1. NOUNS & PRONOUNS

NOUNS

A. 'Common nouns'can be countable or uncountable.

a car; three cars (countable) some oil; music (uncountable)

Countable nouns like chair, idea can be used with a/an, and have plurals.

Uncountable nouns like water, intelligence CANT BE used with a/an, and have noplurals.

Some English nouns are uncountable, although they may have countable equivalents inotherlanguages, e.g. ADVISE ( NOT NORMALY an advise )

eg. uncountable nouns ;:. accommodation, equipment, information, luggage, news.

countable nouns used like uncountable :: idea , chance, difference, point, reason,difficulty ,question and change can be used with some, any and much, rather likeuncountables.

NOTES

different meanings/uses Some uncountable nouns can be countable with othermeanings.

He lacks experience. I had one or tlvo strange experiences in Rome last year.

And some uncountable abstract nouns can be used with a/an when their reference is defined.

an extensive experience of tropical medicine. a knowledge of languages.

making countable nouns uncountable Countable nouns can sometimes be used likeuncountables if there is an idea of quantity or mass.

We've got another ten metres of wall to paint.

making uncountable nouns countable With many uncountables, we use particular nouns to mean'a piece of' or 'a certain amount of

e.g. a bar of soap, a flash of lightning, a stroke of luck, a grain of rice, a piece of research. For otherexamples, see dictionary

mixed singular and plural

group nouns In British English, singular words for groups of people and organizations. e.g. team, family,choir, government ,bank) are often used with plural verbs and pronouns.

My family are furious with me. They think I have let them down

This happens particularly when we are thinking about personal kinds of activity. Compare:

The team really want to win the cup this season.A rugby union team consists offfteen players.

a number of, the majority of etc + plural noun have plural verbs and pronouns.

A number of people have criticised our decision.

The majority of his students are pleased with their courses.

plural expressions of quantity are often treated as singular.

Thirty miles is a long way to run.

We often use a/an before adjective + plural expression of quantity.

I waited for a good two hours. We'll need another four tables.

Common fixed expressions with and arc often treated like singular nouns.

Toast and marmalade isn't enough for breakfast, in my opinion

singular noun, plural modifying expression When a singular noun is modified by a pluralexpression, the verb is normally singular.

A good knowledge of three languages is needed for the job

one of; more than one Note these structures:One of my friends is getting married. (Not One of-::.-are . ..)More than one person is/are going to be disappointed.

people doing/having the same thing To talk about several people each doing or having

thesame thing, we normally use a plural noun for the repeated idea.The students can use dictionaries. (more natural than ... a dictionary.)We almost always use plurals after possessives in this case.Tell the kids to blow their noses. (Nor ...their nose:) Six people lost their lives.

NOTES

After one of the ,., who etc singular and plural verbs are both common.

She’s one of the few women who has/have climbed Everest in winter.

After any/none/neither/either of, singular or plural verbs are possible.

None of my friends know(s) where I am.

subject and complement If a verb is a long distance from the subject, peoplesometimes make it agree with a following complement instead of the subject, but this isnot generally considered correct. Compare:

The biggest problem is the holiday dates. (Nor . are the..)

The most interesting thing on television last weelg in my own opinion, was/were thetennis championships. (Was is more correct.)

A plural verb is, however, common in structures beginning What.

What we need is/are more people like Jeannie.

countries Plural names of countries have singular verbs.The United States is coming out of recession.

here's etc In informal speech we often use here's, there\ and where\before a plural noun.Here’s your gloves. There's two policemen outside. Where's those letters?

NOUN + NOUN OR PREPOSITION STRUCTURE

Revise the basics. A noun + noun phrase is often simply like a single noun whichhappens to have two parts. Common short combinations are often written without aspace. Compare:

Iight headlight ceiling light cloth washcloth table clothThe first noun is often like an object (of a verb or preposition). It is normally singular,even if it has a plural meaning.

a shoe shop = 'a shop that sells shoes' a toothbrush = 'a brush for teeth'

a war film = 'a film about war'

Remember: the first noun describes the second, not the other way round. A rqce horseis a kind of horse; a horse race is a kind of race. Chocolate milk is milk; milk chocolateis chocolate.noun + noun + noun ... Three or more nouns can be combined. This is often done innewspaper headlines to save space.

business administration course. DRUGS BOSS ARREST DRAMA.

measurement expressions We often use noun + noun in expressions of measurementbeginning with a number. We put a hyphen (-) between the number and the measure.

less common combinations: noun + noun not used The noun + noun structure ismostly used for very common well-known combinations. For less commoncombinations, we prefer other structures - for example a preposition phrase. Compare:

the kitchen table (a common kind of table) a table for the prizes (not a prize table)road signs signs of tiredness (Not tiredness signs)a love letter a letter from the insurance companya history book a book about George Washington

NOTES

how much/many We don’t normally use noun + noun in expressions that say howmuch/many of something we are talking about.

a piece of paper a bunch of flowers a blade of grass

Note the difference between a beer bottle, a matchbox etc (containers), and a bottle ofbeer, a box of matches etc (containers with their contents).

noun + noun or possessive structure We don't normally use noun + noun to talk about

particular people or organisations and their possessions or actions. Instead we use apossessive structuremy father\ housethe President’s arrival

first noun plural In a few noun + noun combinations, the first noun is plural.

antiques dealer sports car drugs problemThis is especially the case when the first noun is mainly or only used in the plural, or hasa different meaning in the singular.

accounts department customs officer clothes shopglasses case savings account arms trade

possessive structure or other structures

basics: forms Singular possessive nouns end in 's, plural possessives end in s', irregularplural possessives end in 's.

my sister's husband my parents' house my children's school

Names ending in -s sometimes have a possessive in s', especially in classical andliterary references, but 's is more common.

