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FROM GODDARD TO FROM GODDARD TO APOLLOAPOLLO

A History of the U.S. Space A History of the U.S. Space ProgramProgram

Burt Dicht, DirectorBurt Dicht, DirectorASME Southern Field OfficeASME Southern Field Office

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IN MEMORIAM

The The Crew of Crew of ColumbiColumbia STS-a STS-

107107

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JULY 20, 1969JULY 20, 1969

EAGLE: 540 feet, down at 30 [feet per second] . . . down at 15 . . . 400 feet down at 9 . . . forward . . . 350 feet, down at 4 . . . 300 feet, down 3 1/2 . . . 47 forward . . . 1 1/2 down . . . 13 forward . . . 11 forward? coming down nicely . . . 200 feet, 4 1/2 down . . . 5 1/2 down . . . 5 percent . . . 75 feet . . . 6 forward . . . lights on . . . down 2 1/2 . . . 40 feet? down 2 1/2, kicking up some dust . . . 30 feet, 2 1/2 down . . . faint shadow . . . 4 forward . . . 4 forward . . . drifting to right a little . . . O.K. .

HOUSTON: 30 seconds [fuel remaining].

EAGLE: Contact light! O.K., engine stop . . . descent engine command override off . . .

HOUSTON: We copy you down, Eagle.

EAGLE: Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed!

HOUSTON: Roger, Tranquility. We copy you on the ground. You've got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot.

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““FOR ALL MANKIND”FOR ALL MANKIND”

Project Apollo required the combined efforts of government, industry and academia

At its peak, more than 400,000 people and 20,000 companies were involved

It was the largest peacetime engineering project ever attempted or achieved by the United States

Its only rivals are the Panama Canal in peacetime and the Manhattan Project during war

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ROBERT GODDARDROBERT GODDARD

Read of H.G. Wells and dreamed of space travel in 1899.

Studied physics and earned his Ph.D. at Clark University where he became a faculty member.

Won a $5000 grant from the Smithsonian Institute and published “A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes.”

A very brief section in the publication spoke of a rocket that would fly to the moon.

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ROBERT GODDARDROBERT GODDARD

This lead to sensational news reports like the New York Times headline “Aim to reach moon with rocket.”

This disturbed Goddard and he retreated not only from the public but from other scientific and engineering professionals. 

He turned his theory to reality and initially worked with powder rockets but moved to liquid fueled.

In 1926 he launched the first liquid fueled rocket and it flew a distance of 184 feet. 

But he issued no public announcement.

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ROBERT GODDARDROBERT GODDARD

His work attracted the attention of Charles Lindbergh who introduced him to Harry Guggenheim.

Their support allowed Goddard to leave Clark and move his experiments to Roswell, New Mexico (lot of land and no fire marshals).

 He worked alone except for his wife and a small group of mechanics who came with him from Massachusetts.

In 1930 he launched a rocket that reached an altitude of 2000 feet and a speed of 500 mph.

His most successful launch reached an altitude of 7500 feet

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ROBERT GODDARD ROBERT GODDARD HIS LEGACYHIS LEGACY

His last experiments in 1940 were not successful. He then went to work for the Navy developing JATO rockets.

He never spoke of his own rocket experiments. Achieved great things, had vision, was a physicist, not an

engineer There was almost nothing that was later developed

successfully that he didn’t try at least once. Pressurized fuel tanks Lightweight turbo-pumps

Did not publish, but had more than 70 rocket patents by WWII.

Died shortly after the war. His work was of great interest to the Germans.

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ROCKETRY IN ROCKETRY IN AMERICAAMERICA

BETWEEN THE WARSBETWEEN THE WARS The US Government provided little support. Professional engineers and scientists formed the

American Rocket Society in the 30’s. (Became the AIAA and Reaction Motors)

Cal Tech – Theodore von Karman- studied high-altitude sounding rockets, including thermodynamics, the principles of reaction, fuels, thrust measurements, and nozzle shapes. – his work lead to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the firm of Aerojet General.

Military research on JATO In 1943 intelligence revealed Germany was working on

long range missiles and the Army funded more research.

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GERMAN ROCKET GERMAN ROCKET DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Treaty of Versailles placed strict limits on Germany’s army and its weapons. They were allowed no heavy artillery.

 Colonel Karl Becker – Chief of Army Weapons Board looked for other options and turned to rockets.

1929 – Becker authorized a small study to develop rockets – did not pan out, but in 1932 he started is his own program. 

Becker recruited Wernher von Braun (mother was an amateur astronomer)

Von Braun was working on his Ph.D. while carrying out rocket research

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GERMAN ROCKET GERMAN ROCKET DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Nazis come to power in 1933. The Treaty of Versailles is abandoned.

 A-1 “It took us exactly one-half year to build and one-half second to blow up.”

