1 • focus on form - esl insight · for elementary-level english as a second language teachers....

• 1 •

WORKING DOCUMENTJune 2001

Focus

on Form

A handbook on how to deal with grammar

for elementary-level English as a Second Language teachers

Focus on Form • 1 •

Preface ..........................................................................2

1. A brief history of the role

of grammar in ESL teaching...................................3

2. The role of grammar in

competency-based programs.................................4

3. The characteristics of the

elementary ESL student .........................................5

4. What teachers can focus on...................................6

5. How to focus on form

in the interactive classroom....................................7

6. Conclusion ............................................................11

Bibliography.................................................................12

Appendices :

1. Visual explanation of plurals

2. Writing checklist

3. Interactive grammar activity “Guess Who?”

Table of Contents


The purpose of this hand-

book is to help teachers

integrate some form-

focused instruction into

their teaching practices.

Form-focused instruction

refers to communicative

teaching that draws the

students’ attention to the

forms and structures of

the English language

within the context of the

interactive classroom. The

practical recommendations

reflect teaching practices

that can be used to deve-

lop competencies.

After a brief look at the

recent history of grammar

teaching (Part 1), the role

of grammatical knowledge

in competency-based pro-

grams is examined in

Part 2. Part 3 presents the

characteristics of the ele-

mentary ESL learner and

some of their conse-

quences on teaching prac-

tices. Part 4 deals with the

structures that teachers

can focus on. Part 5 offers

teachers many useful sug-

gestions on how to focus

on form in the interactive

classroom.

Preface


We have seen grammarmove from a position ofpredominance in the1970s to almost “outcast”status in the 1980s, andback to a position of limi-ted emphasis, but with farless importance than itenjoyed twenty-five yearsago.

In the 1970s, grammarwas central and predomi-nant in the selection oflanguage content to betaught. Uncontextualizeddrills, translation exer-cises, and languagelessons organized aroundgrammatical structureswere prevalent. Teachersoften took on the role of“drill sergeants” leadingtheir troops through aseries of unrelatedmanoeuvres.

The communicativeapproach of the 1980sheld that meaningful com-munication was the goalof instruction. Studentsbegan to use the lan-guage to communicateactively in English and not just manipulate itsstructures. Instruction wasorganized around themes,objectives, notions, andfunctions. Since fluencywas considered moreimportant than accuracy,explicit grammar instruct-ion was downplayed.There was a certainambivalence about theextent of grammarinstruction and the cor-rection of student errors.

In the 1990s, the ideawas advanced that con-textualized grammar andvocabulary activitiescould be viewed as“enabling” the student toaccomplish more complex“closure” activities. Thisallowed for some form-focused activities in theESL classroom.

A brief history of the role of grammar in ESL teaching1

Time-line

Relative importance of the role of grammar

1970 1980 1990 2000


Current language acquisi-tion research stronglysuggests that some focuson form may well be nec-essary for many learnersto achieve accuracy aswell as fluency.Researchers argue thatlimited exposure to lan-guage is not enough; theyadvocate a more form-focused approach tocommunicative languageteaching.

Research in the field ofcognitive psychology haspointed out that childrenlearn any complex cogni-tive skill or “competency”through frequent practiceof controlled processeswhich in time becomeautomatic. Learnersassimilate and internalizeknowledge through amplepractice which leads to

reinvesting the knowledgein real communication.Essential knowledge inthe elementary ESL pro-gram includes functionallanguage, vocabulary,strategies, and grammar.Such knowledge is mean-ingful to the extent that itcan be transferred to newsituations.

Some kind of form-focused instruction andpractice, then, must beintegrated into the contextof the interactive class-room. This does not meana return to the traditionalteaching of grammaticalforms in isolation. Rather,focus on form attempts tohave the student becomeaware of grammaticalstructures as they arisein carrying out meaningfultasks.

Knowledge of grammati-cal forms has to beviewed as an efficientresource and can provide“correct” models for stu-dents developing the oralinteraction and writingcompetencies in a settingwhere few authenticmodels are available andwhere time of instructionis limited.