Sophocles'plays Dickens'novels James'suncle.

A phrase of several words can have a possessive form.

Ioe and Ann's children the man in the downstairs Jlat s dog

Several nouns can be joined by possessives.

Iane's mother's bank manager's daughter

belonging characteristics: possessive or preposition structure We use the possessivestructure most often to talk about something that belongs to, or is a characteristic of aperson, group, organisation, country or animal. The first noun is often like a subject.

my boss's car (My boss has a car.) Ann's idea (Ann had an idea.)Mary's kindness (Mary has been kind.) The cat's milk (The cat drinks the milk.)

NOTESTime expressions often use possessive structures.

yesterday's news last Saturday's match this evening's programmes

Possessives are also possible in expressions saying how long something lasts.

a day's journey three weeks'holiday four months' notice

at the doctor's etc In some common expressions, the second noun is left out.

I've been at the doctor's (surgery). I'II see you at Pat's (house).

The names of many shops and businesses have this structure, often with noapostrophe.

Smith’s or smiths Harrods Barclays

Instead of a complex possessive we may prefer a preposition structure.

the son of the man we met in Borneo RATHERTHAN the man we met in Borneo's son

nouns for activities: using have, make, do etc

1.English often uses nouns to refer to actions. These nouns often have the same formas verbs: for example a swim, a wash, a guess. They are especially common in aninformal style, and are often introduced by general-purpose'verbs like have, take, make,give, go for, especially when we are talking about casual or unsystematic activity.

I like to have a swim every day. I'm going to have a wash.

I don't know, but I'lI have/make a guess.

I'll have a think and get back to you. (informal BrE)

Just take a look at yourself. If it won't start, give it a kick

2 Go for is common with nouns for physical activity

Let’s go for a walk. I always go for a long run on Sundays3 We can use -fug forms in a similar way after do, usually with a determiner like some,any etc

I need to do some tidying. I do a bit of painting in my spare time.

a note on gender: he, she or it?

animals Pet animals are usually he/him/his or she/her andwho rather than it/its/which.

Can you fnd the cat and put him out? She had an old dog, Susie, who always slept onher bed.

countries In modern English, countries are most often it(s), though she/her is alsocommon.

Canada has decided to increase its/her trade with Russia.

Boats are it(s) for most people, but may be she/her for people who work with them.

I arrived too late for the ferry and missed it. Abandon ship - shei sinking!

Cars and other vehicles are it(s) except for some devoted owners.

The man who sold it to me said it had only done 20,000 miles.Now that I've put the new engine in, she goes like a bomb.

positions and jobs In modern usage, people often prefer to avoid specifically masculineor feminine names for positions and jobs.

She has just been elected chair of the committee. (preferred to chairman)

Ann wants to work as a flight attendant. (preferred to air hostess/stewardess)

A poet I like is Wendy Cope. (preferred to poetess)

he or she We can use singular they/them/their to avoid clumsy sequences ofhe or she, him or her etc.

If a would-be tourist wishes to apply for a visa, they should take their passport to thelocal consulate

(Simpler than ... he or she should take his or her passport ...)

structures after nouns

complements Many nouns, especially abstract nouns, can have complements whichcomplete their meaning. Preposition structures, infinitives and that-clauses arecommon.

your criticism of the plan. a desire for more involvementthe need to close our Scottish branch a wish to changea feeling that something was wrong his belief that he is always right

For the prepositions used after particular nouns,

If an infinitive has its own subject, we use a structure with for .

There\ no need for you to stay. They had a plan for me to study medicine.

-ing forms Prepositional complements may include -ing forms.

the advantages of being single their pleasure in working together

kinds of complement Some nouns can have more than one kind of complement.

the need to find investors the need for more investment

the reason for the changes no reason to get angry the reason why I Ieft.

But not all nouns can have all kinds of complement.

the thought of retiring ( BUT NOT the thought to retire )

preposition + conjunction A preposition may be followed by a conjunction.

We discussed the question of whether there was a needfor more investment.

We had a discussion about how to improve communications.

But prepositions are not followed directly by that-clauses

news of his plans news that he was leaving

Note that related nouns, verbs and adjectives may have different kinds of complement.

I haye no intention ofresigning. I do not intend to resign.a discussion about finance We discussed finance.emphasis on quality control They emphasised quality control.pride in his work proud of his work

personal pronouns

Revise the basics After be, we normally use object pronouns: me,her etc. I, she etc arepossible, but they are very formal and unusual.

'Hello. It's me.' 'Which is your sister?' 'That's her in the blue dress.'

Me, her etc are also normal in informal short answers and similar structures.

'We're goinghome early.' 'Me too.' 'Who said that?' 'Her.'

In a more formal style, we prefer f etc + auxiliary in short answers etc.'I am too.' / 'So am I.' 'She did.'

as, than, except, buf (meaning 'except') The grammar is similar after cs and than.