 Two A-2s flew in December 1934 The German program started in early 1940 Major General Walter Dornberger,

commander of the army works at Peenemuende

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VERGELTUNGSWAFFE ZWEI VERGELTUNGSWAFFE ZWEI VENGEANCE WEAPON NO. 2VENGEANCE WEAPON NO. 2

By 1943, after numerous frustrations, they had their "big rocket"

46 feet long by 11½ feet in diameter, weighing 34,000 pounds when fueled, and producing 69,100 pounds of thrust from a single engine consuming liquid oxygen and a mixture of alcohol and water

Called "Assembly-4" (A-4) by the Peenemuende group, the rocket had a range of nearly 200 miles and a maximum velocity of about 3,500 miles per hour, and was controlled by its gyroscope and exhaust deflector vanes, sometimes supplemented by radio control.

Named V-2 by Joseph Goebbels

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ROCKETS AND THE ROCKETS AND THE END OF END OF WWIIWWII

3,745 V-2s fired at targets on the Continent and in England. Military impact was slight, but this supersonic ballistic missile threw a long shadow over the future of human society.

With the defeat of Germany, the U.S. and the Soviets both sought to confiscate the elements of the German rocket program.

Peenemuende (the German rocket development base) was within the Russian zone of occupation, but Wernher von Braun and most of the other engineers and technicians fled westward with a portion of their technical data.

The Americans also captured the underground V-2 factory in the Harz Mountains; 100 partially assembled V-2s were quickly dismantled and sent to the United States.

Ultimately von Braun and about 125 other German rocket specialists reached this country under "Project Paperclip," carried out by the United States Army.

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U.S. - POST WAR WII U.S. - POST WAR WII

The country rapidly demobilized following the war To counter the Soviet threat in Eastern Europe – the U.S

used the atomic bomb as an equalizer Focus was on strategic bombers Initial efforts to develop long range ballistic missiles were

small Accuracy and weight were key factors The Director of the Office of Scientific Research and

Development, Vannevar Bush, had expressed the prevailing mood in a much-quoted piece of testimony before a Congressional committee:

"There has been a great deal said about a 3,000-mile high-angle rocket. In my opinion, such a thing is impossible today and will be impossible for many years .... I wish the American public would leave that out of their thinking."

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THE U. S. TESTS THE THE U. S. TESTS THE V-2 V-2

The von Braun and the other German Rocket scientists were first moved to Fort Bliss, Texas

At the White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico work began to assemble and launch the captured V-2s.

By February 1946, von Braun's entire Peenemuende team had been reunited at White Sands and, on April 16, the first V-2 was launched in the United States.

The U.S. space program was under way! Up to 1952, 64 V2s were launched at

White Sands with instruments, not explosives, packed the in missiles' nosecones.

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ARMY BALLISTIC ARMY BALLISTIC MISSILE AGENCY MISSILE AGENCY

In 1949, the Joint Long Range Proving Ground was established at Cape Canaveral to allow more room for rocket testing.

At the same time the Army moved its missile program from White Sands to a post just outside a north Alabama cotton town called Huntsville.

Von Braun and his team arrived in April 1950. The Von Braun team worked to develop what was

essentially a super-V2 rocket, named for the U.S. Army arsenal where it was being designed -- the “Redstone.”

In 1956, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency was established at Redstone Arsenal under von Braun's leadership to develop the Jupiter intermediate range ballistic missile.

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THE SPACE AGE THE SPACE AGE BEGINSBEGINS

In 1952 the International Council of Scientific Unions decided to establish July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958, as the International Geophysical Year (IGY) because the cycles of solar activity would be at a high point

In October 1954, the council adopted a resolution calling for artificial satellites to be launched during the IGY to map the Earth's surface

In July 1955, the White House announced plans to launch an Earth-orbiting satellite for the IGY

In September 1955, the Naval Research Laboratory's Vanguard proposal was chosen to represent the U.S. during the IGY 

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SPUTNIK SPUTNIK A SHOCKWAVE OF A SHOCKWAVE OF

FEARFEAR On October 4, 1957, the

Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik I, the world's first artificial satellite

About the size of a basketball, it weighed only 183 pounds, and took about 98 minutes to orbit the Earth on its elliptical path

American political reaction and public reaction was one of shock and fear

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SPUTNIK SPUTNIK AMERICAN REACTIONAMERICAN REACTION

The Sputnik launch changed everything. As a technical achievement, Sputnik caught the world's attention and the American public off-guard. It proved to be a propaganda bonanza for the Soviets.

Its size was more impressive than Vanguard's intended 3.5-pound payload

And the the public feared that the Soviets' ability to launch satellites also translated into the capability to launch ballistic missiles that could carry nuclear weapons to the U.S.

Then the Soviets struck again; on November 3, Sputnik II was launched, carrying a much heavier payload, including a dog named Laika 

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SPUTNIK - AMERICAN SPUTNIK - AMERICAN POLITCAL REACTIONPOLITCAL REACTION

President Eisenhower undertook to reassure an agitated nation and conceded that the Soviet achievement was a "political defeat" for the United States

Granting the remote military potentialities of Sputnik, the President asserted that it "does not raise my apprehensions…one iota" about the national security.

Congressional reaction was not so much concerned with what the Russians had done as with what the Americans had so far failed to do. Why was this country behind in the space race? Who was to blame?

As always in cases of national distress, the White House headed the list of targets. Spokesmen from both major parties accused the Eisenhower Administration of "penny-pinching," "complacency," "lack of vision," and "incredible stupidity."

