1

Equilibrium Composition of Flames

朱　信Hsin ChuProfessor

Dept. of Environmental EngineeringNational Cheng Kung University

2

1. Introduction

• So far we have been able to treat the chemical changes taking place when a fuel is burned as one-way processes (from left to right). However, there are circumstances under which the idea of a reaction proceeding to completion is not adequate to describe the situation.

• As a simple introduction to the idea of equilibrium composition we can look at the combustion of hydrogen to water vapor. This would normally be represented by the following equation:

H2 + ½ O2 → H2O

3

• This reaction is exothermic. On the other hand, if water is subjected to very high temperatures it will dissociate, or split up, with the absorption of a considerable quantity of heat.

• This dissociation is termed an endothermic reaction. Although there are several reactions involved, the most significant dissociation reaction is simply the reverse of the above, i.e. water is split up into molecular hydrogen and oxygen with the consequent absorption of heat:

H2O → H2 + ½ O2

4

• This means that the combustion products will contain some hydrogen and oxygen as well as the water vapor.

• Dissociation has two important effects.Firstly, the flame temperature will be lower than that predicted by the simple adiabatic calculation.

• Secondly, the flame consists of dissociation products as well as the components predicted by the simple “forward” reaction.

5

5.2 Chemical Equilibrium

• Any chemical reaction can be thought of as reversible, a state of dynamic equilibrium being achieved when the rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal.

• The Law of Mass Action states that the rate at which a substance reacts is proportional to its concentration.As we are concerned here with gases, the concentration of a gas is represented by its partial pressure.

6

• If we consider a reaction:A + B ←→ C + Dthe rate of the forward reaction (R+) will, by the Law of Mass Action, be proportional to the concentration (partial pressure) of A (PA) and to the concentration of B, PB.

• Thus, R+ = k+PAPB

where k+ is the rate constant for the forward reaction.• A similar argument for the backward reaction gives

R- = k-PCPD

7

• At equilibrium the two rates are equal so R+=R- and dividing the two expressions above gives:

• The term K is called the equilibrium constant and is a function of the temperature of the system.

C D

A B

P P kK

P P k

8

• If we have more than one of any molecule in the equation, for exampleA + B ←→ 2Cthen the equilibrium constant will be

• For a reaction with fractional numbers, for exampleH2 + ½ O2 ←→ H2O (1)

then the equilibrium constant is given by

(2)

2C

A B

PK

P P

2

2 2

1 1/ 2

H O

H O

PK

P P

9

• If the combustion of hydrogen was written in integer form

2 H2 + O2 ←→ 2H2Othe equilibrium constant would become

(3)• If the equilibrium values of the partial pressures of

oxygen, hydrogen and water vapor, measured in the same units at the same temperature, were inserted into equations (2) and (3) then two different values for the equilibrium constant would be obtained.

2

22

2

2 2

H O

H O

PK

P P

10

• This shows that it is important to check the formulation of the equation when looking up numerical values for equilibrium constants.

• In a gas mixture, the partial pressure of a component of the mixture is given by the total pressure (PT) multiplied by the mole fraction of the constituent.

• If the total number of moles present in the mixture is N, equation (2) can be written:

2

2 2

0.51 0.5( / )

H OT

H O

nK P

n n N

11

• There is a second dissociation reaction for water, significant at high temperatures, which produces the hydroxyl radical OH:

½ H2 + OH ←→ H2O• This reaction has its equilibrium constant defined by

(4)• The relative significance of this mechanism compared

with equation (1) can be judged from the values of the respective dissociation constants given in Table 5.1 (next slide).