You're nearly as tired as me. I think I sing better than her.

Less informal: .. . as I am. ... than she does.

And we always use me,her etc after except and but.Everybody was in time except us. I'II go out with anybody but him.

It was me/I that ... After It is/was etc, there are two possibilities.

It's me that's responsible. (informal)It is I who am responsible. (very formal)A more neutral alternative is I am the one who/that is ...

double subjects and objects It is usual, and considered more polite, to mentiononeself last in a double subject or object.

You and I need to talk. (more normal than I and you .. .)I've got tickets for you and me. (more polite than ... for me and you.)

In informal speech, me, her etc are often used in double subjects (especially me).lohn and me saw a great Jilm last night.

I is also used quite often in double objects.Between you and I, I don't think we're getting anywhere.

These uses of l and me etc do not occur in formal writing. Many people feel they areincorrect in speech (especially l in double objects), though they are common instandard usage.

NOTES

noun + pronoun In written English and formal speech, one subject is enough: we dontrepeat a noun with a pronoun.My parents are retired now.However, structures like this are possible in conversation.

identifying Remember that we use it, this or that when we name people.'Who\ the woman in red?' 'It's Claire Lewis.(on the phone) Hi, this is Mike. Isn't that Dr Andrews?

Adjectives can be used with pronouns in a few fixed expressions.Cleveryou! Luckyyou!

We, us and you can be used before nouns.We women know things that you men will never understand.

What's the government doingfor us workers, then?

He who ... etc These structures are unusual in modern English.The person who takes the risk should get the profit.

reflexives (myself etc); each other / one another

Revise the basics Reflexives have two uses:

1. for an object that is the same person or thing as the subject

He talks to himself the whole time.The computer switches itself of after half an hour.

2. for emphasis: to say'that person/thing and nobody/nothing else

I got a letter from the Minister himself.The restaurant itself is beautful, but the food isn't much good'Remember the difference between -selves and each other.They write to each other every week.One another can be used instead of each other. Thete is no important difference

English and other languages Note that some verbs (e.g.shave,hurry) are reflexive in some languages,but not in English unless there is a special reason. Compare:.

After prepositions, we use personal pronouns unless reflexives are really necessary.She always takes her dog with her when she goes out.But He's deeply in love with himself.

NOTES

possessives Reflexives have no possessive forms. Instead, we use my own etc.'Do you need a taxi ?' 'No, thanks, I'Il use my own car.

But each other / one another have possessives.The twins often wear each other's clothes.

elegant' reflexives Sometimes reflexives are used instead of personal pronounssimply because people feel they sound good: more eiegant, or important, or polite.This shouldn't be difficult for a clever person like yourself.'Who's going to be there?' 'Gary, Rosanne and myselfSome people feel this usage is incorrect; it is better to avoid it in formal writing.

In itselfis a useful expression for contrasting theory and practice.There's nothing wrong with the ides in itself; it just won't work in our situation.

subjects Each other I One another are not normally used as subjects, but thissometimes happens in an informal style.

They listened carefully to what each other said.(More normal: They each listened carefully to what the other said.)

get Note the use of get + past participle in some structures which have a reflexive kindof meaning, especially in an informal style.I can get washed, shaved and dressed in five minutes if I'm really in a hurry'They got married in the village church.I always get lost when I go walking in the mountains

adjectives and adverbs

comparative structures

older than more reliable than the biggest most unusualas much as less interesting than the least effective moreand more

conjunctions, prepositions, adjectives and adverbs

as everybody expected like a bird different from the same asso easy such a fool rather poor quite remark ablevery late too early cool enough a lot not much howfast?

adjective or adverb?

friendly etc A few words ending in -ly are normally adjectives, not adverbs.Examples:costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely,lively,lonely, lovely, silly, ugly, unlikely.

There are no adverbs friendly/friendlily etc; the ideas have to be expresseddifferently.

She smiled in a friendly way. or She gave a friendly smile. ( NOT she smiledfriendly)

Daily, weekly, monthly, yearly and early canbe both adjectives and adverbs.

adjective complements Adjectives are used after link verbs (e.g. be, seem,sound,feel), because they describe the subject rather than an action.

That sounds right (Not that sounfd rightly) I felt angry

This can happen after other verbs, when we describe the subject orobject, not the action. Compare:

He fell awkwardly and twisted his shoulder.He fell unconscious on the floor.I painted the wall badly.I painted the wall white

special cases. Some adjective forms are used informally as adverbs, and somecommon adverbs have two forms with different uses

He talks real funny.How high can you jump?We think very highly of her.

adjectives: order

This is a complicated (and not very important) point. There is a lot ofvariation in usage; general tendencies are as follows. For fuller information,consult a comprehensive grammar.

Adjectives (and nouns used like adjectives) for colour, origin/place,material and purpose go in that order before nouns. Other words comebefore these.