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VANGUARD EXPLODESVANGUARD EXPLODES

December 6, 1957 at 11:44.559 a.m. Ignition - Two seconds later, a scream escaped someone in the blockhouse control room: "Look out! Oh God, no!"

“The vehicle, having risen about four feet into the air, suddenly sank. Falling against the firing structure, fuel tanks rupturing as it did so, the rocket toppled to the ground on the northeast or ocean side of the structure in a roaring, rolling, ball-shaped volcano of flame.”

One engineer commented it seemed "as if the gates of Hell had opened up."

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REACTION TO REACTION TO VANGUARDVANGUARD

"Failure to launch test satellite," the New York Times announced in big headlines, "assailed as blow to U. S. prestige."

Vanguard was called, “Stallnik,” “Dudnik,” “Puffnik,” “Oppsnik,” “Kaputnik” and “Sputternik”

Senator Lyndon B. Johnson spoke for millions when he termed the situation "most humiliating."

In New York City, members of the Soviet delegation to the United Nations asked American delegates if the United States would be interested in receiving under the U.S.S.R.'s program of technical assistance to backward nations.

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EXPLORER IEXPLORER I

With the Vanguard disaster, Eisenhower authorized the ABMA and von Braun to attempt a satellite launch

Explorer-I, officially known as Satellite 1958 Alpha, was the first United States earth satellite

It was designed and built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of the California Institute of Technology under the direction of Dr. William H. Pickering

The satellite instrumentation of Explorer-I was designed and built by Dr. James Van Allen of the State University of Iowa

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EXPLORER I EXPLORER I LAUNCHES LAUNCHES

The satellite was launched from Cape Canaveral in Florida at 10:48 P.M. EST on 31 January 1958 by the Jupiter-C vehicle--a special modification of the Redstone ballistic missile

The Jupiter was designed, built, and launched by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) under the direction of Dr. Wernher Von Braun

Jupiter-C, a direct descendant of the German A-4 (V-2) rocket, was originally developed in 1955-1956 as a high-performance rocket for testing purposes

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EISENHOWER UNDER EISENHOWER UNDER PRESSUREPRESSURE

Explorer’s success did not alleviate the pressures on President Eisenhower

Eisenhower saw the Soviet efforts as purely propaganda and he could not understand why the Soviets would spend billions of rubbles on space spectaculars

Eisenhower knew that American security was not in any danger

Public perception was another matter The launch of Sputnik III, which

weighed 2900 lbs, in May added to public and congressional criticism of America’s efforts in space

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THE BIRTH OF THE BIRTH OF NASA NASA

Eisenhower believed in limited government and wanted to keep government spending to a minimum

Yet he knew he had to respond to Soviet achievements The Air Force proposed the Man-In-Space-Soonest (MISS) and

project Dyna-Soar But Eisenhower wanted a civilian agency controlling the space

program In July 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and

Space Act establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

NASA’s mandate was to develop America’s aeronautical and space exploration potential “for the benefit of all mankind”

In October 1958, NASA announced project Mercury with the announced goal of sending an American Astronaut into orbit

Eisenhower rejected a plan for a manned mission to the moon in 1960

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SPACE AND THE SPACE AND THE PRESIDENTIAL RACE OF PRESIDENTIAL RACE OF

1960 1960 In the fall of 1959, Soviet Lunik probes achieve lunar orbit

and one crash lands on the moon Eisenhower comes under increased political attack Senator John Kennedy (the democratic candidate) raises

the issues of a “space gap” and a “missile gap” during the campaign

Kennedy felt that the “East-West” competitions to influence new and undecided nations on which way to turn was being won due to Soviet space achievements.

Kennedy critical of NASA failures. Vice President Nixon (the Republican candidate)

understood the political symbolism of space achievement, but he had to defend the Eisenhower record

Kennedy wins in a very close election and soon will find himself in the same position as Eisenhower

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PROJECT MERCURYPROJECT MERCURY

Initiated in 1958, completed in 1963, Project Mercury was the United States' first man-in-space program. The objectives of the program, which made six manned flights from 1961 to 1963, were specific: To orbit a manned spacecraft around Earth; To investigate man's ability to function in

space; To recover both man and spacecraft safely.

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THE MERCURY SEVENTHE MERCURY SEVEN

• Alan B. Shepard

• Virgil I. Grissom

• John H. Glenn, Jr.

• Scott Carpenter

• Walter M. Schirra, Jr.

• L. Gordon Cooper, Jr.

• Donald “Deke”

Slayton

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PROJECT MERCURYPROJECT MERCURY

•Prime Contractor – McDonnell Aircraft

•Cone-shaped capsule with a cylinder mounted on top.

• 2 meters (6 ft, 10 in) long,

• 1.9 meters (6 ft, 2 1/2 in) in diameter,

• 5.8 meter (19 ft, 2 in) escape tower was fastened to the cylinder of the capsule.

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KENNEDY AND THE KENNEDY AND THE SPACE RACESPACE RACE

• Kennedy had little direct interest in the space program. Appoints James Webb new NASA Administrator.