2

2

3 0.5( )H O

OH H

PK

P P

Table 5.1 Dissociation constants (partial pressure in atm)Temp. (K) Log10 K1 (H2O) Log10 K3 (H2O) Log10 K4 (CO2)

300

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

2800

3000

39.79

29.24

18.63

13.29

10.06

7.896

6.344

5.175

4.263

3.531

2.931

2.429

2.003

1.638

1.322

46.29

33.91

21.47

15.22

11.44

8.922

7.116

5.758

4.700

3.852

3.158

2.578

2.087

1.670

1.302

44.74

32.41

20.07

13.90

10.20

7.742

5.992

4.684

3.6722.863

2.206

1.662

1.203

0.807

0.469

13

• For the dissociation of carbon dioxideCO + ½ O2←→ CO2 (5)

the equilibrium constant is

(6)• or in terms of moles

2

2

4 0.5( )CO

CO O

PK

P P

2

2

0.54 0.5( / )

COT

CO O

nK P

n n N

14

• High values for the equilibrium constant mean that the position of the equilibrium is over to the right, or “product” side.Lower values of K mean that the equilibrium is shifted correspondingly to the left.

• As would be expected, high temperatures promote dissociation of the water vapor and at low temperatures the equilibrium mixture consists almost entirely of water.

15

• The behavior of the position of such equilibria is a particular instance of a very useful fundamental rule( Le Chaterlier’s Principle) which states that when a system which is initially at equilibrium is put under any stress, the position of the equilibrium will move in a direction which will relieve the imposed stress.

• In this example, adding heat to the equilibrium mixture will drive the equilibrium position to the left, as the dissociation reaction is endothermic and this will “absorb” the disturbance input.

16

• When a hydrocarbon fuel is burned in air, the temperatures produced are limited by the presence of considerable quantities of nitrogen and by the excess air which is usually present.

• The significant dissociation reactions under these conditions are equations (1) and (5), so the gas mixture contains the molecular species carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, water, oxygen and nitrogen.

• Under equilibrium conditions the equilibrium constant relationships for both these reactions will be satisfied, but it can be seen that the oxygen present contributes to both relationships.

17

• If the two equilibrium constant relationships (2) and (6) are divided we obtain

(7)• This is known as the water-gas equilibrium,

from the water-gas reaction (water shift reaction):

CO2 + H2 ←→ CO + H2O

2

2 2

5CO H O

CO H

P PK

P P

18

3. Calculation of the Equilibrium Composition

• Consider the stoichiometric combustion of hydrogen in air:

or

• If we consider a simplified view of this system by limiting the “backward” reaction to the dissociation of water as given by equation (1) it is convenient to introduce a variable x representing the fraction of the product (that would be formed stoichiometrically) which has dissociated back into its original constituents.

12 2 2 2 22

1 79 1 79

2 21 2 21H O N H O N

2 2 2 2 20.5 1.881 1.881 H O N H O N

19

• This means that the flue gas will contain1-x moles H2Ox moles H2

x/2 moles O2

1.881moles N2

• Giving a total number of moles equal to 1-x+x+x/2+1.881 or2.881+x/2 moles products.

20

• We can now write expressions for the partial pressures of the reacting species in terms of the system total pressure PT:

• The equilibrium constant for this reaction is:

2

2

2

1

2.8812

2.8812

2

2.8812

H O T

H T

O T

xP P

x

xP P

x

x

P Px

2

2 2

0.5

H O

H O

PK

P P

21

• Substituting the partial pressures above gives:

• Manipulating this expression by squaring both sides and collecting terms in x gives

(8)

0.50.5

0.5

1

2.8812

2

2.881 2.8812 2

T

xx

K Px

xx x

3 2 21 3.762 10.524 5.762 0Tx K P x x

22

• A solution for this equation is required in the region 0 ＜ x ＜ 1 and is quite easily found using trial and error.

• An algorithm for solving this problem is:(1) set x = 0(2) x = x(3) set an increment d to an initial value (say 0.1)(4) x = x + d, test residual value of the equation

repeat until the residual changes sign (from positive to negative, or vice versa)

(5) x = x – (d/10)divide increment by 10 then repeat the above loop until the residual has reached a suitable l

ow value

23

• This algorithm is an implementation of the class of numerical methods known as the univariate search.