The role of grammar in competency-based programs2

Grammarshould neverbe taught as

an end initself but

always withreference to

meaning. (Celce-Murcia, 1993)

Competency

Process(Key features of competency)

Essential knowlegde:• functional language• strategies• language conventions: grammar, punctuation, phonology


Eight- to twelve-year olds will bene-fit from somegrammatical focusonly if their age,proficiency level,and characteristicsare taken intoaccount. The fol-lowing grid is help-ful for judging theimportance ofgrammar for agiven group.

• Young ESL learners areclearly identified on theleft side of the grid,showing that focus onform is less important forthem than it is for ado-lescents and adults.

• Young ESL learners arejust starting out. Takingrisks and making errors

are part of their learningprocess. Teachers mustbe tolerant and not try tocorrect all errors. Anoverly strong focus onform will inhibit risk-tak-ing.

• Children of this age tendto view language in aholistic manner, gettingthe “big picture”, ratherthan analytically. Theydo not attempt to breakup language into littlebits.

• Most ESL learners inthis age group arebeginners. English ismeaningful to them tothe extent they can useit to do interesting thingslike taking part in briefexchanges with theirclassmates and writingto and for real people.

• Learning “inert” knowl-edge like grammar exer-cises, verb lists, andlabels for grammaticalcategories is irrelevantto young ESL learners.

• Little explicit grammarinstruction is needed.Long grammar presenta-tions and explanationsof complicated grammarrules are boring.

The characteristics of the elementary ESL student3

Adapted from Celce-Murcia, 1993

Variables that determine the importance of grammar

Less important Focus on form More important

Age Children Adolescents Adults

Proficiency level Beginning Intermediate Advanced

Educational background Preliterate, Semiliterate, Literate,no formal some formal well-educatededucation education

Skill Listening, Speaking Writingreading

Need / Use Survival Vocational Professional

Learner variables

Instructional variables


What teachers can focus on4

First source: The task

Teachers select the grammatical structures as instruc-tional needs arise. There are three sources that canguide teachers in their choices.

Teachers can focus on those structures that respond tothe students’ immediate needs in carrying out a task.The order of instruction is also determined by the taskat hand. For example, in a task that involves studentsdescribing each other, teachers could focus on adjec-tive position and order.

Second source: The program

Third source: The student

Themes drivetasks and tasks

determine thegrammatical fea-

tures that aretaught and theorder in which

they are presented.

(Oxford and Scarcella, 1993)

The indications in the elementary ESL program (June2001) are another source to guide teachers. Theyinclude structures that are useful and basic for youngESL learners developing the oral interaction and writingcompetencies.

The errors that students make and their questionsabout how the language works are authentic sourcesof information. Teachers can gather valuable datafrom their students’ speaking and writing and can usestudents’ errors as a basis for planning form-focusedinstruction. Student questions about grammar shouldbe answered. These questions signal an emergingawareness and interest in the mechanics of theEnglish language.


There are many ways tofocus on form in the con-text of the interactiveclassroom. Interventionscan be planned ahead oftime, or they can beunplanned and impromp-tu. They can be some-what formal or informal.Form-focused instructioncan be either explicit orimplicit. The focus onform can be initiated bythe student or deliberatelydriven by the teacher.

In this section, two gen-eral types of interventionswill be presented – spon-taneous and planned.Whatever shape it takes,focus on form:

• does not interrupt thenatural flow of a commu-nicative task

• is closely linked to stu-dents’ needs to carry outthe task

• is not done in an isolat-ed fashion

• draws the student’sattention to structures insituations whose primaryfocus is meaningfulcommunication.

Spontaneous focus on form

Spontaneous focus onform takes place during acommunicative task withno prior planning.Teachers decide to inter-vene when some struc-tural problem arises andhas to be attended to inorder to carry out the taskat hand efficiently. Thistype of intervention isbrief and to the point; thenatural progression of thetask is not impeded. Spon-taneous form-focusedinterventions include thefollowing:

• Corrective feedback:Teachers can provide cor-rective feedback that willhelp students speak andwrite accurately. Forspeaking errors, teacherscan recast the statement.For example:Student : Can I hand out

the book?Teacher : Listen carefully.

Can I hand out the books?

Student : Can I hand out the books?

