass beds. The environmental improvement in coastal areas has been undertaken by various entities incorporating a wide range of measures (Fig.1-1). In port and harbor policies, for example, efforts to conserve marine environment include an environmental improvement project represented by the recovery of garbage and oil (1974), and the Sea Blue Project to improve seawater quality (1988). The following measures have also been subsequently introduced: ・ Proposal for the designation of Eco-ports that portray an ideal coexistence of

nature and humans (1994) ・ Revision of the Port and Harbor Law, which clearly expressed the commitment

of the administration to the environment (2000) ・ Conservation and creation of tidal flats and seaweed and seagrass beds.

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Comprehensive and collaborative approaches have now been undertaken by various organizations engaged in coastal restoration. Table 1-1 Movements in Nature Restoration Efforts

Environmental measures in ports andharbors

Other domestic movements International movements

1900Formulation of the policy "the creation ahealthy and productive environment onwaterfronts"

1991 Earth Summit in Rio

1992Adoption of Convention on BiologicalDiversity

1993Conclusion of Convention on BiologicalDiversify

Introduction of Basic Environment Law

1994Formulation of a new environmental portand harbor policy, "Eco-port"

Basic Environment Plan was authorizedin the cabinet

Effectuation of Convention on BiologicalDiversity

Eco-port model project started

1995Experiments on tidal flats started in Portand Harbor Research Institute

National Strategy on Biological Diversityof Japan

Establishment of International CoralReef Initiative

1996Formulation of the policy" Ports andharbors supporting mass transport andinteraction

Asia-Pacific Migratory WaterbirdConservation Strategy

1997Environmental Impact Assessment Lawwas enacted

Adoption of Kyoto Protocol to theUnited Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change

Revision of River Law

1998"Grand Design for the 21st Century"was formulated

1999 Revision of Coast LawConference of contracting parties to theRamsar Convention

2000 Revision of Port and Harbor LawSix laws concerning waste managementand recycling was formulated

Adoption of Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety to the Convention ofBoilogical Diversity

Modification to the basic policiesregarding port and harbor development

Conference of contracting parties to theConvention on Biodiversity

A new port and harbor policy for the21st century "Minato Vision connectingour lives to the sea and the world"

2001 Ministerial reformPrime Minister Kozumi's policy speech "Creation of a society with harmoniouscoexistence of nature and humans"

2nd Asia-Pacific Migratory WaterbirdConservation Strategy

Creation of the center of greenery alongcoastal areas

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

2002"Restoration of the sea" was included inurban redevelopment projects

National Biodiversity Strategy of Japanwas formulated

Earth Summit, Johannesburg

Law Concerning Special Measures forrestoring Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas

Law for the Promotion of NatureRestoration was introduced

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1) Establishment of Eco-ports The Ports and Harbors Bureau of the Ministry of Transport (now as of the Ports and Harbors Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport), announced the introduction of the creation of ports with a harmonious coexistence with nature (Eco-Port) in 1994, and has since been working on it. The development of this policy was in response to the following factors: ・ Growing needs for the protection of favorable environments and sustainable

development on a global scale ・ Increasing recognition of the loss of a favorable natural environment that can

support diverse life forms, while gaining a life of convenience and affluence ・ Rising demand for environmental conservation/restoration as well as for the

creation of a society that cherishes coexistence with nature Table 1-2 Goals of Eco-Port a) A nature-friendly port that fits in well with the surrounding nature b) A port creating a favorable natural environment c) A port well equipped with high amenities where people can find enjoyment and comfort d) An environmentally friendly port under sufficient environmental control Figure 1-1 Eco-Port