OTHER COLOUR ORIGIN/PLACE MATERIAL PURPOSEa big green Italian glass flowercheap brown leather football

Opinions often come before descriptions

boring old books a sweet little girl cool new clothes

First, next and last usually come before numbers and few.

the first three weeks (MORE Normal THEN /he three frst weeks)the first few miles the next six lessons my last two holidays

Note: And is used with adjectives before a noun if we are talking about

difierent parts of something, or if we are saying that something belongs todifferent categories.a green and black dress a national and international problem

After a noun, and is normal before the last of two or more adjectives.He was like a winter’S day: short, dark and dirty

position of adjectives

Most adjectives can go either before a noun or after a link verb like be,seem, look. But some usually only go in one of these places.

mainly before nouns elder and eldest, old (= 'having lasted a long time'),little (especially in British English) and live (='not dead'). Compare:.

my elder sister is a piIot 'She’s three years older than me.She's a very old friend. (Nor THE same as She's very old. She might be quiteyoung.)

Intensifying (emphasising) adjectives complete, mere, sheer,total etc normally only go before

He is mere child.It was a total failure.

mainly after linkverbs afloat, afraid, alight, alike, alive, alone,asleep, awake. Compare:The baby’s asleep. A sleeping baby.She was afraid. A frightened woman.

WeII and ill are most common after link verbs. Compare:

I'm not feeling well. He’s a very healthy man.Her mother's ill. It must be hard to spend your life looking after a sickperson.

Complex adjective phrases usually come after nouns, mostoften in relative clauses.

We need people (who are) prepared to travel.

But we can split expressions beginning with diferent, similar, the same, next,Iast, first,second etc, dfficult, easy and comparatives and superlatives'

different ideas from yours the next train to arrive an easy problem to solve

NOTESfixed phrases In a few fixed phrases (mostly titles) the adjectivefollows the noun.Secretary General court martial (= 'military court') PoetLaureatePresident Elect Attorney General GodAlmighty!Note also the order in six feet tall, two years old etc; somethingnice, nothing new etc'

participles used as adjectives

When we use –ing forms as adjectives, they are called' present participlesWe can also use past participles (e.g. closed, broken) as adjectives. (Thenames 'present' and 'past' participle are misleading; the forms have noparticular time reference.)

I imagined that I was a falling leaf. Will you glue this broken chair?

Compound adjectives can be made with participles. We use hlphens (-)before nouns.quick-growing trees home-made cake a recently-built house

Note the word order in these compound adjectives when the participle hasan object.

French- speaking Canadians

very or (very) much When a past participle is used as an adjective (often to

talk about feelings and reactions), we can emphasise it with very.

a very frightened animal. She looked very surprised.

When the word is part of a passive verb, we prefer much or very much.

He's much imitated by other writers.Britain’s trade position has been very much weakened by inflation.

The difference between the two structures is not always clear, and it isoften necessary to consult a good dictionary to see how particular pastparticiples are used.

NOTES

the problems discussed etc Not all past participles can be used asadjectives. But note the common use of a past participle after a noun.

I didn't understand the problems discussed.The people questioned were all released,

active past participles Past participles used as adjectives normally have apassive meaning. A broken chair is a chair that has been broken. But thereare some exceptions - for example, an escaped prisoner is a prisoner whohas escaped, Other exceptions:

a retired general/teacher etc a fallen leaf/tree etc a vanishedcivilisation etca collapsed building/lung etc developed countries etc advancedstudents etca grown-up son etc faded colours etc increased activity etc swollenankles etc

Some active past participles are only used in compounds, or after be.Examples

the recently-arrived train a well-read womana much-travelled man Where are you camped? Those days are gone.

short-haired etc-ed can also be added to nouns to make compoundadjectives like short-haired, long-sighted.

adjectives without nouns

well-known social groups We can use the + adjective to talk in generalabout some commonly recognised groups of people.

the young the old the rich the poor the sick the disabled the blind the deafthe mentally ill the homeless the unemployed the dead

These expressions are plural the blind means 'blind people in general'.Compare:

Perhaps the deaf have more problems in mainstream education than the blind.Some blind people have guide dogsI read to the blind woman upstairs most evenings.I was at school with a blind boy.

The expressions don't have possessives

In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is king.

We can't use all adjectives like this: we don’t say the selfish or the mean,.

The structure is also used with nationality words ending in -ch, -sh and -ese.

The Irish have a great musical tradition.but The Brazilians speak Portuguese.

Note: A very few singular adjectives are used without nouns to talk aboutindividuals.The body of the deceased (= 'the dead person') was found in the river'The accused refused to answer questions.Smith and jewell jointly received the prize, though in fact the former did the majority ofthe work and the latter contributed very little.

structures after adjectives

complements Many adjectives can have complements which completetheir meaning. Preposition structures, infinitives and that-clauses are

common.

critical of the plan. anxious to succeed sure that she was right-ing forms Prepositional complements may include -ing forms.

angry about having to stop

kinds of complement Some adjectives can have more than one kind ofcomplement.happy about the decision happy to be homeproud of being Scottish proud to know you ready for breakfast ready to stop

Too and enough + adjective often have infinitive complements.

He’s too old to change. Andy’s not good enough to play in goal.

If an infinitive has its own subject, we use a structure with for

I'm ready for Mr Ellis to give me his report. This is too heavy for one person to lift.

adverb position (1)

Adverb position depends on the tlpe of adverb, and some adverbs can go inmore than one position.Usage in this area is complicated; generaltendencies are as follows. For fuller information, consult a comprehensivereference grammar or usage guide.

