1 logic notations frege’s begriffsschrift (concept writing) - 1879: assert p not p if p then q for...
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Logic Notations• Frege’s Begriffsschrift (concept writing) -
1879:
assert P
not P
if P then Q
for every x, P(x)
P
P
QP
P(x)x
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Logic Notations• Frege’s Begriffsschrift (concept writing) -
1879:
Every ball is red
Some ball is red
red(x)xball(x)
red(x)xball(x)
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Logic Notations• Algebraic notation - Peirce, 1883:
– Universal quantifier: xPx
– Existential quantifier: xPx
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Logic Notations• Algebraic notation - Peirce, 1883:
Every ball is red:
x(ballx —< redx)
Some ball is red:
x(ballx • redx)
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Logic Notations• Peano’s and later notation:
Every ball is red:
x (ball(x) red(x))
Some ball is red:
x (ball(x) red(x))
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Logic Notations• Existential graphs - Peirce, 1897:
– Existential quantifier: a link structure of bars, called line of identity, represents
– Conjunction: the juxtaposition of two graphs represents
– Negation: an oval enclosure represents
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Existential GraphsIf a farmer owns a donkey, then he beats it:
farmer owns donkey
beats
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Existential Graphs• EG’s rules of inferences:
– Erasure: in a positive context, any graph may be erased.
– Insertion: in a negative context, any graph may be inserted.
– Iteration: a copy of a graph may be written in the same context or any nested context.
– Deiteration: any graph may be erased if a copy of its occurs in the same context or a containing context.
– Double negation: two negations with nothing between them may be erased or inserted.
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Existential GraphsProve: ((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s)) is valid
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Existential GraphsProve: ((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s))
Erasure: in a positive context, any graph may be erased.
Insertion: in a negative context, any graph may be inserted.
Iteration: a copy of a graph may be written in the same context or any nested context.
Deiteration: any graph may be erased if a copy of its occurs in the same context or a containing context.
Double negation: two negations with nothing between them may be erased or inserted.
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Existential GraphsProve: ((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s))
Erasure: in a positive context, any graph may be erased.
Insertion: in a negative context, any graph may be inserted.
Iteration: a copy of a graph may be written in the same context or any nested context.
Deiteration: any graph may be erased if a copy of its occurs in the same context or a containing context.
Double negation: two negations with nothing between them may be erased or inserted.
rp sq
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Existential GraphsProve: ((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s))
Erasure: in a positive context, any graph may be erased.
Insertion: in a negative context, any graph may be inserted.
Iteration: a copy of a graph may be written in the same context or any nested context.
Deiteration: any graph may be erased if a copy of its occurs in the same context or a containing context.
Double negation: two negations with nothing between them may be erased or inserted.
rp sq
rp sq
rp
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Existential GraphsProve: ((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s))
Erasure: in a positive context, any graph may be erased.
Insertion: in a negative context, any graph may be inserted.
Iteration: a copy of a graph may be written in the same context or any nested context.
Deiteration: any graph may be erased if a copy of its occurs in the same context or a containing context.
Double negation: two negations with nothing between them may be erased or inserted.
rp sq
rp
rp sq
rp q
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Existential GraphsProve: ((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s))
Erasure: in a positive context, any graph may be erased.
Insertion: in a negative context, any graph may be inserted.
Iteration: a copy of a graph may be written in the same context or any nested context.
Deiteration: any graph may be erased if a copy of its occurs in the same context or a containing context.
Double negation: two negations with nothing between them may be erased or inserted.
rp sq
p q sqr
rp sq
rp q
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Existential GraphsProve: ((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s))
Erasure: in a positive context, any graph may be erased.
Insertion: in a negative context, any graph may be inserted.
Iteration: a copy of a graph may be written in the same context or any nested context.
Deiteration: any graph may be erased if a copy of its occurs in the same context or a containing context.
Double negation: two negations with nothing between them may be erased or inserted.
rp sq
p q sqr
rp sq
p q r s
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Existential GraphsProve: ((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s))
rp sq rp sq
rp
rp sq
rp q
rp sq
p q sqr
rp sq
p q r s
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Existential Graphs• -graphs: propositional logic
• -graphs: first-order logic
• -graphs: high-order and modal logic
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Semantic Networks• Since the late 1950s dozens of different
versions of semantic networks have been proposed, with various terminologies and notations.
• The main ideas:
– For representing knowledge in structures
– The meaning of a concept comes from the ways it is connected to other concepts
– Labelled nodes representing concepts are connected by labelled arcs representing relations
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Semantic Networks
Mammal
Person
Owen
Nose
Red Liverpool
isa
instance
has-part
uniform color
team
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Semantic Networks
John
H1 H2
height
Bill
heightgreater-than
1.80
value
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Semantic Networks
Dog
d b
isa
Bite
assailant
Mail-carrier
m
isa
isa
victim
The dog bit the mail carrier
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Semantic Networks
Dog
d b
isa
Bite
assailant
Mail-carrier
m
isa
isa
victim
Every dog has bitten a mail-carrier
g
GS
isa
form
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Conceptual Graphs• Sowa, J.F. 1984. Conceptual Structures:
Information Processing in Mind and Machine.
• CG = a combination of Perice’s EGs and semantic networks.
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Conceptual Graphs• 1968: term paper to Marvin Minsky at
Harvard.
• 1970's: seriously working on CGs
• 1976: first paper on CGs
• 1981-1982: meeting with Norman Foo
• 1984: the book coming out
• CG homepage: http://conceptualgraphs.org/
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Simple Conceptual Graphs
CAT: tuna MAT: *On1 2
concept
relation
concept type (class)
relation type
individual referent
generic referent
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Ontology• Ontology: the study of "being" or existence
• An ontology = "A catalog of types of things that are assumed to exist in a domain of interest" (Sowa, 2000)
• An ontology = "The arrangement of kinds of things into types and categories with a well-defined structure" (Passin 2004)
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Ontologytop-level categories
domain-specific
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Ontology
Being
Substance Accident
Property Relation
Inherence Directedness
Movement IntermediacyQuantityQuality
Aristotle's categories
Containment
Activity Passivity Having Situated
Spatial Temporal
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Ontology
Geographical-Feature
Area Line
On-Land On-Water
Road
Border
Mountain
Terrain
Block
Geographical categories
Railroad
Country
Wetland
Point
Power-Line
River
Heliport
Town
Dam
Bridge
Airstrip
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Ontology
Relation
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Ontology
ANIMAL
FOOD
Eat
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Ontology
ANIMAL
FOOD
Eat
PERSON: john CAKE: *Eat
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CG Projection
PERSON: john PERSON: *Has-Relative1 2
PERSON: john WOMAN: maryHas-Wife1 2
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Nested Conceptual Graphs
CAT: tuna MAT: *OnNeg
CAT: tuna MAT: *On
It is not true that cat Tuna is on a mat.
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Nested Conceptual Graphs
CAT: * MAT: *On
CAT: *
coreference link
Every cat is on a mat.
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Nested Conceptual Graphs
PERSON: julian PLANET: marsFly-To
Poss
Past
Julian could not fly to Mars.
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Nested Conceptual Graphs
SAILOR: *MarryWant
Believe
PERSON: mary
PERSON: tom
PERSON:*
Tom believes that Mary wants to marry a sailor.
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Exercises• Reading:
Sowa, J.F. 2000. Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations (Section 1.1: history of logic).
Way, E.C. 1994. Conceptual Graphs – Past, Present, and Future. Procs. of ICCS'94.