• He was a “Cold Warrior” and he worked hard in maintaining the balance of power and the spheres of influence between the Soviet Union and the US

• But Soviet achievement in space meant the U.S. had to prove it was just as capable

• That meant committing U.S. resources to the effort

• But at the first opportunity in March 1961, he did not approve all of NASA’s requests

• NASA asked for an increase of $308 million and he approved $125 million including $56 million for the Saturn rocket. $42 million for project Apollo was not approved (Total NASA budget of $2 billion)

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THE SOVIETS FIRST IN THE SOVIETS FIRST IN SPACE AGAINSPACE AGAIN

On 12 April 1961 Soviet Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space with a one-orbit mission aboard the spacecraft Vostok 1.

The chance to place a human in space before the Soviets did so had now been lost.

The great success of that feat made the gregarious Gagarin a global hero.

And the Soviets capitalized on the their victory

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KENNEDY UNDER KENNEDY UNDER PRESSUREPRESSURE

The Soviets moved quickly to gain the maximum political advantage from Gagarin’s flight

They claimed the flight was evidence of “victorious socialism”

Congress was unhappy with the latest Soviet success The press was more tempered indicating damage to

American prestige but not to American security Kennedy now found himself in the same position as

Eisenhower He knew he needed to respond and he asked White

House Counsel Theodore Sorensen and White House Science Advisor Jerome Wiesner to explore possible options for the U.S. in space

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WHAT ARE THE WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS?OPTIONS?

On April 14, Wiesner and Sorenson met with BoB Director David Bell, NASA Administrator James Webb, and Deputy Administrator Hugh Dryden to discuss options in space

Kennedy entered the meeting late and was told that with Soviet leads in booster thrust, the U.S. would remain behind for a while

They felt the best chance to beat the Soviets was with a manned lunar landing . . . At a cost of $40 billion

Some considered the cost frightening, but Kennedy was convinced a second-rate effort in space was inconsistent with national security

Kennedy made no decision and then the cold war intervened again

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““KICKED IN THE CAN”KICKED IN THE CAN”

On April 15, 1961, a group of Cuban exiles trained by the CIA launched an invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs

The plan originated under Eisenhower, but Kennedy approved the plan

By April 19, the invasion force had been defeated and most were captured by Castro’s forces

Kennedy decided not to intervene with American forces It was a tremendous defeat for the U.S. that many

thought would cause irreparable harm to the nation In a matter of a week, American prestige around the

world was at a low Kennedy knew that American prestige needed a boost

and the Bay of Pigs appears to have been a turning point in Kennedy’s thinking on the future of America in space

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IT’S TIME TO DECIDEIT’S TIME TO DECIDE

On April 20, Kennedy asked Vice President Lyndon Johnson to conduct an overall survey of where the U.S. stood in space to make make recommendations on the direction of the space program

The following day at a press conference, Kennedy faced harsh questioning concerning the space program

At one point he acknowledged “If we can get to the moon before the Russians, we should”

The spurred Johnson on to move quickly and make recommendations

Johnson over the next several weeks Johnson met with NASA officials, Defense Department Officials, Military leaders, Business leaders and congressional leaders

Johnson was convinced success in space meant Cold War success

The moon landing was shaping up as the most likely option to beat the Russians and most felt it was achievable

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THE RACE BEGINSTHE RACE BEGINS

On May 5, 1961, Alan B. Shepard, Jr. road a Mercury-Redstone 3 rocket and become the first American in space

The flight lasted only 15 minutes, 28 seconds and it was sub-orbital compared to Gagarin’s one orbit flight, but Americans reacted with overwhelming enthusiasm.

That enthusiasm convinced James Webb and other government officials that the time was right to move ahead.

In a memo dated May 8, that he and Defense Secretary Robert McNamara drafted to the President, they recommended a moon landing

In a May 10 cabinet meeting, the moon landing was discussed

The BoB objected to spending so much money for a program aimed to build prestige and the President’s science advisor objected as well

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““WE CHOOSE TO GO WE CHOOSE TO GO TO THE MOON”TO THE MOON”

“First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.”

May 25, 1961 in an address to Congress on "Urgent National Needs” JFK said,

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Mercury-Redstone 3 FREEDOM 7May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 15 minutes, 28 seconds Suborbital flight that successfully put the first American in space.

Mercury-Redstone 4 LIBERTY BELL 7 July 21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 15 minutes, 37 seconds Also suborbital; successful flight but the spacecraft sank shortly after splashdown.

Mercury-Atlas 6 FRIENDSHIP 7 February 20, 1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 04 hours, 55 minutes 23 seconds Three-orbit flight that placed the first American into orbit.

Mercury-Atlas 7 AURORA 7 May 24, 1962 M. Scott Carpenter 04 hours, 56 minutes, 5 seconds Confirmed the success of Mercury-Atlas 6 by duplicating flight.

Mercury-Atlas 8 SIGMA 7 October 03, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 09 hours, 13 minutes, 11 seconds Six-orbit engineering test flight.

Mercury-Atlas 9 FAITH 7 May 15-16, 1963 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 34 hours, 19 minutes, 49 seconds Last Mercury mission; completed 22 orbits to evaluate effects of one day in space.