How to focus on form inthe interactive classroom5


• Brief impromptuexplanations andmini-lessons:

Sometimes a brief explana-tion is needed when a par-ticular aspect of grammar isgiving many students prob-lems or impeding theirunderstanding of the mes-sage. The ESL teacher canintervene quickly to pointout the problem. For exam-ple, several students areplacing the adjective in thewrong place. The teacherexplains visually using stickfigures:

After this intervention, theclass returns to the task inprogress. The teachernotes that a planned inter-vention may be needed atsome time in the future.

5

a girl a short boy

• Answering questions:

Student questions onstructure signal an emerg-ing awareness and intereston how the English lan-guage works. Answersshould be short. Forinstance:Student : Why two feet

and not two foots?Teacher : Foot is diffe-

rent; it is an exception. One foot, but two feet.


Planned focus on form

In light of the teacher’spast experience and stu-dents’ needs in carryingout a given task, theteacher carefully plans acommunicative task thatincludes some form-focused activities. Thistype of activity is integrat-ed into the flow of thetask. Planned form-focused interventionsinclude:

• Providing access to resources:

Teachers can plan stu-dent access to resourcessuch as word and expres-sion banks, posters, andmodels for speaking andwriting tasks. Providingessential language in theform of posters or wordbanks will help studentsspeak sooner and moreaccurately. Modelling ofspeaking activities andfunctional language willdiminish the number oferrors. The teacher canmodel the targeted lan-guage alone or with a stu-dent or have two studentsact out the language.

• Consciousness-raising :

Teachers can point outcertain structural features.For instance, a teacheruses a story as a lead upto a speaking activity inwhich students share theirdaily routines. Theteacher highlights thethird person singular ofthe present tense in astory about a pre-teen’sunusual day by writing onthe board a few verbs thatcorrespond to the charac-ter’s actions: gets up,has, goes, travels, ... The students then rein-vest their understandingby exchanging their owndaily routines. Each stu-dent then reports his part-ner’s daily routine to theother members of thegroup:

Student : Kevin gets up at 7:00.He has breakfast at 7:30.At 8:00, he takes the bus to school...

5


• Monitoring the writingprocess:

Teachers can improvewriting accuracy by moni-toring their students asthey perform the writingprocess. Students canrefer to a writing checklist(see Appendix 2) that out-lines the steps before,during, and after the act-ual writing. Also, through-out the writing process,students should haveaccess to resources:models, word banks,peers and the teacher.

• Presenting briefexplanations ormini-lessons:Teachers can plan forvery short explanations ormini-lessons when thetask requires such anintervention. If possible,these presentationsshould be visual. Lengthyexplanations of rules andcomplicated exceptionsare to be avoided. SeeAppendix 1 for a visualexplanation of plurals.

• Interactive grammaractivities:

Interactive grammaractivities allow studentsto participate in commu-nicative-type activitieswhile practising gram-matical structures. Themain focus is on the inter-action (production andunderstanding) of mean-ing with an eye on thestructure being mani-pulated. These activitiesare not meant to be usedin isolation; rather, theyshould be part of anintegrative task. Theyallow for personalizationand student input. Seeexample in Appendix 3.

5


We have seen that some focus on form can

be beneficial to elementary ESL students if

this focus respects the characteristics of

their age group and if spontaneous and

planned interventions are an integrated part

of a communicative task. Teachers should

keep in mind that focus on form is only part

of the “bigger” picture which is to provide

elementary students an interactive, mean-

ingful, and challenging language learning

experience.

Conclusion6


Celce-Murcia, M. (1993). Grammar pedagogy in second and foreignlanguage teaching. In S. Silberstein (ed.), State of the art TESOLessays (pp.288-309). Alexandria, Va.: TESOL.

Celce-Murcia, M., and D. Larsen-Freeman. 1999. The grammar book.2nd ed. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

Doughty, C., and J. Williams, eds. 1998. Focus on form in secondlanguage acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hedge, T. 2000. Teaching and learning in the language classroom.Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lightbown, P. M., and N. Spada. 1999. How languages are learned.rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Long, M. H. 1983. Does second language instruction make a differ-ence? A review of research. TESOL Quarterly 17:359-382.

Ministère de L’Éducation. 1991. Methodology II: module de perfection-nement collectif en didactique de l’anglais, langue seconde.Québec, Québec.

