1

Information

Processing

Module 21

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Memory OverviewEncoding: Getting Information In How We Encode What We Encode

Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Working/Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues

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Memory

Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself.

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Figure 7.1: Basic Memory Processes

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Studying Memory: Information Processing

Models

Keyboard(Encoding)

Disk(Storage)

Monitor(Retrieval)

Sequential Process How Memory Works Nova

• 21 13. According to the information-processing view of memory, the first stage in memory processing involves (AP99)

• (A) Retrieval• (B) Storage• (C) Rehearsal• (D) Encoding• (E) Transfer

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7

Information Processing Model

Three Stages of Memory

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Modifications to the Three-Stage Model

1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.

2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.

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Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active

processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information

retrieved from long-term memory

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Encoding: Getting Information In

How We Encode

1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.

2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

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Automatic Processing

We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the

following:

1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.

2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.

3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen to you.

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Effortful Processing

Committing novel information to

memory requires effort just like

learning a concept from a textbook.

Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.

Spencer G

rant/ Photo E

dit

© B

ananastock/ Alam

y

13

Rehearsal

Effortful learning usually requires

rehearsal or conscious

repetition.

Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ

Hermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)

http://ww

w.isbn3-540-21358-9.de

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Rehearsal

The more times the nonsense syllables

were practiced on Day 1,

the fewer repetitions were required to

remember them on Day 2.

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Memory Effects

1. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.

2. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

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Encoding: Serial Position Effect

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What We Encode Overview

1. Encoding by meaning2. Encoding by images3. Encoding by organization

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Encoding Meaning

Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with

what we already know or imagine.

Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better

recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

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Visual Encoding

Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially

when combined with semantic encoding.

Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

Both photos: H

o/AP Photo

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Encoding

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Mnemonics

Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in

aiding memory.

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Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide

them into categories and subcategories.

Organizing Information for Encoding

1. Chunking2. Hierarchies

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Chunking

Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.

1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1

If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together

and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.

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Chunking

Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember

it.

HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract

ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

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Encoding: Chunking Organized information is more easily recalled

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Hierarchy

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided

into categories and subcategories.

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Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

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Storage: Retaining Information Overview

Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown

below:SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

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Sensory Memory

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

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Whole Report

The exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.

R G TF M QL Z S

50 ms (1/20 second)

“Recall”R T M Z

(44% recall)

Sperling (1960)

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Partial Report

Low Tone

Medium Tone

High Tone

“Recall”J R S

(100% recall)

Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally

thought.

50 ms (1/20 second)

S X TJ R SP K Y

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Time Delay

“Recall”N _ _

(33% recall)

TimeDelay

50 ms (1/20 second)

A D IN L VO G H

Low Tone

Medium Tone

High Tone

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Sensory Memory

The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.

20

40

60

80

Perc

en

t R

ecog

niz

ed

0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00

Time (Seconds)

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Sensory Memories

Iconic0.5 sec. long

Echoic3-4 sec. long

Hepatic< 1 sec. long

The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.

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Working Memory

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

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Working Memory Capacity

Working memory, the new name for short-term

memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short

duration (20 seconds).

The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two(1956).

George Miller

M U T G I K T L R S Y P

Ready?

37

38

Chunking

F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

You already know the capacity of the working memory may be increased by

“chunking.”

FBI TWA CIA IBM

But you didn’t know that you can handle

4 chunks

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Duration

Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by

manipulating rehearsal.

CH??

The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.

CHJMKTHIJ547

547544541…

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Working Memory Duration

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Long-Term Memory

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

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Long-Term Memory

Essentially unlimited capacity store.

R.J. E

rwin/ Photo R

esearchers

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Memory Feats

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Memory Stores Quick Look

FeatureSensoryMemory

Working Memory

LTM

Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic

Capacity Unlimited 7±2 Chunks Very Large

Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years

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Storing Memories in the Brain

1. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.

2. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze. Mapping Memory

in the brain

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Synaptic Changes

In Aplysia, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from

neurons increased after conditioning.P

hoto: Scientific A

merican

Link to Aplysia at nova

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Synaptic Changes

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic

enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002).