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2) Revision of the Port and Harbor Law The Port and Harbor Law revised in March 2002 clarified the governmental commitment to environmental conservation in the port and harbor administration, stipulating that environmental considerations must be incorporated in port and harbor development. In response to this, the basic policies (basis of a port development plan) were modified in December 2000, adding descriptions about the preservation, the restoration and the creation of favorable port environments as well as the interaction between human beings and nature, which are referred to as “basic matters to consider regarding environmental conservation in the development, utilization and improvement of ports and harbors, along with the development of sea routes requiring development and conservation work”. The policies for coasts were also modified by the revision of the Coast Law in 1999, adding coastal management measures from a comprehensive perspective. These include: coastline protection, which is the fundamental objective of the old law; the improvement and conservation of coastal environments; and an appropriate use of coasts by the public. The Law was therefore designed to further promote comprehensive coastal conservation approaches with well-balanced views on protection, environment and utilization. The government also laid down the Basic Policy for Coastal Protection for better implementation of the coastal management, which has led to the formulation of the Basic Coastal Protection Plan on 71 coasts in the nation. 3) Conservation and restoration of tidal flats and seaweed and seagrass beds In an effort to respond to the needs for environmental conservation and restoration in ports and harbor policies, greenbelts have been created along the waterfront in order to provide comfort for people and animals. Also, the improvement of tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds, and beaches as well as the sand capping of eroded areas have helped to improve the water and sediment quality in enclosed coastal waters, and in doing so created a marine environment not only friendly to humans and other forms of life, but added to that, increased accessibility. Such projects have been conducted in 51 sites around the nation, with full completion of the improvement work in 24 sites.

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Figure 1-2 Conservation and restoration of tidal flats and seaweed and seagrass beds

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4) Comprehensive measures These undertakings in marine environmental improvement will attain better results when implemented in a comprehensive manner, in cooperation with various parties concerned and with shared goals. Such inter-organizational approach has recently been accelerated as shown in the following.

Efforts to restore Tokyo Bay The Plan of Action to restore Tokyo Bay was enacted in March 2003, based on the third-stage decisions of the Restoration of the Sea, the Urban Regeneration Project for Tokyo. To this end, the municipal and public organizations will work hand in hand to achieve the shared goal of restoring an accessible and beautiful sea which serves as a place for pleasant marine activities and as a home to various aquatic life, thus creating a bay appropriate for the Tokyo metropolitan area. Figure 1-3 Efforts to restore Tokyo Bay

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Law Concerning Special Measures for Restoring Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas

Ariake Sea and Yatsuhiro Sea have been well known as precious seas of natural resources, especially for fisheries. The Law Concerning the Special Measures for Restoring Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas was enacted in November 2002, to restore these valuable assets. The government therein formulated the basic policies for the restoration measures for Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas, followed by the formulation of action plans for each related prefecture. Based on this, the project shall be comprehensively implemented. (4) Pathway to nature restoration Nature restoration should be promoted in order to improve marine environments and achieve a harmonious coexistence between nature and humans. The promotion of creating a harmonious coexistence with nature has frequently been referred to by the members of the whole government (Table 1-3). This has in turn led to a change in governmental approach towards nature conservation, in which ecological restoration and regeneration shall be actively promoted rather than just having its current status preserved. It may also include human assistance for the process of natural regeneration. In order to make such a commitment to nature restoration to be handed down to future generations, there also is the need to establish procedures and a framework that can support the growing commitment of local residents to social activities, along with their awareness of the environment. Under such circumstances, the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration was enacted in January 2003. This law stipulates the basic guidelines for nature restoration, and the procedures and framework for promoting nature restoration involving various entities in the region. As shown in Figure 1-4, efforts for nature restoration shall be promoted in a comprehensive strategy, the goal being to create a society consisting of a harmonious coexistence of humans and nature, through the securing of biological diversity. It shall be positioned as the new form of commitment that involves participation of various local entities, as well as calling upon the initiatives of local communities.

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Table 1-3 Remarks by governmental officials regarding nature restoration May 2001: in Prime Minister Kozumi's policy speech ○ Declaration on " Creation of a society with the harmonious coexistence of

nature and humans" June 10th, 2002: in a report on the “Conference on the Creation of “Wa-no-kuni” in the 21st Century” ○ Promotion of public works for nature restoration involving the cooperation of

the public Ecosystems in our country are facing unprecedented degradation. In order to