Nassaji, H. 1999. Towards integrating form-focused instruction andcommunicative interaction in the second language classroom:some pedagogical possibilities. Canadian Modern LanguageReview 55(3):385-402.

Oxford, R. L., and R. C. Scarcella. 1993. The tapestry of languagelearning: the individual in the communicative classroom. Boston:Heinle and Heinle.

Rivers, W. M., ed. 1987. Interactive language teaching. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Ur, P. 1988. Grammar practice activities: a practical guide for teachers.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bibliography

Focus on Form • Appendix 1 •

Example

Plural - Irregular NounsSome nouns are irregular.

We must learn the irregular plural forms of these words.

one child - two childrenone man - two men

one woman - two womenone foot - two feet

one tooth - two teethone mouse - two mice

The mice have big teeth.

The children have big feet.


CHECKLIST

1. I prepare to write.

• I think of the instructions.• I take out the resources I need

(my books, my dictionary, my bank of expressions . . .)• I look at the model.• I write down ideas in English.• I put them in order.

I Write Texts

2. I write a draft.

• I look at the model again.• I follow the instructions.• I use my ideas.• I write short sentences in English. (Subject / Verb / Object)• I use the vocabulary and expressions I know.• If I have a problem:

➤ I ask for help, I use my bank of words . . .

3. I revise my text.

• Did I follow the instructions?• Did I follow the model?• Are my ideas original?• I check the spelling, the word order and punctuation with

the resources I have.• I ask a friend to revise my text.• I correct my text.

4. I write my final text.

• Is it OK?• Is it neat?• Is it easy to read?

To write texts


Cycle 2

Competency linkCompetency 1

Time30 minutes Guess Who?

Structure

Theme

Setting the scene

Variations+

follow-up

Languageexpected

Procedure

Material

Classroom set-up

situation

• Personal interests

• Question words: who, what• Possessive adjectives: his, her

• Pairs (Part A)• 2 large groups (Part B)

• Information cards (Reproducible 1)• Box• Focus 6

• Tell the students they will have to interview a person in the class so that they

can participate in a guessing game.

Part A

• Have the students form pairs.

• Distribute a card (Reproducible 1) to each student.

• Teacher models a few questions with the class.

• Each student interviews his/her partner (5 minutes).

Part B

• When everybody is finished, students put the completed cards in the box.

• Teacher picks up a few cards and models giving the information.(An example should be written on the board)

• Taking turns, volunteers pick a card and give out the information to the class and the other studentstry to guess who is being described.

Structure

• Who’s your favourite ___________?

• What’s your favourite___________?

• His / her favourite _______ is ________.

Interaction

• Is it...?

• Excuse me?

• Repeat please!

• It’s your turn.

• Use again later, changing the questions. For example: what sport do you like best?

• Have students prepare interview questions for homework.

• The class could also be divided into two smaller groups, with a student-moderator in each group;this would allow the teacher to observe the students in action.

• The class could also be divided into four smaller groups of 7 to 8 students. Each group takes turnsdescribing a member of the group while the other groups try to guess who is being described.The guessing groups should consult before giving an answer and points given for a good answer.

Focus on Form

Name of your partner: _________________________________________

What’s your favourite colour? ____________________________________

What’s your favourite sport? _____________________________________

What’s your favourite animal? ____________________________________

Who’s your favourite singer?_____________________________________

Who’s your favourite teacher?____________________________________

Who’s your best friend?_________________________________________

What’s your favourite (_______________)? ________________________

Instructions: Interview your partner. Write his or her answers.

Name of your partner: _________________________________________

What’s your favourite colour? ____________________________________

What’s your favourite sport? _____________________________________

What’s your favourite animal? ____________________________________

Who’s your favourite singer?_____________________________________

Who’s your favourite teacher?____________________________________

Who’s your best friend?_________________________________________

What’s your favourite (_______________)? ________________________

Instructions: Interview your partner. Write his or her answers.

• Appendix 3.1 •

Focus on Form

Possessive adjectives

Her favourite animal is a cat.

His favourite animal is a dog.

• Appendix 3.2 •

1 • focus on form - esl insight · for elementary-level english as a second language teachers....

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