An increase in neurotransmitter

release or receptors on the receiving neuron

indicates strengthening of synapses.

Both P

hotos: From

N. T

oni et al., Nature, 402, N

ov. 25 1999. Courtesy of D

ominique M

uller

Link to Memory in action at Nova 3:07

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Stress Hormones & MemoryFlashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.

Scott Barbour/ G

etty Images

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Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories

Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know

and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual

does not know or declare what she knows.

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Hippocampus

Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbicsystem that processes explicit memories.

Weidenfield &

Nicolson archives

Clive Wearing at AM

Clive on YT

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Fig. 7-23, p. 286

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No New Memories

Amnesias

AnterogradeAmnesia

(HM)

Retrograde amnesia

Surgery

After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered

everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this

anterograde amnesia.

Memory Intact

How memory works at Nova 10:15

Memory intact

Surgery

No old memories

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Implicit & Explicit Memory

HM is unable to make new memories that aredeclarative (explicit), but he can form newmemories that are procedural (implicit).

CBA

Towers of Hanoi Link

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Cerebellum

Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.

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Retrieval: Getting Information Out

Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.

Spanky’s Yearbook A

rchive

Spanky’s Yearbook A

rchive

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Recognition

In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A

multiple-choice test requires recognition.)

1. Name the capital of France.

a. Brusselsb. Romec. Londond. Paris

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Recall

In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the

blank test requires recall.)

1. The capital of Louisiana is ______.

New Orleans….

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Retrieval Cues

Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like

anchors that help retrieve memory.

Fire Truck

truck

red

fire

heatsmoke

smellwater

hose

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Information is retrieved from memory through spreading activation

Semantic Networks

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Priming

To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first

activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

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Memory Test #2• Memorize the following words (List 1)

• read, pages, letters, school, study, reading, stories, sheets, cover, pen, pencil, magazine, paper, words

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Memory Test #2• Now…write down any words from the

following list which were on the List 1:

• house, pencil, apple, shoe, book, flag, rock, train, ocean, hill, music, water, glass, school

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Memory Test #2• Did you say that "book" was on list 1? Only

pencil and school were on list 1.

• Why do so many people think “book” was on List 1?

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Memory Test #3• Memorize the following words (List 1)

• sheets, pillow, mattress, blanket, comfortable, room, dream, lay, chair, rest, tired, night, dark, time

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Memory Test #3• Now…write down any words from the

following list which were on the List 1:

• door, tree, eye, song, pillow, juice, orange, radio, rain, car, sleep, cat, dream, eat

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Memory Test #3• Did you say that "sleep" was on list 1? Only

pillow and dream were on List 1• Why do so many people think “sleep” was on

List 1?• Constructive Memory • This is an example of a false memory. Using

semantic encoding is good, but it can lead to semantic errors. Many people get a “false positive” error when a word shows up in List 2 that is semantically similar to many words in List 1.

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Context Effects

Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while

they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden &

Baddeley, 1975).

Fred McC

onnaughey/ Photo Researchers

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Context Effects

After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when

retested in the same context rather than in a different context (Rovee-Collier, 1993).

Courtesy of C

arolyn Rovee-C

ollier, R

utgers University

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Déjà VuDéjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an

earlier similar experience. ©

The N

ew Y

orker Collection, 1990. L

eo Cullum

from

cartoonbank.com. A

ll Rights R

eserved

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Retrieving Incomplete Knowledge

• Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon– “The answer is on the tip-of-my-tongue… It

starts with Q….”

• Feeling-of-knowing Experience – If you don’t know the answer, how likely is it that you could recognize the answer? People are good at this. They “know it” but can’t retrieve it.

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Moods and Memories

We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood (state-

dependent memory). Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures

Our memories are mood-congruent.Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.

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EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY(7th Edition in Modules)

David Myers

PowerPoint SlidesAneeq Ahmad, Garber

editsHenderson State

University

Worth Publishers, © 2008