THE MERCURY THE MERCURY FLIGHTSFLIGHTS

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THREE CONCEPTS PROPOSED

1. Direct Ascent Spacecraft sent it on a course directly to the Moon, land a large vehicle,

and send some part of it back to Earth The Nova booster project, which was to have been capable of

generating up to 40 million pounds of thrust, would have been able to accomplish this feat

The huge cost and technological sophistication of the Nova rocket quickly ruled out the option and resulted in cancellation of the project

2. Earth-Orbit Rendezvous Launching of various modules required for the Moon trip into an orbit

above the Earth, where they would rendezvous, be assembled into a single system, refueled, and sent to the Moon

This could be accomplished using the Saturn launch vehicle already under development by NASA

Challenges of finding methods of maneuvering and rendezvousing in space, assembling components in a weightless environment, and safely refueling spacecraft.

GETTING TO THE GETTING TO THE MOONMOON

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3. Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Proposed sending the entire lunar spacecraft up in one launch. It would head to the Moon, enter into orbit, and dispatch a small

lander to the lunar surface. It was the simplest of the three methods, both in terms of

development and operational costs, but it was risky. Rendezvous was taking place in lunar, instead of Earth, orbit

there was no room for error or the crew could not get home.

John C. Houbolt, who chaired a rendezvous group, proposed and pressed hard for the lunar-orbit rendezvous as the most expeditious means of accomplishing the mission.

Using sophisticated technical and economic arguments, over a period of months in 1961 and 1962 Houbolt's group advocated and persuaded the rest of NASA's leadership that lunar-orbit rendezvous was not the risky proposition that it had earlier seemed.

The last to give in was Wernher von Braun and his associates at the Marshall Space Flight Center.

GETTING TO THE GETTING TO THE MOONMOON

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PROJECT GEMINIPROJECT GEMINI

The second U.S. manned space program was announced in January 1962.

Gemini involved 12 flights, including two unmanned flight tests of the equipment.

Like Mercury's, its major objectives were clear-cut: To subject astronauts and equipment to space flight up to two

weeks in duration; To rendezvous and dock with orbiting vehicles and to maneuver

the docked combination by using the target vehicle's propulsion system;

To perfect methods of entering the atmosphere and landing at a pre-selected point on land.

To demonstrate astronauts can function and perform work during extravehicular activates

Its goals were also met, with the exception of a land landing, which was cancelled in 1964.

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PROJECT GEMINIPROJECT GEMINI

The spacecraft was an enlargement of the familiar Mercury capsule

5.8m (19 ft) long 3m (10 ft) in

diameter 3810 kilograms

(8400 pounds) in weight

Crew of two astronauts

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SOVIET SPACE SOVIET SPACE SPECTACULARSSPECTACULARS

Two Vostoks in space at same time – Aug. 1962

First woman in space – Valentina Tereshkova- June 1963

Three men in space – Voshkod I – Oct. 1964

First man to walk in space – Alexei Leonov – March 1965

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Gemini III, MOLLY BROWN March 23, 1965 Virgil I. Grissom, John W. Young 04 hours, 52 minutes 31 seconds First manned Gemini flight, three orbits.

Gemini IV - June 03-07, 1965 James A. McDivitt, Edward H. White II 4 days 1 hour 56min 12 seconds Included first extravehicular activity (EVA) by an American; White's "space walk" was a 22 minute EVA exercise.

Gemini V - August 21-29, 1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., Charles Conrad, Jr. 7 days 22 hours 55 min 14 seconds First use of fuel cells for electrical power; evaluated guidance and navigation system for future rendezvous missions. Completed 120 orbits.

Gemini VII - December 04-18, 1965 Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr. 13 days, 18 hours, 35 minutes 1 seconds When the Gemini VI mission was scrubbed because its Agena target for rendezvous and docking failed, Gemini VII was used for the rendezvous instead. Primary objective was to determine whether humans could live in space for 14 days.

Gemini VI - December 15-16, 1965 Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Thomas P. Stafford 1 Day 1 hour 51 min 24 seconds First space rendezvous accomplished with Gemini VII, station-keeping for over five hours at distances from 0.3 to 90 m (1 to 295 ft).

PROJECT GEMINI PROJECT GEMINI FLIGHT LOGFLIGHT LOG

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PROJECT GEMINIPROJECT GEMINIFLIGHT LOGFLIGHT LOG

Gemini VIII - March 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong, David R. Scott 10 hours, 41 minutes 26 seconds Accomplished first docking with another space vehicle, an unmanned Agena stage. A malfunction caused uncontrollable spinning of the craft; the crew undocked and effected the first emergency landing of a manned U.S. space mission.

Gemini IX - June 03-06, 1966 Thomas P. Stafford, Eugene A. Cernan 3 days, 21 hours Rescheduled from May to rendezvous and dock with augmented target docking adapter (ATDA) after original Agena target vehicle failed to orbit. ATDA shroud did not completely separate, making docking impossible. Three different types of rendezvous, two hours of EVA, and 44 orbits were completed.

Gemini X July 18-21, 1966 John W. Young, Michael Collins 2 days 22 hours 46 min 39 seconds

First use of Agena target vehicle's propulsion systems. Spacecraft also rendezvoused with Gemini VIII target vehicle. Collins had 49 minutes of EVA standing in the hatch and 39 minutes of EVA to retrieve experiment from Agena stage. 43 orbits completed.