restore them into a sound and healthy state, it is inevitable not only to review past projects and policies from an environmental point of view, but also to implement a new type of public works aimed at actively restoring natural resources through adaptive ecosystem management. Such public works, referred to as, “Public works for nature restoration” should be promoted in urban, agricultural and fishing communities. December 11th, 2001: in the initial report on the "Council for Regulatory Reform" ○ Harmonious coexistence between nature and humans One of the most promising approaches to the restoration or rehabilitation of nature is a nature restoration project involving the participation of a diverse combination of entities including local residents and NPOs. Such a project can be effectively and efficiently promoted by governmental collaboration beyond ministries and agencies. This would involve the coordination and sharing of roles among ministries, together with the joint implementation of the project by related ministries, in conjunction with the development of appropriate conditions and a setting needed to make such cooperation possible. March 27, 2002 “National Biodiversity Strategies of Japan” was compiled. ○ Three directions The directions of the policies with overriding priority: 1.Reinforcement of conservation 2. Nature restoration 3.Sustainable use

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Figure 1-4 the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration

1

自然再生事業の実施

実施計画①

例｢河川の再蛇行化と

周辺湿原の復元｣

実施計画③

例｢

きめ細かな除草など

の維持管理や環境学習｣

実施計画②

例｢

上流部の荒廃地での

広葉樹植栽」

行政機関／意欲あるNPO等

自然再生推進法フロー図

NPO を始めとする多様な主体の参画と創意による地域主導の新たな

形の事業－自然再生事業－を推進

全 体 構 想（協議会が作成）

関係地方公共団体／関係行政機関

自然再生協議会

…「Ｐ湿地再生協議会」

メンバー(

実施者を含む)

○再生事業に参画する地域住民/N

PO/

専門家/

土地所有者等など

○行政：関係地方公共団体/

関係行政機関

主務大臣

第８条

送付 助言

第７条

連絡 調整

例：A県 P 湿地

自然再生推進会議

地元団体等による維持管理 …土地所有者等との協定など…

実施計画（全体構想含む）公表

［協議会での協議結果に基づき実施者が作成］

実施者① (○○省)

実施者②

(△△町)実施者③

(NPO)

呼びかけ／協議会立ち上げ 相談窓口の整備、情報提供や助言

（各地域）

自然再生基本方針

自然再生を総合的に推進するための基本方針……政府が策定 （環境大臣が、農林水産大臣及び国土交通大臣と協議して案を作成し、閣議決定）

～概ね５年ごとに見直し～

第９条

第１７条

第１０条

自然再生の総合的、効果的かつ効率的な推進を図るための連絡調整 （環境省、農林水産省、国土交通省その他の関係行政機関で構成）

自然再生 専門家会議

意見

意見

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1.2 Handbook of Coastal Restoration (1) What is nature restoration? The term “nature restoration” used in this Handbook of Coastal Restoration encompasses a wide range of ecological restoration approaches including conservation, restoration and creation, and is defined as action taken to create more desirable, natural environments incorporating the active involvement of human beings. Natural restoration has become a major theme for the realization of a society with a harmonious coexistence of humans and nature. Nature restoration is the way to regenerate the vanishing natural environment through active commitment of human beings. The term, “nature restoration”, is defined slightly differently in the field of ecology (Bradshow, 1987; Okada et al, 1999), in port and harbor development (PIANC,2003; Furukawa, 2003) and in nature conservation (Ramsar, 2003; Development, 2003). In the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration, it is defined as “ with the objectives of restoring ecosystems that have been damaged or destroyed in the past…..(snip)…….to make efforts to conserve, restore or create the environment, or upkeep current favorable conditions.” In this handbook, therefore, the terms are defined as shown in Table 1-4 and Figure 1-5. Table 1-4 Outline of the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration

The term “Restoration” implies improvement, creation and change occurred in the environment of wetlands, and it is used as a concept which includes such operations as follows: Reclamation: altering submerged areas into land higher than an average water level with the assistance of human beings Creation: altering land (not marshy areas) into wetland with the assistance of human beings Restoration: bringing back an area to a former, original or normal condition, or close to it Remediation: cleansing contaminants from a contaminated wetland Rehabilitation: restoring functions of damaged or restricted/reserved ecosystems with the assistance of human beings Conservation: managing a target ecosystem to maintain its sound and healthy state Protection: maintaining a current status by controlling natural process including succession Preservation: leaving an area to natural processes and no human assistance is given