Connecting adverbs and comment adverbs usually come at the beginningof a clause. Connecting adverbs join a clause to what came before;comment adverbs give the speaker's opinion.Then they went home. Next, we need to look at costs. However, lamesdisagreed.Stupidly, I forgot to thank Maggie. Fortunately nobody noticed the mistake.

Maybe and perhaps also usually come at the beginning.Maybe you're right. Perhaps we should think again.

Focusing (emphasising) adverbs most often go with the verb if they

emphasise words later in the sentence.They're even open today. I've only been here a month.But they can also go before the words that they emphasise.They're open even today. I've been here only a month.

Expressions that say how, where and when most often go at the end;usually in that order.They played brilliantly in Coventry on Saturday.Pam works in London on Wednesdays

We do not normally put these adverbs between a verb and its object.You speak japanese very well.Let's discuss the budget now.

NOTES

Adverbs of place and time can go at the beginning for emphasis.In Germany they do things quite diferently. On Monday I'll be back home.

After verbs of movement, we often put an expression of place first.They went outsiile slowly.

adverb position (2): with the verb

Adverbs that go in mid-position, with the verb, mostly express indefinitefrequency (e.g. always, often), certainty (e.g. definitely, probably) orcompleteness (e.g. partly, completely).Their exact position is usually:

- before one-word verbs - after the first auxiliary in more complex verbs- after am, are, is, was and were even if these are not auxiliaries.

I completely forgot to phone Maggie. Annie has ilefinitely decided to leave.They should never have been invited. John is usually at home in the evenings.

withnot Adverbs can come before or after not, depending on the meaning.Compare:I don't really like her. (mild dislike) I really don't like her. (strong dislike)She does not always welcome visitors. He’s probably not at home.emphatic position These adverbs can often be put earlier when verbs are

emphasised.He has certainly forgotten. (normal) He certainly HAS forgotten (emphatic)

NOTES

other positions Some adverbs of indefinite frequency can also go at thebeginning of sentences(e.g. often, occasionally, sometimes).

Sometimes I wonder what it! all about. Occasionally we have a weekend at home.This is not possible with always and never except in imperatives.He always forgets.Adverbs never normally separate the verb from the object.We ofien speak Spanish at home.

companson: as ... as

adverbs with as .. . as We can use various adverbial expressions before as ... as and not as/so . . . as.

just as happy nearly as big not nearly as/so intelligent not quite as/so cheapnothing like as/so interesting every bit as good almost as badalmost exactly as cold half as wide twice as long three times as heavy

dropping as The first as is sometimes dropped, especially in a poetic style.When thus he had spoken, the hot sun was setting,The streets of Laredo grew cold as the clay. (American folk song)

NOTES

As much/many as can suggest a large amount or number.His paintings can sell for as much as half a million dollars.There are as many as 50 students in some of the classes.Not so much as can be used when we say what is the real point.It was not sa much his appearance that I liked as his personality.Not so much as can also be used critically in the sense of 'not even'.

She didn't so much as say 'Thank you'.infinitives When we use as . .. as with infinitives, we sometimes drop fofrom the second.It’s as easy to do it now as (to) Ieave it tiII tomorrow.

-er and -esf or more and most?

Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y have comparatives and superlatives in-ier, est.happy - happier - happiest easy - easier – easiest

Some others can also have -er and -esf, especially those ending withunstressed syllables.narrow - narrower - narrowest simple - simpler - simplestclever - cleverer - cleverest quiet - quieter – quietest

With adjectives ending in -ing, -ful, -ed and -/ess, and some others, thestructure wilh more and most is the usual or only possibility.tiring - more tiring - most tiring hopeful - more hopeful - most hopful

To find the normal forms for a particular two-syllable adjective, check in agood dictionary.longer adjectives with -er, -esf Common adjectives llke unhappy, untidy(the opposites of two-syllable adjectives ending in -7) can have forms in -er,-est.She\ looking unhappier / more unhappy. He\ the untidiest / most untidy child!

Some compound adjectives can also have two forms.

more good-Iooking or better-Iooking most well-known OR best-known

Note:

One-syllable adjectives sometimes have more ard most: for example, whena comparative is not followed directly by than.The road's getting steadily steeper / more steep.And when we say that one description is more accurate than another, weuse more.

It’s more red than orange.Most is sometimes used in a formal style with long or short adjectives tomean 'verylThat's most kind of you.

Real, right, wrong and like always have more and most.You couldn't be more fight He’s more like his mother than his father.

Comparative adverbs normally have more and most, except for one-syllableadverbs like fast, soon, and early.more slowly but faster, sooner, earlier

double comparative structures

more and more We can use double comparatives to say that something ischanging.It's getting darker and darker.She drove more and more slowly

the ... the We use this structure with comparatives to say that thingschange or vary together. Note the word order (in both halves): the +comparative + subject + verb.The older I get, the happier I am.The more dangerous it is, the more I like it.The more money he makes, the more he spends. The more I study, the less I learn.

In longer sentences, that is sometimes put before the first verb.The more information that comes in, the more confused the picture is.

more about comparatives

the cleverer students We sometimes use comparatives to mean 'relativelyl'more than the average Comparatives make a less clear and narrowselection than superlatives. Compare:We've started a special class for the cleverer students.The cleverest students are two girls from York.This use is common in advertising to make things sound less definite or

more subtle.Less expensive clothes for the fuller figure. (nicer than 'cheap clothes for fat people')

the faster of the two When a group has only two members, we sometimesuse a comparative with a superlative meaning.Both cars perform well, but the XG2SL is the faster of the two.Some people feel that a superlative is incorrect in this case.