Gemini XI - September 12-15, 1966 Charles Conrad, Jr., Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 2 days 23 hours 17 min 8 seconds Gemini record altitude, 1,189.3 km (739.2 mi) reached using Agena propulsion system after first orbit rendezvous and docking. Gordon made 33-minute EVA and two-hour standup EVA. 44 orbits.

Gemini XII - November 11-15, 1966 James A. Lovell, Jr., Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 3 days, 22 hours, 34 minutes 31 seconds Final Gemini flight. Rendezvoused and docked with its target Agena and kept station with it during EVA. Aldrin set an EVA record of 5 hours, 30 minutes for one space walk and two stand-up exercises.

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PROJECT GEMINIPROJECT GEMINI

Ed White SpacewalkEd White Spacewalk Gemini VI in orbit (as Gemini VI in orbit (as viewed from Gemini viewed from Gemini

VII)VII)Gemini V lifts Gemini V lifts

off on a Titan IIoff on a Titan II

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THE PROGRAM THE PROGRAM MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT

CONCEPTCONCEPT NASA had to meld disparate institutional cultures and

approaches into an inclusive organization moving along a single unified path.

Each NASA installation, university, contractor, and research facility had differing perspectives on how to go about the task of accomplishing Apollo.

NASA brought in military managers to oversee Apollo. The central figure in this process was U.S. Air Force Major General Samuel C. Phillips, the architect of the Minuteman ICBM program before coming to NASA in 1962.

One of the fundamental tenets of the program management concept was that three critical factors--cost, schedule, and reliability--were interrelated and had to be managed as a group.

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THE ‘ALL UP’ TESTING THE ‘ALL UP’ TESTING CONCEPTCONCEPT

Introduced in 1963, by George Mueller, Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, it involved flighting test all of the Saturn V stages at once

This was an alien concept to von Braun and his team, who used a cautious step by step approach

This plan was riskier, but it would speed the program

Mueller had experience and used this approach on the Air Force Minuteman and it was later used on the Titan.

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THE SATURN V THE SATURN V LAUNCH VEHICLELAUNCH VEHICLE

S-IC – Boeing Company, 5 F-1 Engines at 1.5 million pounds each, 138 ft long, 33 ft diameter, kerosene and liquid oxygen

S-II – North American Rockwell, 5 J-2 Engines at 230,000 pounds each, 81.5 ft long, 33 ft diameter, liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen

S-IVB – McDonnell Doulgas, 1 J-2 Engine at 232,000 pounds, 59.3 ft long, 21.7 ft diameter, liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen

Total height of Apollo-Saturn V stack 363 ft

First flight November 9, 1967

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U.S. SPACE PROGRAM U.S. SPACE PROGRAM ROCKETS AND ENGINESROCKETS AND ENGINES

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APOLLO COMMAND –APOLLO COMMAND –SERVICE MODULESSERVICE MODULES

Command Module Height: 10 ft 7 in Diameter: 12ft 10 in Weight at liftoff:

12,800 lbs Service Module

Height: 24 ft 9 in Diameter: 12ft 10 in Weight (loaded): 54,169 lbs Prime Contractor:

North American Aviation

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APOLLO LUNAR APOLLO LUNAR MODULEMODULE

Overall height: 22 feet, 11 in Overall width: 14 feet, 1 in Diameter: 31 feet Ascent Stage height: 12 feet, 4 in Descent Stage height: 10 feet, 7 in Earth launch weight: 32,000

pounds Pressurized cabin volume:

235 cubic feet Cabin environment: 

75 DEG. F, 100 % oxygen at 4.8 psia

Prime Contractor: Grumman Aircraft

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PROJECT APOLLO PROJECT APOLLO SPACECRAFTSPACECRAFT

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PROJECT APOLLO TLI PROJECT APOLLO TLI TIMELINETIMELINE

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““WE HAVE A FIRE WE HAVE A FIRE IN THE COCKPIT”IN THE COCKPIT”

On January 27, 1967, while conducting a “plugs-out” test in preparation for the first flight, a flash fire broke out in the Apollo 1 Command

The fire took the lives of the three astronauts, Lt. Col. Virgil I. Grissom, a veteran of Mercury and Gemini missions; Lt. Col. Edward H. White, the astronaut who had performed the first United States extravehicular activity during the Gemini program; and Roger B. Chaffee, an astronaut preparing for his first space flight

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THE FIRE’S THE FIRE’S AFTERMATHAFTERMATH

The fire and the deaths of the astronauts sent everyone into shock

NASA came under heavy criticism from the Congress and the press

An accident investigation revealed the test was conducted under very hazardous conditions and that North American and NASA had made serious errors in manufacture and oversight

In testimony before Congress, Astronaut Frank Borman said, Let’s end this witch hunt and get on with what we have to do”

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THE QUEST FOR THE THE QUEST FOR THE MOON RESUMESMOON RESUMES

The fire grounded the U.S. space program for eighteen months, initially putting the moon goal in jeopardy

President Johnson stuck with the program and NASA received $500 million to redesign the Apollo spacecraft

Changes were made to most systems, including a door that could be opened in 3 seconds

Flights resumed on October 11-22, 1968, when Apollo 7 was launched on a Saturn 1B with Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Donn F. Eisele, and R. Walter Cunningham aboard. They spent 10 days, 20 hours in space and did 163 Earth orbits.