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Figure 1-5 Concepts of goals for ecological restoration With these definitions, measures for nature restoration can be taken in combination and comprehensively rather than simply limiting them to one method alone. Moreover, the upkeep of restored nature is also a major part of nature restoration. Then, how can we ensure the existence of these three approaches (conservation, restoration and creation)? One of the groups who has been working on the conservation through formulating the Conservation of Wild Birds (1979) and the Conservation of natural habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora, as well as the studies on the development in such areas concerned, has advocated that: in order to expand the protected areas and disseminate the philosophy of nature conservation, the measures for conservation and restoration must be discussed at an early stage and incorporated into the development plan, thereby reducing the risk of delays in the project, and leading to the gain of support from society. This idea appears as a philosophy of “wise use” in the Ramsar Conference. When launching a nature restoration project, therefore, it is important to set goals appropriate for the area, and formulate the plan for nature restoration (conservation, restoration and creation) best suited for the project goals. The goal must have a clear and specific vision, objectives that necessitate the

再生（修復、改善、強化、創造)

強化

創造

改変

無計画な

改変

高い

生態系の持続性

低い

自己修復能力が発揮されている

管理することによって持続している

自然の回復力をを管理により援助

ほうっておくと荒廃してしまう状態

類似 元の生態系からの変化 相違

グループ Ｉ

グループ ＩＩ

現状

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project, and clearly defined success criteria to evaluate the achievement. Furthermore, the planning of nature restoration strategies must reflect such aspects of the goal. In the process of goal setting, it is also critical to incorporate the following three factors: 1. participation of various entities, 2. project implementation based on scientific knowledge and 3. adaptive management. Each of the above will be dealt with in a later section. (2) Ecosystems in the sea – important roles of tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass

beds, and coral reefs in coastal areas Tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds and coral reefs play important roles. Tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds, beaches and coral reefs seen along the coasts where terrestrial and aquatic environments meet, are known to have various functions represented by wildlife habitat, reproduction, and seawater purification. They are also the showcase of a wide range of marine life. The following are the summaries in turn of each of these marine topographies along with their functions. 1) Tidal flat and its functions

Tidal flats are gently declining shoreline areas of sand or mud sediment that are submerged or exposed by tide. They are categorized into three types; foreshore tidal flat, river mouth tidal flat and lagoon tidal flat. The area covered by tidal flats stood at 54,443ha according to the 4th Basic Environmental Survey on natural tidal flats (1992), but had decreased by 4% in the survey of 1996. Projects to regenerate the lost tidal flats have been implemented around the nation.

Tidal flats feature complex environments with various factors intertwined, such as flooding and exposure by tide, salinity change by river water inflow, and topographic change by waves and currents. Tidal flats are also home to a diverse range of marine organisms and wildlife, including clams, fish, plankton, aquatic plants and birds. Osaka Nanko Bird Sanctuary, an artificially developed tidal flat, for example, has witnessed the arrival of around 250 bird species.

Tidal flats also boast a high water purification function (Kuwae et al.,2002; Aoyam et al., 1996; Sasaki,1989). In the process of the flooding or the exposure of a flat, the seawater covering the flat is filtered by sandy mud layers sufficiently aerated by oxygen to decompose organic matter in the water.

In addition, as tidal flats are created at the heads of inland bays or around estuaries and often found close to urban areas, they provide waterfront space for the locals to enjoy coastal activities such as clam digging or bird watching.

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2) Seaweed and seagrass beds and its functions Seaweed and seagrass beds are found along the coast at depths ranging from

several dozen centimeters to ten to twenty meters, and boast lush communities of large-sized seaweeds or other marine plants. Some species of fish and squid, like flying fish, spawn on such seagrass. These seaweed and seagrass beds not only serve as settlement substrata for eggs, but also provide breeding areas for fish larvae and juveniles as wave strength is lessened by seagrass. A study has indicated that the number of species found in seaweed and seagrass beds was twice that of the amount recorded in the surrounding area.