Note: all the etc with comparatives In some fixed expressions, all the +comparative means 'even more because of that'We can stay an extra three days.' 'All the better.''Susie isn't eating this evening.' 'Good. All the more for us.'Any the, none the and so much the are used in similar ways.I listened to every thing he said, but ended up none the wiser.'Jake doesn't want to go on holiday with us.' 'So much the worse for him.'

more about superlatives

superlatives without the We sometimes drop the when superlativeadjectives and determiners are used without nouns, and before superlativeadverbs.Which of you three is (the) strongest? The person who eats (the) fastest gets (the) most.

And we dont use the when we are contrasting somebody or something withhim/her/itself in other situations. Compare:He’s the nicest of my three uncles. He's nicest when he's had a few drinks. )England is most beautiful in spring.

Note the use of infinitives after superlatives.the youngest person to climb Everest the first man to run a mile in four minutes

much, far etc with comparatives and superlatives

To say how much better, older, bigger, more etc, we can use for examplemuch, far, very much, any, no, rather, a little, even, a bit (informal), a lot

(informal), lots, (informal).jamie is much/far older than me. Greek is very much more difficult than Spanish.We'll need rather more money than that. Can you speak a bit more slowly?Today’s even hotter than yesterday. This car uses a lot less petrol than the old one.Is your mother any better? I'll be no longer than five minutes.We've had far fewer accidents since they lowered the speed limit.

Before a plural noun, we use many more, not much more.You'Il have many more opportunities in the future.

Before superlatives, we can use for example much, by far, quite (meaning'absolutely'), almost, practically, nearly and easily.

This is much the most expensive of them all. She’s by far the youngest.He\ quite the most stupid man I've ever met l'm nearly the oldest in the firm.This is easily the worst film I've seen in my life.Note also very + superlative.Their house is the very nicest in the street. 300g of your very best butter, please.

much in affirmative sentences?

much as quantifier Much can be a quantifier before a noun . In this case,much is unusual in affirmative sentences except in a formal style. Compare:We haven't had much rain recently . Do you get much junk mail?Much time has been spent discussing these questions. (formal)but We've got a lot of milk to use up.

However, much is normal in affirmative sentences after so, too and as.She's caused so much trouble. Those kids get too much money.You can take as much as you want.much as adverb As an adverb, much is also unusual in affirmativesentences. Compare:I didn't enjoy the film much. How much do you worry about the future?We walked a lot when we were on holiday.

However, very much is common in affirmative sentences, particularly whenexpressing personal reactions.

I very much like your new hairstyle. You've helped us very much.Thank you very much.

Note that very much never normally separates the verb from the object.We very much appreciate your help. or We appreciate your help very much.

Before comparatives and superlatives, much is normal in affirmativesentences.I'm feeling much better today. This is much the worst book I've read all year.

such and so

Such is used before (adjective +) noun. A/An comes after such.

such an idiot such a long way such good food such boring lectures

So is used before an adjective alone, an adverb or a quantifier.They're so stupid. I'm glad you're doing so well. She's got so many shoes!

We cant put such or so after a determiner.We stayed in their house, which is so beautiful.

so long a wait etc In a formal style, we can use so before adjective + a/an+ noun.I was not expecting so long a wait. (Less formal: . .. such a long wait.)The same structure is possible with as, too and how.They gave us as nice a time as they could. It was too difficult a question'How big a budget does your department need?This structure is only possible with noun phrases beginning a/an.(NOT so perfect performance or too cold soup OR how regular support)

like and as

similarity: like or as We can use both words to say that things are similar.Like is a preposition, used before a noun or pronoun.The whole experience was like a dream. They're not like us.

As is a conjunction, used before subject + verb or a prepositionalexpression.

They left as they came, without a word. ln Britain, as in many countries, ...

Note the common expressions as I said, as you know, as you see, as usual,as before. In informal speech (but less often in writing), many people uselike as a conjunction.Nobody knows him like I do. Like I said, everything\ OK.

Also in informal speech, like is now commonly used to mean 'as if.She was eating fudge like her life depended on it.

jobs and functions: as We use as, not like, to talk about jobs, functions androles.I'm working as a driver. (Nor ... like a drive) Don't use your plate as anashtray.Compare: As your boss, I must congratulate you. (I am your boss.)

Like your boss, I must congratulate you. (We both congratulate you.)

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Day 1Error Spotting1. Noun,2. Pronoun,3. Adjective,4. Adverb

Find out the error in each of the followingsentences, if any, if there is no error ,youranswer is no error.