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GO FOR THE MOON GO FOR THE MOON

The successful flight of Apollo 7 put the program back on track

A delay in the development of the LM, which was scheduled to fly next and reports that the Soviets were planning a circumlunar flight prompted a bold move

George Low, proposed sending the next flight into lunar orbit using the Saturn VOn December 21, 1968, a Saturn V launched

Apollo 8, with Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., and William A. Anders aboard, to the moon. They entered lunar orbit on Christmas Eve and circled the moon ten times.

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PROJECT APOLLO PROJECT APOLLO FLIGHT LOGFLIGHT LOG

Apollo 7 Saturn 1B - October 11-22, 1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Donn F. Eisele, R. Walter Cunningham10 days, 20 hours. 163 Earth orbits. First manned CSM operations in lunar landing program.

Apollo 8 Saturn V - December 21-27, 1968 Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., William A. Anders06 days, 03 hours. In lunar orbit 20 hours, with 10 orbits. First manned lunar orbital mission.

Apollo 9 (Gumdrop and Spider) Saturn V - March 03-13, 1969 James A. McDivitt, David R. Scott, Russell L. Schweickart 10 days, 01 hour. First manned flight of all lunar hardware in Earth orbit. Schweickart performed 37 minutes EVA. Human reactions to space and weightlessness tested in 152 orbits. First manned flight of lunar module.

Apollo 10 (Charlie Brown and Snoopy) Saturn V - May 18-26, 1969 Eugene A. Cernan, John W. Young, Thomas P. Stafford 08 days, 03 minutes. Dress rehearsal for Moon landing. First manned CSM/LM operations in cislunar and lunar environment; simulation of first lunar landing profile. In lunar orbit 61.6 hours, with 31 orbits. LM taken to within 15,243 m (50,000 ft) of lunar surface. First live color TV from space. LM ascent stage jettisoned in orbit.

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SNOOPY HAS LANDEDSNOOPY HAS LANDED

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PROJECT APOLLO PROJECT APOLLO FLIGHT LOGFLIGHT LOG

Apollo 11 (Columbia and Eagle) Saturn V - July 16-24, 1969 Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.08 days, 03 hours, 18 minutes. First manned lunar landing mission and lunar surface EVA. July 20, Landing site: Sea of Tranquility. Landing Coordinates: 0.71 degrees North, 23.63 degrees East 1 EVA of 02 hours, 31 minutes. Flag and in- struments deployed; Lunar surface stay time 21.6 hours; 59.5 hours in lunar orbit, with 30 orbits. LM ascent stage left in lunar orbit. 20kg (44 lbs) of material gathered.

Apollo 12 (Yankee Clipper and Intrepid) Saturn V - November 14-24, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. Richard F. Gordon, Jr. Alan L. Bean, 10 days, 04 hours, 36 minutes Landing site: Ocean of Storms. 3.04 degrees South, 23.42 degrees West Retrieved parts of the unmanned Surveyor 3, which had landed on the Moon in April 1967. Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) deployed. Lunar surface stay-time, 31.5 hours; in lunar orbit 89 hours, with 45 orbits. LM descent stage impacted on Moon. 34kg (75 lbs) of material gathered.

Apollo 13 (Odyssey and Aquarius) Saturn V - April 11-17, 1970 James A. Lovell, Jr. John L. Swigert, Jr. Fred W. Haise, Jr. 05 days, 22.9 hours Third lunar landing attempt. Mission aborted after rupture of service module oxygen tank. Classed as "successful failure" because of experience in rescuing crew.

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““HOUSTON, WE HAVE A HOUSTON, WE HAVE A PROBLEM”PROBLEM”

200,000 miles from Earth, an oxygen tank in Apollo 13’s service module exploded crippling the spacecraft

With the lunar landing aborted, the goal was to get the astronauts home alive

The lunar module was used as a life boat as Apollo 13 circled the moon and headed home

The ground crew at Mission Control in Houston worked 24 hours a day to come up with procedures that would get the astronauts home safely

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PROJECT APOLLO PROJECT APOLLO FLIGHT LOGFLIGHT LOG

Apollo 14 (Kitty Hawk and Antares) Saturn V - January 31-Febraury 09, 1971 Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Stuart A. Roosa, Edgar D. Mitchell 09 days Landing site: Fra Mauro. Landing Coordinates: 3.65 degrees south, 17.48 degrees West ALSEP and other instruments deployed. Lunar surface stay-time, 33.5 hours; 67 hours in lunar orbit, with 34 orbits. 2 EVAs of 09 hours, 25 minutes. Third stage impacted on Moon. 42 kg (94 lbs) of materials gathered, using hand cart for first time to transport rocks.

