1 definition of a case study “a case is a factual description of events that actually happened at...
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Definition of a Case Study “A case is a factual description of events that
actually happened at some point in the past…..It is designed to elicit discussion and analysis of a particular situation.” Naumes & Naumes, p. 10
This definition sounds like a teaching purpose.
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Another Definition“A case study is an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.”
(Yin, p. 13)
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Case Studies for Research Alternative Research Methods
Quantitative Economics Theoretical Economics Business Organization and Strategy Case Study Methods
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Advantages of Case Study Research Interesting Local Methods may suit the researcher Study of actual situation in a realistic
setting
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Advantages of Case Study Research Ability to study impact of actions over time Ability to determine causes (why it
happened) Place the situation in an overall
environment More depth possible than with a survey Full study of complex process
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Advantages of Case Study Research Answers questions not suited for aggregate
methods Why? How?
Example: Mergers and acquisitions
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Advantages of Case Study Researchon Mergers and Acquisitions Existing academic work on merger activity is
large sample and has mixed results. Case study approach illuminates the following
questions:
1. What factors lead to mergers and acquisitions?
2. Why does an acquisition succeed or fail? Source: Steven N. Kaplan, ed. Mergers and Productivity, Natl Bureau of Economic Research Conf
Rpt., Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2000.
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Disadvantages of Case Study Research Difficult to generalize Difficult to demonstrate reliability Subjectivity and potential bias Not widely accepted
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Goals of Research Explain phenomenon Evaluate successes and failures Predict the future Assist decision-makers to improve their
actions
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Approaches to Research Quantitative Economics
Survey Market-level data collection Analysis: Econometrics, “large-sample” statistical
techniques
Theoretical Economics Analytical methods use mathematics Derive testable hypotheses
These are the common modes in economics -business.
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Research design process Rigorous statistical and quantitative
techniques have tended to discount the importance of design
We all do the same thing Research is driven by data Case studies require individual design and
careful planning
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Types of Research Cases
1. Descriptive casesTraces a sequence of events and discovers key
phenomenon. Provides background on important trends in the economic sector.
2. Evaluative cases Why was this program successful?
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Types of Research Cases
3. Explanatory cases Objective is to pose competing explanations for the same
set of events. Compare the competing explanations to the actual course of events to find the best explanation.
4. Decision-focus casesThis is most common in business management teaching,
less common in research. The case builds up to a decision.
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Review: What is a Case Study? Definition
A story Actual events In their context, industry, time, economy
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Elements of a good story It has a beginning and an end It has detail, so the listener can picture
what is being described It has engaging events and/or characters It has a theme, or a message It has a style
Read Naumes and Naumes, chapter 1; and Yin, chapter 1.
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How Can a Story be Valid Research? Careful attention to data collection and
presentation. Complete Unbiased
Relating the events to theory and prior knowledge.
Strong analysis, including quantitative elements.
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Steps in Research Design1. Problem definition
2. Design (planning)
3. Data collection
4. Analysis (drawing conclusions)
5. Composition and reporting
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1. Problem Definition
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Start with specific hypothesis
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Development of Hypotheses
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Review the literature
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2. Research Design
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Strategy versus design Research strategy
Case study Survey Archival
These are the methods used to answer the study questions.
Research designSpecific action plan“A research design is the
logic that links the data to be collected (and the conclusions to be drawn) to the initial questions of a study.” (Yin p. 18)
Helps assure that the evidence addresses the original research question.
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Components of Research Design Questions of the study Propositions of the study Unit(s) of analysis Logic linking the data to the
propositions Criteria for interpreting the findings
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Questions of the Study
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Propositions of the Study
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Unit of Analysis
Cases can have a primary unit of analysis, and an embedded or related unit of analysis.
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Logic Linking Data and Propositions This is the most difficult concept in case
study research.
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Criteria for Interpreting the Findings There is little guidance in this area. One thing I have read is: How
generalizable? How “representative?” Look at the farm info case for a quote.
