1

I know what general area, but I’m not sure of my research question?

A good research question:

Defines the investigation Sets boundaries Provides direction

2

If you are finding it a challenge to generate a research topic you can:

Hone in on your passions Use your curiosity Look for inspiration from the creative arts Develop ‘right brain’ skills such as

concept mapping

3

4

Is a systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics.

1. Research design2. Conduction Measure of risk Temporal relationship between

exposure and disease Cost of study Population size Best when Problems

安居木

EXPOSED NOT EXPOSED

DISEASE DEVELOPS

DISEASE DOES NOT DEVELOP

DISEASE DEVELOPS

DISEASE DOES NOT

DEVELP

AND

START WITH:

THEN FOLLOW TO SEE IF

Design of cohort study

Were exposed Were exposedWere not exposed

Were not exposed

HAVE THE DISEASEDO NOT HAVE THE DISEASESTART WITH

THEN DETERMINE EXPOSURE HISTORY

NON-EXPOSED PEOPLEAND

EXPOSED PEOPLE

PEOPLE WITH THE DISEASE

PEOPLE WITHOUT THE DISEASEAND

IN A CASE-CONTROL STUDY

GROUPS COMPARED

GROUPS COMPARED

‘CASES ‘ ‘CONTROLS’

NON-EXPOSED PEOPLEAND

EXPOSED PEOPLE

PEOPLE WITH THE DISEASE

PEOPLE WITHOUT THE DISEASEAND

IN A CASE-CONTROL STUDY

DETERMINE THE PROPORTIONS EXPOSED IN:

DETERMINE INCIDENCE RATES OF DISEASE IN:

CASES CONTROLS

Cohort study Case-control study

Measure of riskRelative riskOdds ratio

Odds ratio

Temporal sequence

Easy to establish Sometimes hard

Multiple association

Possible to study associations of an exposure with several disease

Possible to study associations of a disease with several exposures or factors

Time and cost required

Long and expensive Relatively short and inexpensive

Population size Relatively large Relatively small

Potential biasAssessment of outcome

Assessment of exposure

Best whenExposure is rare, and disease is frequent among exposed

Disease is rare, exposure is frequent among the diseased

Cohort studyCohort study Case-control studyCase-control study

ProblemProblems s

Selection of non-Selection of non-exposed exposed comparison group comparison group often difficult;often difficult;

Changes over time Changes over time in criteria and in criteria and

methodsmethods

Selection of Selection of appropriate controls appropriate controls often difficult;often difficult;

Incomplete Incomplete information on information on exposureexposure

Exposed

Not Exposed

Develop Disease

A

Do not Develop

Disease AB

C

C

B

Develop Disease

A

C

B

Do not Develop

Disease A

CB

Exposed to A

Not Exposed

To A

Exposed to A

Not Exposed

To A

B BBB

C CCC

Disease No Disease

cases Controls

To test, refine and advance the knowledge on which improved education, clinical judgment, and cost-effective, safe, ethical nursing care rests.

FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE – viewed as the person who first elevated nursing to the status of a PROFESSION, as presented in her first book NOTES ON NURSING (1859)

Believed in the importance of “naming nursing” by the use of observed data to support the need for health-care reforms.

Methodical Data gathering

1923 – Committee for the Study of Nursing Education Studied

educational preparation of nurse teachers, administrators, public health nurses and the clinical experiences of nursing students.

Gold Mark Report – identified many inadequacies in the educational backgrounds of the group studied and concluded that advanced educational preparation was essential.

ASSUMPTION POSITIVIST PARADIGMOntologic (what is the nature of reality?)

Reality exists; there is a real world driven by real natural courses

Epistemologic (How is the inquirer related to those being researched?)

The inquirer is independent from those being researched; findings are not influenced by the researcher

Axiologic (What is the role of Values in the inquiry?)

Values and biases are to be held in check; objectivity is sought

Methodologic (How is knowledge obtained?)

Deductive process, emphasis on discrete, specific concepts; fixed design, tight controls over context, emphasis on measured, quantitative information; statistical analysis; seeks generalization

ASSUMPTION NATURALISTIC PARADIGM

Ontologic (what is the nature of reality?)

Reality is multiple and subjective, mentally constructed by individuals

Epistemologic (How is the inquirer related to those being researched?)

The inquirer interacts with those being researched; findings are creation of the interactive process

Axiologic (What is the role of Values in the inquiry?)

Subjectivity and values are inevitable and desirable

Methodologic (How is knowledge obtained?)