Furthermore, seaweed and seagrass beds also serve as feeding grounds for some marine animals, an example being where seaweeds and seagrasses provide food for herbivore species such as abalone and turban shells, or where rock fish and rock trout feed on small marine organisms on them.

On the topic of water purification, seaweeds and seagrasses contribute to the

purification of water by absorbing nitrogen and phosphate, the main substances involved in causing eutrophication. They also release oxygen by photosynthesis, contributing to the increase in dissolved oxygen in water as well as to the absorption and the fixation of atmospheric CO2.

3) Coral reef and its functions

Coral reefs are the topography built by reef-building animals represented by corals. A coral reef refers to the area where corals settle and build assemblages. Ryukyu Islands (South-west Islands) and Ogasawara Islands are well-renowned for their coral reefs.

The biological productivity of coral reefs has been indicated as being quite high, rivaling or even exceeding that of rainforests. Coral reefs are also home to many commercially important fish. They are the cities of corals and the habitats for diverse aquatic life forms, including seaweeds, shellfish, fish, plankton, and microorganisms.

Coral reefs also play an important role in the function of water purification. The organic substances being transferred to coral reefs are reduced by either ingestion by marine animals or microbial decomposition, thus contributing to the purification of water and sediment.

In addition, coral reefs are excellent in aesthetic landscape creation and water accessibility, which plays a significant role in the tourism industry of tropical

17

regions.

4) The importance of coasts Coasts are the interface of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, thus providing

diverse habitat environments for living organisms on sand beaches, rocky shores and tidal flats. They are the areas where we often find endemic species that depend on a specific environment for their survival. Coasts are also conducive to the scenic beauty of natural landscapes, such as coastlines possessing white sand and green pines.

Although coasts are terrains very confined by the sea, they are considered to affect both terrestrial and aquatic environments, thus requiring special consideration to avoid minimal disturbance to the surrounding environment. In places of scenic beauty, or on coasts inhabited by valuable species, due attention must be paid to the conservation and restoration of such environments.

(3) Promotion of nature restoration In the process of nature restoration, a comprehensive approach, scientific knowledge, and partnerships are essential. The following are the crucial points of view in launching nature restoration projects:

1) A comprehensive approach to the project encompassing planning, designing, implementation/construction, and management, as well as the application of adaptive management

2) The implementation of the project based on characteristics of the targeted environment and scientific knowledge

3) The participation of various entities and partnerships

1) Comprehensive approach In recent environmental management in North America and Europe, the use of adaptive management has become increasingly popular for ecological management in forests and rivers. Adaptive management is comprised of systematic strategies that give first priority to a long-term sustainability of a natural environment, placing emphasis on the expansion and interconnections of ecosystems with the participation of various entities, while in turn recognizing uncertainties of natural process. The development of such methods result from the dissemination of strategic planning, in which project schemes, deigns, implementation as well as

18

management are comprehensively discussed. In nature restoration projects in Japan, a systematic approach incorporating adaptive management is also being required, which allows for sufficient discussions on the project before its launching, monitoring of key indicators that can access the performance of the restoration, and the reflection of the results onto the project methods. In one case, for example, it would be desirable to conduct long-term monitoring from both civil engineering and ecological perspectives, such as on landscape stability and habitat environment, and then feed back the results to the designs and construction plans. Furthermore, in an individual project, the planning should include discussions envisioning the post-project monitoring, so that these adaptive management approaches can be systematically incorporated. In a nutshell, it is paramount that the plan be comprehensively developed when proceeding with nature restoration projects. As described above, the formulation of comprehensive plans and adaptive approach are relatively new concepts. Some definitions about adaptive approach are listed in Table 1-5. A detailed description is shown in Chapter 2 on Comprehensive Approach to Nature Restoration.

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Table 1-5 Some definitions of adaptive management

1) Ecology of Biological Conservation (Izumi Washiya)

Adaptive management is a new policy framework of system management that recognizes the uncertainty of the target, while pursuing implementation of policy measures with the participation of stakeholders.

In adaptive management, regional development and ecological management policies are treated as experiments. A strategy is a hypothesis, and a project is an experiment. The results of monitoring are examined for a better hypothesis. Based on the results, a new strategy (equal to hypothesis) is formulated in order to “improve” the project to gain a better outcome. In such an approach, it is critical to develop consensus-building systems that can yield an agreement among a wide variety of stakeholders, including those having scientific perspectives.