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Quality of Research Design Construct validity Internal validity External validity Reliability
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Construct validity: Establishing correct operational
procedures. Avoid subjectivity
Example: Bias in selecting case because poor performers will not participate
Select indicators that measure the phenomenon of interestExample: Employment numbers for the acquired firm
Use multiple sources of evidence
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Internal validity: Establishing a causal relationship
Avoid spurious effects Use caution in making inferences Think through any rival explanations and try
to rule them out This will be important for explanatory
cases, but not descriptive or exploratory cases
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External validity: Establish the domain to which conclusions
can be generalized Do not attempt to show statistical
generalizability Generalize case study findings to theory Replication logic through multiple cases
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Reliability: Demonstrating that the study can be
replicated and the same results would occur This does not mean doing the same case study over. It means documenting procedures carefully. Choose methods that can be defended to a reviewer. Having established methods improves reliability
because biases are minimized. Use a case study protocol.
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Assignment 1 Give an example of each of the criteria for
judging the quality of research designs, for a case study you might want to do.
Why are we doing this now?
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Assignment 2, 3, 4 Practice the steps in research design Critique the research design of published
case studies
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Conclusions about Research Design It is not easy! Researchers must be flexible in
implementing their plans. However, a plan is essential! Without a research design, you could end
up having worked hard to collect information that does not answer the key questions
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3. Data Collection There are six types of data collected in case
studies: 1. Documents. 2. Archival records. 3. Interviews. 4. Direct observation. 5. Participant observation. 6. Artifacts.
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Review on Research Design Objectives of the study are clear. Research design provides the action plan. Considerable thought has been applied to
the project. Now it’s time to carry out the data
collection phase.
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Six Sources of Evidence1. Documentation
Both inside and outside the company Local library Government agencies Companies’ files
2. Archival records U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission State tax records
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Six Sources of Evidence3. Interviews
Problems of bias, poor recall, and poor or inaccurate articulation.
4. Direct observation5. Participant-observation
The researcher takes a direct role in the event. Sometimes researcher take a short-term position within the company.
6. Physical artifacts Example: Product packages in grocery stores
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Three principles of data collection1. Use multiple sources of evidence2. Create a case study database3. Maintain a chain of evidence
The goal is to allow reader to work backward from the case conclusions to the evidence used in drawing the conclusions. The case study report will include references to the specific documents, interviews, or observations.
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Case Study Protocol Document that contains the instruments,
procedures, and general rules that will be followed in using the instrument. (Instrument refers to questionnaire that will be used in interviews)
It is a tactic that will improve the reliability of the case results.
It is essential in a multiple case project or a project that uses many investigators.
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Sections of the Case Study Protocol Overview of the project Field procedures Case study questions Guide for the case study report
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Field Procedures-What to Cover Referrals
If an interview goes well, people are willing to provide a referral.
Is there time and interest in following up? Documents
Mail home or read now? Credentials (of researchers)
Business cards for students
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Field Procedures-What to Cover Locations
Address and directions Contingencies
What if researchers are late? What if there is a cancellation-can another
person in the company substitute?
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Field Procedures-What to Cover Note-taking or recording
Observational notes Theoretical notes Methodological notes
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Case Study Questions in the Protocol Reminders for the researchers
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Value of the Case Study Protocol Unites and trains the research team as it is
being prepared. Requires that researchers anticipate
problems. Can be used in future case studies.
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4. Analysis Most difficult phase in research process. Generalization phase Goal: address the initial propositions of
the study, while treating the evidence fairly Result:
compelling, interesting conclusions evidence that rules out competing
explanations
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Analytic Generalization Does this case support one theory versus a
rival theory? Multiple cases are different experiments.
If two or more cases support the theory, then replication can be claimed.
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LEVELTWO theory rival theory
policyimplication
rival policyimplication
SURVEY CASE STUDY EXPERIMENT
populationcharacteristics
case studyfindings
experimentalfindings
LEVELONE
sample subjects
Figure 1. Making Inferences: Two LevelsSource: COSMOS Corporation. (in Yin p.31)
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Analytic Strategy Develop the strategy early in the research project.
Include it in the case study protocol. Identify the priorities of what to analyze, and
why. Rely on theoretical propositions that led to the
case study in the beginning. Descriptive strategy may be easier to plan, but it
is usually less interesting.