• The calculation of the percentage dissociation of water and of carbon dioxide in stoichiometric mixtures at atmospheric pressure shows that carbon dioxide dissociates to a greater extent than water and that there is negligible dissociation below about 1,700 .℃

24

4. Dissociated Flame Temperature

• The calculation method is based on two calculation procedures: an equilibrium calculation as described above and a modified energy equation in which the calorific value of the fuel is reduced by the chemical energy of the hydrogen and carbon monoxide produced by the dissociation reactions.

• The process is repeated until satisfactory convergence is achieved.

25

• Example 1:Calculate the flame temperature for the stoichiometric combustion of hydrogen in air at atmospheric pressure. The initial temperature of the hydrogen and air is 25 and the dissociation is to molecular hydrogen and ℃oxygen (reaction (1)).

• Solution:stage 1: Adiabatic (Undissociated) Flame TemperatureIf the combustion reaction is assumed to go to completion we have

2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 3.76 3.76

2 2 2H O N H O N

26

• The net calorific value for the combustion of hydrogen is 241,800 kJ/kmol; with this type of problem it is generally easier to base the calculation on quantities expressed in kmols, converting the specific heats (which are generally available on a mass basis) where appropriate.

• As the initial temperature of the fuel and air is 25 the energy equation is simplified to equa℃ting the calorific value of the fuel to the sensible heat in the flue gas relative to 25 .℃

27

• The composition of the flue gas is:1 kmol (18 kg) H2O1.881 kmol (52.67 kg) N2

• Guessing the flame temperature to be 1,500 ℃and evaluating the specific heats at this temperature gives241,800={(18×2.752)+(52.67,×1.270}(tf-25)

tf=2,102℃• Two further iterations give an undissociated adi

abatic flame temperature of 2,022 .℃

28

• Stage 2: Equilibrium Compositionvalues of K for the dissociation of water can be calculated from the following empirical expression [Spiers, 1962]:

(note that T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin)

• This expression gives a value of K at 2,022 of 471.35.℃

Eq. (8) can now be solved to find the proportion of the stoichiometric water vapor which has dissociated:

(1-471.352)x3+3.762x2-10.524x+5.762=0whence x=0.0291.

3 6 210 10

14.751 log K=57,111 2.6135 log 0.8434 10 0.19602 10 2.96716

TT T T

29

• The flue gas now consists of:(1-0.0291) =0.971 kmols H2O

0.0291 kmols H2

0.0291/2 =0.0145 kmols O2

1.881 kmols N2

• Energy can be quantified as unburned hydrogen with a calorific value of:0.0291×241,800=7,012 kJ

30

• The energy equation for the equilibrium mixture (where specific heats are available as kJ/kmol) can be written:241,800(1-x)=(tf-25){cPH2O(1-x)+x ． cPH2+1/2x ． cPO2+1.881 ． cPN2}

• Solving this interactively for x=0.0291 gives a revised flame temperature of 1,973 .℃

31

• This value is then used to recalculate the equilibrium constant, the fraction of stoichiometric water vapor dissociated and the flame temperature.

• The “outer loop” of this procedure converges typically after three iterations and the result is summarized below:

Iteration x tf( )℃

1

2

3

4

0

0.0291

0.0241

0.0246

2,022

1,973

1,978

1,977

32

• The adiabatic flame temperature, taking into account dissociation of water vapor, is thus 45

lower than the undissociated value of 2,02℃2℃

• This difference is about 2% and obviously careful consideration of the nature of the problem at hand is necessary before a flame temperature calculation taking into account dissociation is embarked upon.#

33

• For most engineering purposes, an undissociated value for the flame temperature should suffice.

• The main reason for caring out equilibrium composition calculations is when a detailed prediction of the composition of the combustion products is required.

34

• The above calculation contains many simplications.The dissociation of water itself occurs via two reactions instead of the single reaction considered in this example.

• The nitrogen and oxygen present may react to form oxides of nitrogen (this is important because of the emissions from plant although it has negligible effect on the flame temperature).