1. You know it well that your success in lifedepends not on my advice but on somebodyelse. No error.

2. The life of the rich is not in many ways aspeaceful as that of the poor’s. No error.

3. The teacher said to us that one ought towork hard in order to attain one goal. Noerror.

4. He did not know even the name of scientistwho discovered the laws of the earthgravitational force. No error.

5. It is very (a) / difficult to chase (b) / a hugescore (c) / in the second inning (d) / Noerror (e).

6. In spite of having received (a)/ all thenecessary data (b)/ he did not take anydecision (c)/ because of extraneous reasons.(d)/ NE

7. The neglect of women (a)/ costs the world(b)/ a great deal both in (c)/ economic andin social terms. (d)/ NE

8. The success of the project (a)/ depends onhow (b)/ much efforts each (c)/ teammember puts in. (d)/ No Error

9. On a number of occasions, (a)/ we hadnoticed that (b)/ those two employees (c)/were often in a state of confused. (d)/ NoError

10. Identifying, nurturing and (a)/ developingan employee’s talent is (b)/ among the mostimportant task (c)/ of Human ResourceDevelopment department. (d)/ NE

11.All this financial institution (a)/ should beregistered with (b)/ Reserve Bank of India tomake sure (c)/ that they function properly.(d)/ NE

12.Each business activities (a)/ providesemployment (b)/ to people who would (c)/otherwise be unemployed. (d)/ NE

13.After a complaint was filed, (a)/ police teamswas given the photograph (b)/ of theaccused from the CCTV footage (c)/recorded at the hotel. (d)/ NE

14.The government has signed (a)/ amemorandum of understanding with (b)/the company to set up (c)/ a plant in thestate. (d)/ NE

15. In the forthcoming elections (a)/ every manand woman (b)/ must vote for the candidate(c)/ of their choice. (d)/ No error (e)

16. If you absent from (a)/ college your namelikely (b)/ to be struck off the rolls. (c)/ Noerror

17.One should make (a)/ his best efforts if (b)/one wishes to achieve (c)/ success in thisorganisation. (d)/ No error (e)

18.The principal decided to (a)/ sanction anymoney (b)/ that was required for (c)/completing the project (d)/ No error (e)/

19.The working capacity of a man (a)/ can bemeasured with its potentiality (b)/ andattitude at the same time, (c)/ we cannotignore the importance of age. (d)/ No error(e)

20.As compared with (a)/ last year, theproduction (b)/ of this factory (c)/ is notsatisfactory. (d)/ No error (e)

21. In a democratic society each (a)/ voter has a(b)/ responsibility to cast their vote (c)/ inthe election process. (d)/ No error (e)

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22.All the parties (a)/ whose Presidents wereasked to resign (b)/ were involved in (c)/anti-national activities. (d)/ No error (e)

23.Whenever is the matter (a)/ I shall do thiswork, (b)/ because I have to expose (c)/ myworking capacity at any cost. (d)/ No error(e)

24.We think education, health (a)/ experienceand those sorts of things (b)/ are generallythe main benefits for (c)/ modern tour andtravel. (d)/ No error (e)

25.After toiling very hard over a long (a)/ periodproject, my friend found (b)/ he had hardlymade (c)/ no profit at all. (d)/ No error (e)

26.One of his greatest contributions (a)/ tosocial reform (b)/ was their movement for(c)/ eradication of child marriages. (d)/ Noerror (e)

27. India began (a)/ his nuclear energy (b)/programme during (c)/ the late fifties (d)/No error

28.Meetings were held with unions (a)/ totackle indiscipline, (b)/ and with customers(d)/ to understand its needs. (d)/ No error(e)

29.These firms which (a)/ are the main (b)/suppliers of electronic (c)/ components inIndia. (d)/ No error (e)

30.Senior citizens prefer (a)/ banks which (b)/branches are located (c)/ near their homes.(d)/ No error (e)

31.These companies have been asked (a)/ tofurnish their financial details (b)/ andinformation about (c)/ it board members.(d)/ No error

32.Road developers unable to (a)/ finish theirprojects (b)/ on time will not be (c)/awarded new ones. (d)/ No error (e)

33.Each one of (a)/ us goes to (b)/ purchaseitems for (c)/ our own use. (d)/ No error (e)

34.Whenever you speak (a)/ take care that (b)/other are not hurt (c)/ by your words. (d)/No error (e)

35.He has in (a)/ his possession a (b)/ pricecollection of very old coins (c)/ and someancient paintings. (d)/ No error. (e)

36.All renew licences may (a)/ be collected from(b)/ the cashier’s counter after (c)/ payingthe fees. (d)/ No error

37.All said and done (a)/ it is the basic valuesthat (b)/ are most importance and (c)/ helpyou in the long run. (d)/ No error (e)/

38.We have been trying (a)/ to eradicatepoverty (b)/ but our efforts have got (c)/only limit success. (d)/ No error (e)

39.No station on (a)/ this sector of the railway(b)/ is as modern and clean (c)/ as thisstation is. (d)/ No error (e)

40.After he had read the two first chapters (a)/of the novel (b)/ he felt like reading (c)/ thenovel at one sitting. (d)/ No error

41.Although he is my bosom friend, (a)/ Icannot ask him for (b)/ money without any(c)/ vividly reason. (d)/ No error

42.The girl sang (a)/ few songs (b)/ to entertainthe guests (c)/ but the guests were notpleased. (d)/ No error

43.He realised that (a)/ he had committed amistake (b)/ in accepting a packet (c)/ froman unidentify person. (d)/ No error

44.The pirated (a)/ technology has not onlycreated (b)/ strategic dangers but alsodamaged (c)/ economy interests. (d)/ Noerror

45.Louis Armstrong was (a)/ one of the mostinfluence (b)/ and believed (c)/ of all jazzartists. (d)/ No error

46.The famous orator President Roosevelt (a)/was in power (b)/ longest than (c)/ anybodyelse. (d)/ No error

47. I am absolute confident (a)/ that we aregoing (b)/ to move forward (c)/ strongly. (d)/NE

48.Your machine would not have (a)/ given youso much trouble (b)/ if you had (c)/maintained it proper. (d)/ NE

49. I wrote yesterday a letter (a)/ with the viewto (b)/ reminding her of her (c)/ selection inour team. (d)/ NE

50.You will fail (a)/ in the examination (b)/unless you (c)/ work hardly. (d)/ NE

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Answers & Explanations1. But on somebody else’sSuccess depends on somebody.No !!It depends on somebody else’s advice.We don’t use advice two times, if it’s alreadyused earlier.