2) Definition by PIANC

Investors must recognize in their nature restoration projects that they may encounter uncontrollable situations, for example the diffusion of an impact posed by an off site area. (area outside the target site). This is where adaptive management comes into play. As the project progresses, it needs modifications using the latest information and technologies to respond to the changes in its background.

The procedures of adaptive management are as follows:

・ Setting goals

・ Introducing management strategies based on new and optimum information

・ Conducting monitoring programs to access whether the goals are being met

・ Modifying management strategies if the goals are not being met. Modifying the goals if needs be.

These approaches must be applied at predetermined intervals.

Adaptive management can allow managers to learn through experience; respond to the changes of parameters that influence the characteristics of the target site; continuously develop and refine management strategies; and demonstrate that the management being addressed is appropriate.

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3) Definition by the Ramsar Convention In order to safeguard sites and their features, managers must adopt a flexible approach that will allow them to respond to the legitimate interests of others, adapt to the ever-changing political climate, accommodate uncertain and variable resources, and survive the vagaries of the natural world. The adaptable management process as incorporated in the Ramsar planning approach is as follows: i) A decision is made on what should be achieved. ii) Appropriate management best available for the site is implemented iii) The features are monitored to determine the extent to which they meet

objectives. iv) If objectives are not being met, management is modified. v) Monitoring is continued to determine if the modified management is meeting

the objectives In exceptional circumstances, it may be necessary to modify the objectives.

The adaptive management cycle is usually repeated at predetermined intervals. The interval should be established to take into account the nature and in particular the fragility and rate of change of the site features. However, many countries and organizations will impose a mandatory cycle. In all cases, the cycle should be repeated at any time when emergencies or unforeseen threats become apparent.

This adaptable approach enables wetland managers to:

i) learn through experience; ii) take account of, and respond to,

changing factors that affect the features; iii) continually develop or refine management

processes; and iv) demonstrate that management is appropriate

and effective.

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2) Scientific knowledge In the process of natural restoration, it is imperative that strategies based on scientific knowledge are discussed. This suggests the importance of basic research in which objective scientific data on current and temporal changes in the marine environment be collected and analyzed; the need for accumulation of knowledge on inhabiting life forms; and the significance of basic studies to clarify the structural and functional mechanisms of ecosystems. The development of information systems that enable such data and knowledge to be accessible to the public is also crucial. With regards to nature restoration efforts in coastal zones, various advanced studies have been conducted in governmental institutions related to the port and harbor administration, having accumulated a great amount of knowledge. In the Port and Airport Research Institute, for example, studies have been conducted on how tidal ecosystems are developed, using an artificially created tidal flat called “ Higata Mesocosm”, one of the world’s largest experimental facilities of artificial marine environment (Kuwae et al.,2002). In addition, the ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport has also been promoting the collection and analysis of data on coastal environments, in parallel with the development of information service systems. The details on this matter will appear in Chapter 3. on “Characteristics of Nature Restoration Technologies and their Trends”. 3) Partnerships In the project for restoring nature, it is critical to develop the systems of close cooperation and participation of various entities including the government, local authorities, the public, businesses, NGOs, NPOs, private organizations, scientists, and experts. Among all, efforts to develop the strategies and the implementation of a plan best suited to the characteristics of the region are paramount. To this end, the government is required to actively support the efforts of local communities, through various measures including institutional designing and project implementation, formulation of policy guidelines, environmental monitoring programs and dissemination of the result, as well as information services on domestic and international restoration projects. This will thereby establish a collaborative partnership between local organizations and the government. It is advisable that all stages of the project, from the development of a vision, surveys and designs right through to the project implementation and post-project