• Other reactions can take place, such as the splitting of molecular oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen into atoms.Dissociation into atoms and radicals is, however, only significant at low pressures.

35

5. Dissociation with Hydrocarbon Fuels

• The extension of the principles discussed above into the case of the combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel in air takes the problem outside the realm of what can be achieved with hand calculation.

• However, the numerical difficulties involved in solving the more general combustion system are easily resolved by computational means.

36

• The combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel (C, H, O, N system) produces CO2, H2O, O2 and N2 as stoichiometric products.

• At temperatures above about 1,700 , dissoci℃ation reactions and the formation of nitric oxide (NO) become significant.

• The flue gas composition resulting from the composition resulting from the combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel is described by a set of equilibrium reactions.

37

• The equilibria which follow are considered relevant here, although the treatment is general and can be applied to an extended or a reduced set of equations as desired:

2 2

2 2 2

2 2

2

2

1

21

21

21

21

2

CO CO O

H O H O

H O OH H

H H

O O

2 2

1 1

2 2N O NO

38

• The variable x is used here to represent the unknown kmols of each species.

• If we take a general hydrocarbon fuel containing a kmols of carbon and b kmols of hydrogen and assume that combustion takes place initially with c kmols of oxygen and d(=3.76c) kmols of nitrogen, the combustion products will be:

x1 kmols CO2

x2 kmols COx3 kmols H2Ox4 kmols H2

x5 kmols O2

x6 kmols OHx7 kmols N2

x8 kmols Hx9 kmols Ox10 kmols NO

39

• The total number of kmols in this mixture, N, is given by:

N=x1+x2+……+x10

• The equilibrium system is described by ten equations: the equilibrium relationships for the reactions above, together with the following continuity equations for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

• Carbon balance:x1+x2=a (9)

40

• Hydrogen balance:x3+x4+0.5(x6+x8)=b

• Oxygen balance:x1+0.5(x2+x3+x6+x9+x10)+x5=c

• Nitrogen balance:x7+0.5x10=d

• Equilibria:CO2/CO

0.510.5

2 5( / ) T i

xP K

x x N

41

0.53

2 0.5

6 4

x /

x x /NT kH O OH P K ◆

0.532 2 0.5

4 5

/ ( / ) T j

xH O O P K

x x N ◆

0.58

2 0.5

4

x /

x NT lH H P K ◆

0.59

2 0.5

5

x O /

x NT mO P K ◆

10

2 0.5

5 7

x NO /

x xnN K◆

42

• A computationally efficient method of solving general equation set of this type is based on expressing each of the equations in residual form, that is with all the unknown terms on the left-hand side.

• The transformation of equation (9) into residual form is:x1 + x2 – a = F1

the value of F1 at the solution point is, of course, zero as will be the value of all the residuals.

43

• The method requires that an initial estimate of the unknowns x1 to x10 is inserted into the equation set and the value of each of the residuals computed.

• A search method is then used to refine the estimates for each of x1 to x10 such that the vector of residuals (F1 to F10 ) is forced to a near-zero value.

44

• The Newton method is a fast and robust algorithm for the solution of this problem.

• The method has been shown to be a computationally efficient technique for the solution of this type of equation set and is used in the flame thermodynamics computer program of Gordon and McBride.

• Some results obtained from the solution of the above equation set for the stoichiometric combustion of methane in air at atmospheric pressure are shown in Table 5.2 (next slide).

46

• Table 5.2 shows mole fractions for each of the ten species within the temperature range, 1,400-2,400 K. The dissociated flame temperature for this fuel is 2,223 K.

• There is clearly no dissociation at the lower temperature and at flame temperature there are only very small amounts of atomic hydrogen and oxygen.

47

• If the scope of the problem is such that there are n species in the combustion products, then in order to calculate the product composition and temperature a set of (n+1) simultaneous equations must be solved.

• The computer resources (memory and execution time) required to solve equation sets of this type increase roughly in proportion to n2.5, hence hardware availability can become a significant issue for large systems of equations.