2. In Degrees. There are three ways to usepossession

a. ‘sb. of structure for non livingc. that of

here the writer has already used “that of”structure. Remove ‘s from poor.

3. possessive pronoun of one is one’sAnswer is – to attain one’s goalAnd two points to remember with one

a. one – one’sb. one of them – his/her

4. Earth’s gravitational force

Here we must show relation. Possession will beused.

5. In the second inningsThe word innings is always used in plural.Other such words are

- Series- Species

6. No Error

7. No Error

8. How much effortEffort is used as abstract noun here.So remove the s.

9. In a state of confusionCorrect noun is confusion

11.All these financial institutions

All + Plural Noun

12. Each business activity

Each + Singular Noun

13.Police teams were

Police teams + Plural verbPolice = Plural Noun

Police Team = Singular noun14.No Error

15.D. Of his choiceEvery + Singular pronoun

16. If you absent yourselfAfter verbs like absent, enjoy, avail,introduce, express, hurt, blame, sacrifice –if the sentence doesn’t contain a directobject, we will use reflexive pronoun that isthe self pattern of the given noun.

17. One should make one’sRememberOne – one’sOne of them – his/her

18.B. Sanction some moneyIn positive sentences – someIn negative sentences – any

19. B. With his potentialityThe antecedent is man. So pronoun will besingular.

20.B. As Compared with that of last year

Here we’ll need possession.

Last year’s production

We don’t use ‘s with last year.

SoThat of last year.Because hereWe’re comparing production of this yearwith last year.

21.C. His vote

Antecedent is Each voterFor Each, we’ll use singular pronoun

22.No Error

23.A. Whatever is the matterUses of relative pronoun

What – describeWhen – timeWhere – placeWhich – selection & Choice

Here we are describing the matter. So whatwill be used.

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10.C. most important tasks

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24.B. These sort of things

Use of those is wrong hereThese – closenessThose – distance

25. D. Any profit at allPositive sentence – someNegative sentence – anyHardly is a negative word. So sentence isnegative.

Other negative wordsScarcely, barely, merely, rarelyFew, little, very few, very little

26.C. His movement

Antecedent = one ofOne of = his/her

27.B. ItsIndia – its/her

28. D. Their needs

Antecedent is customersCustomers is pluralAnd for plural – their

29. A. Remove which

Read the sentence without which and you’llunderstand that there is no need of a relativepronoun here.

30.B. Whose Branches

Possessive case will be used.And remember how the three forms of whoare used.Who = heWhom – himWhose – his

Or

Of which branches is also possible

31.D. Their Board Members

Antecedent is companiesSo plural pronoun

32. A. Road developers who are unable

Read the sentence well and you will realizethat there should be a relative pronoun

33.D. His own use

Antecedent is Each oneSo singular pronoun

34.C. Others

Others = nounOther = adjectiveSo noun is needed and others will be used

35.C. Precious collection

Precious is right adjective

36.A. All renewed licenses

Renew = verbTo make it adjectiveUse present participle – ing formOrPast participle – 3rd formPast participle is appropriate here

37.C. Most importantAdjective needed. Noun is given.Change the Noun into adjective formNoun = importanceAdjective = important

38.D. Limited success

Past participle as adjective

Remember3rd form and ing form of a verb can be usedas an adjective and These forms are calledparticiples

39.A. No other stationWhen we compare then this is the rightstructure.

40. A. First two chapters

RememberStructure = cardinal + ordinal + NounExamples

- First three players- Last five boys

41.D. Vivid reasonAdjective + NounAdverb + Adjective + NounHere first structure is used

Vividly = adverb, vivid = adjective

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42.B. A few songs

She sang some songs so there was somethingfor the audience to dislike.A few = positive, very small in numberFew = negativeThe few = fixed numberVery few = negative

43.D. Unidentified person

Adjective + nounPast participle + Noun

44.D. Economic interests

Economy = nounEconomic = adjective

RememberFrom economy, we can make two adjective1. economic = related to economy2. economical = to spend less, frugalMake sure you use the right adjective. Here inthis sentence, it’s related to economy. Soeconomic is right adjective

45.B. Influenced and believed

Past participle as adjective

46.C. Longer than

Comparative degree

47.A. Absolutely confident

Confident = adjectiveAdverb + adjectiveAbsolutely = adverb

48.D. Properly

Here the adverb is modifying the verbmaintaining. To modify a verb we use adverb.Proper is adjective. Properly is adverb.

49. A. I wrote a letter yesterday.

Correct position of the adverb. Yesterday willbe used in the end.

50.D. Work Hard

Hard is the right adverbHardly = unlikely

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