Inductive process; emphasis on entirely of some phenomenon, holistic; emerging interpretations grounded in participants’ experiences; flexible design; context-bound; emphasis on narrative information

Qualitative analysis

Uses deductive reasoning Systematic Uses control Uses measurements Researchers gather empirical evidence

(objective in nature) Information gathered is usually (but not

always) quantitative/numerical Uses statistical analysis Cannot be used to answer moral or

ethical questions

NATURALISTIC METHOD – attempt to deal with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly. Investigations place a heavy emphasis on

understanding the human experience as it is lived.

Uses inductive reasoning Used for theory development Approach is flexible Always takes place in the field Concurrent collection and analysis of data Gathers rich and in-depth information

(subjective in nature) Report is written in narrative form Involves small group of people or subjects Cannot be used to answer moral or

ethical questions

People who are being studied Quantitative – subjects,

study participants, respondents

Qualitative – informants, key informants, study participants

Sample – composed of the people being studied

Person who undertakes the research Quantitative – researcher,

investigator, scientist Qualitative – researcher,

investigator

Research Settings – specific places where data collection occurs Quantitative – laboratory

setting, (sometimes) field settings Example: Pierce and

Clancy (2001) studied the effects of hypoxia on diaphragm activity in anesthetized rats.

Qualitative – naturalistic setting/field Example: Carlisle (2000)

studied the search for meaning in the care giving experience among informal carers of people living with HIV and AIDS. The researcher gathered in-depth information from carers in their homes and in HIV/AIDS org.

Theory – systematic, abstract explanation of some aspect of reality

Example: Nightingale’s Environmental Nursing Theory

Conceptual Frameworks/Models – interrelated concepts or abstractions assembled together in a rational scheme by virtue of their relevance to a common theme.

Example: Betty Neuman's Health Care Systems Model

Pieces of information obtained in the course of investigation

Research directions are not always at the full discretion of the researcher. Practicalities include:

Appropriateness of the topic Your ability to get supervisory support Funding opportunities and commitments

32

An ‘angle’ for your research can come from insights stemming from:

personal experience theory observations contemporary issues engagement with the literature

33

Narrowing, clarifying, and even redefining your questions is essential to the research process.

Forming the right ‘questions’ should be seen as an iterative process that is informed by reading and doing at all stages.

34

35

36

Attraction to opposite sex

School ridicule

Peers

Media

Parents

Diet ads

You’reso pretty!!

Desire to be popular

Do parents teach their daughters that worth is dependent

on external beauty?

Compliments

Thin TV Stars Magazine

Models

Poor Self Image in Young Girls

Size of ‘stars’is newsworthy

Weight obsessed mother

You look so nice in that!

Do young girls have an unrealistic perception of normal?

Hypotheses are designed to express relationships between variables. If this is the nature of your question, a hypothesis can add to your research

If your question is more descriptive or explorative, generating a hypothesis may not be appropriate

37

A hypothesis may not be appropriate if: You do not have a hunch or educated guess

about a particular situation You do not have a set of defined variables. Your question centres on phenomenological

description (see Chapter 9) Your question centres on an ethnographic study

of a cultural group (see Chapter 9)  Your aim is to engage in, and research, the

process of collaborative change (see Chapter 10)

38

Is the question right for me?

Will the question hold my interest? Can I manage any potential

biases/subjectivities I may have?

39

 Is the question right for the field?

Will the findings be considered significant? Will it make a contribution?

40

Is the question well articulated?

Are the terms well-defined? Are there any unchecked assumptions?

 

41

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three 42

Is the question doable?

Can information be collected in an attempt to answer the question?

Do I have the skills and expertise necessary to access this information? If not, can the skills be developed?

Will I be able to get it all done within my time constraints? Are costs likely to exceed my budget? Are there any potential ethics problems?

 

43

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three 44

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three 45

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage. Chapter Three 46

Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, 2003

Copyright ©2004 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.

Thompson, C. et al. Evid Based Nurs 2004;7:68-72

The cognitive continuum.

Are plans that tell a researcher

how data are to be collected, from whom data are to be collected, how data will be analyzed to answer

specific research questions.

Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numeric data are used.

Qualitative research is a systematic approach used to describe and promote understanding of human experiences such as pain

United States:

Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR)

Department of Health & Human Services

http://www.ahcpr.gov/

Developed many clinical guidelines to direct the EBM movement.

Does the question get the tick of approval from those in the know?

Does my supervisor think I am on the right track?

Do ‘experts’ in the field think my question is relevant/ important/ doable?

53