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Modes of Analysis Pattern matching Explanation building Time series analysis Program logic models Analyzing embedded units Making repeated observations Secondary analysis across cases
Dominant modes
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Assignment 7Analyze the analytic process Find the section of the case in which
evidence is presented and conclusions are drawn. Describe the linkage between cited evidence
and conclusions. Are data displayed in tables? Other formats? Are comparisons being made? Are the linkages made in such a way that
conclusions are convincing?
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Pattern Matching Mode of Analysis Identify a pattern from theory Predict that other circumstances will follow
the pattern Find empirical evidence regarding the
pattern from a case study If the patterns coincide, the results
strengthen internal validity of the case
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Pattern Matching Mode of Analysis Example: Theory on the location of agribusiness
suggests that “supply-oriented” firms locate near agricultural production areas (Connor and Schiek). This is pattern-matching, used to explain why firms locate in urban or rural areas.
The pattern of location of one firm, or the various units of a corporation, could be examined in a case study.
Evidence about the firm’s products is normally the deciding factor in considering the firm to be “supply–oriented” or not.
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Pattern Matching Mode of Analysis Another example: Mergers and acquisitions
accompany a “shock.” Regulatory, or technological changes Series of cases support the pattern Case studies from value added project
Shock for Arrowhead – capital markets in 1998? Shock for Bimbo – NAFTA? If my cases don’t follow the pattern, are the cases
weak or is the pattern incorrect?
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Pattern Matching – Two Techniques Non-equivalent dependent variables: ALL of
the elements must be present for pattern to be supported.
Rival explanations: Focus on the known outcome, seeking the reasons behind the outcome. “how” and “why” type questions. rival theoretical explanations behind the outcome. mutually exclusive
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Explanation Building Mode of Analysis Iterative, repeated pattern matching Revise the predicted pattern after empirical
evidence is discovered Assignment 7: Constructing an
explanation
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Time Series Mode of Analysis Identify a change, or a disruption in the
normal time series. Case studies using the time series mode of
analysis use more public data, and do not rely as much on interviews.
Well-suited for cause and effect analysis that is needed to trace important changes in organizations.
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Time Series Mode of Analysis Example: Acquisition of Arrowhead Mills
by Hain Food Group. The firm went from privately held to a unit of a publicly traded corporation.
Hypothesis: Sales increase as the capital constraint is relaxed. Collect sales information to determine if the trend was altered after acquisition.
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Time Series Mode of Analysis Example of a Chronology: Connor’s case
study of Archer Daniels Midland, Inc. Note how the case is analytical and not
simply the reporting of events.
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Analysis of Embedded Units Topic within a case study Surveys of individuals within a
community-based case It is important to focus on the case unit of
interest and not simply aggregate the embedded units.
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Quantitative and Qualitative Data Example: Value-added cases U.S. government data on aggregated firms,
by states and by counties How can this be merged with case
findings? How can this be compared with case
findings?
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Research at the Firm Level versus Case Study
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Principles of High Quality Analysis Rely on all the relevant evidence Include all major rival interpretations Address the most significant aspect
of the case study Bring your own prior expert
knowledge to the case study
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5. Composition and Reporting Statement of purpose Outline the research hypotheses Present the case facts
“Rigorous and fair presentation of empirical data”
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5. Composition and Reporting Include a literature review Statement of the methodology
When and where interviews occurred Who was interviewed Method by which questions were developed
Analysis of how the case situation supports or disproves the hypotheses.
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Active Writing Style A character A “hook” These features are especially important for
cases used in teaching.
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Outlining Cases Published examples
Single case Case study series
Outlines of case in progress
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Supplemental Material Data Figures Instructor’s notes Literature review
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Linkages to Theory This is the most important element of the
conclusion of a research case Example: case series on mergers (Kaplan)
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Structure of the Report Linear-analytic Comparative Chronological Theory-building “Suspense” Unsequenced
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Anonymous Sources or Cases It is best to use actual names, firms, and
people Obtain release forms (signed) and written
permission to use quotes
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Review by Participants Final step in release process Helpful in re-writing and improving Time-consuming