Apollo 15 (Endeavor and Falcon) Saturn V - July 26-August 07, 1971 David R. Scott, James B. Irwin, Alfred M. Worden12 days, 17 hours, 12 minutes Landing site: Hadley-Apennine region near Apennine Mountains. Landing Coordinates: 26.08 degrees North, 3.66 degrees East 3 EVAs of 10 hours, 36 minutes. Worden performed 38 minutes EVA on way back to Earth. First to carry orbital sensors in service module of CSM. ALSEP de- ployed. Scientific payload landed on Moon doubled. Improved spacesuits gave increased mobility and stay-time. Lunar surface stay- time, 66.9 hours. Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), electric-powered, 4-wheel drive car, traversed total 27.9 km (17 mi). In lunar orbit 145 hours, with 74 orbits. Small sub-satellite left in lunar orbit for first time. 6.6 kgs (169 lbs) of material gathered.

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PROJECT APOLLO PROJECT APOLLO FLIGHT LOGFLIGHT LOG

Apollo 16 (Casper and Orion) Saturn V - April 16-27, 1972 John W. Young, Thomas K. Mattingly II, Charles M. Duke, Jr. 11 days, 01 hour, 51 minutes Landing site: Descartes Highlands. Landing Coordinates: 8.97 degrees South, 15.51 degrees East First study of highlands area. Selected surface experiments deployed, ultraviolet camera/spectrograph used for first time on Moon, and LRV used for second time. Lunar surface stay-time, 71 hours; in lunar orbit 126 hours, with 64 orbits. Mattingly performed 01 hour in-flight EVA. 95.8 kg (213 lbs) of lunar samples collected.

Apollo 17 (America and Challenger) Saturn V - December 07-19, 1972 Eugene A. Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, Harrison H. Schmitt12 days, 13 hours, 52 minutes Last lunar landing mission. Landing site: Taurus-Littrow, highlands and valley area. Landing Coordinates: 20.16 degrees North, 30.77 degrees East 3 EVAs of 22 hours, 04 minutes. Evans performed trans-Earth EVA lasting 01 hour 06 minutes. First scientist-astronaut to land on Moon, Schmitt. Sixth automated research station set up. LRV traverse total 30.5 km. Lunar surface stay-time, 75 hours. In lunar orbit 17 hours. 110.4 kg (243 lbs) of material gathered.

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THE ROAD TO THE ROAD TO THE MOON ENDSTHE MOON ENDS

While the program resumed after Apollo 13, concern among NASA officials about losing a crew

Plans for flights Apollo 18, 19 & 20 Apollo 20 was canceled by NASA but Congressional

and Nixon White House budget cutbacks ended program at Apollo 17

NASA plans for the future included a space station, a reusable space shuttle and a Mars mission

But with lacking public interest and little White House support NASA scaled back plans to only the shuttle

NASA asked for $8 billion and only $ 5 billion approved by Congress

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PROJECT APOLLO PROJECT APOLLO FLIGHT LOGFLIGHT LOG

Skylab I - May 25, 1973 to June 22, 1973 - 672 hours, 49 minutes, 49 seconds Charles "Pete" Conrad, Paul J. Weitz, Joseph P. Kerwin

Skylab II - July 28, 1973 to February 8, 1974 - 1,427 hours, 9 minutes, 4 seconds, Alan L. Bean, Jack R. Lousma, Owen K. Garriott

Skylab III - September 25, 1973 to November 16, 1973 - 1,214 2,017 hours, 16 minutes, 30 seconds - Gerald P. Carr, William R. Pogue, Edward G. Gibson

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project - July 15, 1975 to July 24, 1975, 217 hours, 30 minutes - Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, Donald K. "Deke" Slayton

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THE LEGACYTHE LEGACY

Kennedy’s goal achieved Six successful moon landings A triumph of American Industrial

and Economic Power Proof of the “Program Management”

concept Scientific (842 lbs of moon rocks) Spin-offs

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THE COSTTHE COST

Total Apollo Program cost $25.4 Billion (1972)

$106.82 Billion adjusted for inflation (2002)

NASA’s highest yearly budget – 1965, $5.25 Billion

Adjusted for inflation $29.30 Billion (2002)

NASA FY 04 Budget - $15.5 Billion FY 04 US Federal Budget – $2.23 Trillion

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Address at Rice University on Address at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effortthe Nation's Space Effort

President John F. KennedyPresident John F. KennedyHouston, Texas, September 12, 1962Houston, Texas, September 12, 1962

Surely the opening vistas of space promise high costs and hardships, as well as high reward.

The exploration of space will go ahead, whether we join in it or not, and it is one of the great adventures of all time, and no nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in the race for space.

We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win . . .

http://www.cs.umb.edu/jfklibrary/speeches.htm

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SOURCES AND FOR MORE INFORMATION

If you would like a copy of this presentation send an e-mail to dichtb@asme.org with your name and address

“To The Moon” DVD (a NOVA special) “From the Earth to the Moon” DVD (HBO) “For All Mankind” DVD Criterion Collection “A Man on the Moon” Andrew Chaikin “Chariots for Apollo” Charles Pellegrino “For All Mankind” Harry Hurt III “Angle of Attack” Mike Gray “Countdown” T.A. Heppenheimer “Red Star in Orbit” James Oberg “Flight” Chris Kraft “Rocket Man” David Clary http://history.nasa.gov/