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management, should involve the participation and collaboration of a wide spectrum of local entities. The details of this will be described in Chapter 4. on “Partnerships in Nature Restoration Projects”. (4) Components of Handbook of Coastal Restoration Handbook of Coastal Restoration deals with the ideas and concepts to solve coastal environmental problems. Application of the approaches discussed in the series of the handbooks, however, must afford consideration for the characteristics of the natural and societal environment in the region. This handbook was compiled by reviewing the existing manuals for coastal development and creation of ecosystems issued by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport, and rewritten to focus on the approaches applicable to nature restoration projects. It incorporates numerous reexaminations and reviews on the existing approaches. This tile is written in four volumes. Volume One, titled Introduction features the concepts of a strategic approach in the process of planning a nature restoration project. In the planning of each individual project however, methods should be tailored and adaptively applied to fit the characteristics of the target environment and the region. 1) The development of Handbook of Coastal Restoration The guidance manual, titled Guideline for the Conservation and Creation of Ecosystems in relation to Coastal Development was issued in 1998 and 1999. ( It consists of four volumes with the following titles. Volume One - Guideline for the Conservation and Creation of Ecosystems in relation to Coastal Development, Volume Two - Technologies for the Conservation and Creation of Tidal Flats (1998), Volume Three - Technologies for the Conservation and Creation of Seaweed and Seagrass Beds (1988), and Volume Four - Technologies for the Conservation and Creation of Coral Reefs (1999). They include technical assistance and necessary steps in each process of the restoration projects (research, planning, designs, implementation, monitoring etc.) for tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds, and coral reefs in ports and coasts, and have been widely used as systematically compiled manuals in coastal restoration efforts. The new edited manual, titled Handbook of Coastal Restoration is based on these

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manuals; however, additional revision is being required from the following points of view. a) A new nature restoration project should subsume environmentally friendly

efforts needed to achieve a harmonious coexistence of man and nature, recognize a wide spectrum of ecosystems, and proceed with the processes of research, planning and adaptable management in accordance with such recognition.

b) In each process of project implementation, it is essential to have the participation of various entities. We believe that this Handbook should be consulted by such entities as a reference in their efforts to restore nature. Although former manuals were mainly targeted at personnel engaged in port and harbor developments, this Handbook we think should be made readily available to local residents actively involved in restoration of the sea or those who are interested in such activities.

b) The ecological and technological knowledge on coastal restoration has been evolving by the day. Many more examples have been reported on the conservation and creation of tidal flats, seagrass beds and coral reefs, as well as on the restoration projects in which monitoring results were scientifically evaluated and flexibly reflected on management. There is a need to revise the contents with new data obtained from such recent knowledge and updated information.

c) It is essential to have a view that each tidal flat ecocystem, seagrass bed, and coral reef is not independent but interactively connected, establishing a whole complex of ecosystems.

2) The composition of Handbook of Costal Restoration Handbook of Coastal Restoration consists of four volumes: Vol.1 Introduction (an edition dealing with the movements and technologies for nature restoration) Vol. 2 Tidal Flats (enlarged and revised edition) Vol. 3 Seaweed and Seagrass Beds (enlarged and revised edition) Vol. 4 Coral Reefs (enlarged and revised edition) Handbook of Coastal Restoration Volume One includes: 1. Restoration of the Sea and its Development; 2. Comprehensive Approach to Nature Restoration; 3. Characteristics of Nature Restoration Technologies and their Trends; and 4.

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Partnerships in Nature Restoration Projects. Each chapter was designed to be clear and self explanatory. Volumes No.2, No.3 and No.4 offer concrete approaches and technologies developed for the restoration of tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds and coral reefs, respectively. Each volume provides description of functions and environmental conditions for the target ecosystem, procedures in each stage of the project (planning, designs, construction and management), and attention needed during the implementation, based on the latest information and knowledge. 3) How to use Handbook of Coastal Restoration The approaches and techniques presented in this four-volume handbook are typical procedures in restoration efforts. In nature restoration efforts, therefore, it is important to take into account the natural, societal and historical conditions unique to the region. This guidance handbook offers key ideas for such consideration. The restoration approaches, therefore, should not necessarily follow the procedures presented here, but should be applied effectively and adaptively, with the aid of this handbook as a reference. Several examples are shown to help readers have a clear understanding of the restoration project. As these cases have their own historical and geographical backgrounds as well as environmental conditions, special attention should be paid to the application of the methods exemplified here.