1. plan : 1. input–output channels 2. human memory 3. thinking: reasoning and problem solving 4....
TRANSCRIPT
1
Chapter 1
The human
2
Plan: 1. Input–output channels
2. Human memory
3. Thinking: reasoning and problem solving
4. Emotion
5. Individual differences
6. Psychology and the design of interactive
systems
3
A person’s interaction with the outside world
occurs through information being received and
sent: input and output.
In an interaction with a computer the user
receives information that is output by the
computer, and responds by providing input to the
computer .
the user’s output becomes the computer’s input
and vice versa.
1 .INPUT–OUTPUT CHANNELS
4
• Input in the human occurs mainly through the senses
and output through the motor control of the effectors.
• There are five major senses: sight, hearing, touch, taste
and smell. Of these, the first three are the most
important to HCI.
Taste and smell do not currently play a significant role
in HCI
1. INPUT–OUTPUT CHANNELS
5
• Similarly there are a number of effectors,
including the limbs, fingers, eyes, head and
vocal system.
• In the interaction with the computer, the
fingers play the primary role, through typing
or mouse control, with some use of voice, and
eye, head and body position.
1 .INPUT–OUTPUT CHANNELS
6
1. Vision :
Human vision is a highly complex activity with a range of
physical and perceptual limitations, yet it is the primary
source of information for the average person.
Vision begins with light.
The eye is a mechanism for receiving light and
transforming it into electrical energy.
Light is reflected from objects in the world and their
image is focused upside down on the back of the eye.
The receptors in the eye transform it into electrical signals
which are passed to the brain.
INPUT–OUTPUT CHANNELS
7
2. Hearing :
• The sense of hearing is often considered secondary
to sight, but we tend to underestimate the amount of
information that we receive through our ears.
• The auditory system can convey a lot of information
about our environment. It begins with vibrations in
the air or sound waves. The ear receives these
vibrations and transmits them, through various
stages, to the auditory nerves.
INPUT–OUTPUT CHANNELS
8
• The auditory system performs some
filtering of the sounds received, allowing
us to ignore background noise and
concentrate on important information.
We are selective in our hearing.
INPUT–OUTPUT CHANNELS
9
3. Touch :
The third and last of the senses that we will
consider is touch.
Although this sense is often viewed as less
important than sight or hearing, we can’t imagine
life without it. Touch provides us with vital
information about our environment.
The apparatus of touch differs from that of sight
and hearing in that it is not localized.
1 .INPUT–OUTPUT CHANNELS
10
We receive stimuli through the skin. The skin
contains three types of sensory receptor:
thermoreceptors respond to heat and cold,
nociceptors respond to intense pressure,
heat and pain.
mechanoreceptors respond to pressure.
It is the last of these that we are concerned with
in relation to human–computer interaction.
1 .INPUT–OUTPUT CHANNELS
11
Memory refers to the processes that are
used to acquire, store, retain and later
retrieve information.
There are three major processes involved
in memory: encoding, storage, and
retrieval .
2 .HUMAN MEMORY
12
In order to form new memories, information must
be changed into a usable form, which occurs
through the process known as encoding.
Once information has been successfully encoded,
it must be stored in memory for later use.
The retrieval process allows us to bring stored
memories into conscious awareness.
2 .HUMAN MEMORY
13
there are three types of memory or memory function:
2 .HUMAN MEMORY
Sensory Memory
Short-Term memory
Long-Term memory
Human memory
14
1. Sensory Memory :
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory.
During this stage, sensory information from the
environment is stored for a very brief period of
time, generally for no longer than a half-second
for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for
auditory information.
2.HUMAN MEMORY
15
2. Short-Time Memory :
• Short-time memory, also known as active
memory, is the information we are currently
aware of or thinking about.
•Most of the information stored in active
memory will be kept for approximately 20 to
30 seconds.
2. HUMAN MEMORY
16
3. Long-Time Memory :
• Long-time memory is intended for the long-
term storage of information.
• Here we store factual information, experiential
knowledge, procedural rules of behavior….
in fact, everything that we ‘know’.
2 .HUMAN MEMORY
17
• Some of this information is fairly easy to recall,
while other memories are much more difficult to
access.
• the information can remain in long term memory
indefinitely.
2 .HUMAN MEMORY
18
Thinking can require different amounts of
knowledge. Some thinking activities are very
directed and the knowledge required is
constrained. Others require vast
amounts of knowledge from different domains.
There are two categories of thinking:
Reasoning
Problem solving.
3 .THINKING: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
19
1. Reasoning :
• Reasoning is the capacity for a person to make
sense of things to establish & verify facts, To
rationally work through data, information, facts,
and beliefs. It is the process of forming
conclusions and judgments from facts or premises.
• There are two main types of reasoning:
Deductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning
3 .THINKING: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
20
We use each of these types of reasoning in
everyday life, but they differ in significant ways.
Deductive reasoning:
Deductive reasoning derives the logically
necessary conclusion from the given
premises. For example,
3 .THINKING: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
If it is Friday then she will go to
work
It is Friday
Therefore she will go to work.
21
inductive reasoning:
Inductive reasoning uses analogies,
examples, observations, and experiences to
form conclusive propositions. For example:
3 .THINKING: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
if every elephant we have ever seen has
a trunk,
we infer that all elephants have trunks
22
2. Problem solving:
If reasoning is a means of inferring new
information from what is already known, problem
solving is the process of finding a solution to an
unfamiliar task, using the knowledge we have.
Human problem solving is characterized by the
ability to adapt the information we have to deal
with new situations.
3 .THINKING: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
23
There are a number of different views of how peoplesolve problems:
Gestalt theory : Max Wertheimer considered thinking
to happen in two ways: productive and reproductive.
Productive thinking is a quick insightful unplanned
response to situations and environmental interaction.
Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with
previous experiences and what is already known.
3 .THINKING: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
24
Problem space theory :
• In this theory, people solve problems by
searching in a problem space. The problem
space consists of the initial (current) state,
the goal state, and all possible states in
between.
• The actions that people take in order to
move from one state to another are known
as operators.
3 .THINKING: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
25
Our emotional response to situations affects how we
perform.
For example, positive emotions enable us to think
more creatively, to solve complex problems, whereas
negative emotion pushes us into narrow, focussed
thinking.
A problem that may be easy to solve when we are
relaxed, will become difficult if we are frustrated or
afraid.
4 .EMOTION
26
All the points that we discussed apply to the majority
of people.
Not with standing this, we should remember that,
although we share processes in common, humans,
and therefore users, are not all the same.
We should be aware of individual differences so that
we can account for them as far as possible within our
designs.
5 .INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
27
These differences may be long term, such as
sex, physical capabilities and intellectual
capabilities. Others are shorter term and
include the effect of stress
or fatigue on the user.
Still others change through time, such as age.
5 .INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
28
Interaction at the interface is largely a cognitive process
For effective design can apply knowledge of cognitive psychology
Need to understand which aspects are important & relevant to interface design
Can provide information about what the user can and cannot do
Help explain why uses experience problems with particular interaction /design aspects
Must remember computers are not used in isolation
5 .PSYCHOLOGY AND THE DESIGN OF INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS
29
Principles and results from research in
psychology have been distilled into guidelines for
design (( التوجيهية models to support design ,المبادئ
(( تصميم لدعم and techniques for evaluating نماذج
design (( التصميم لتقييم .تقنيات
5 .PSYCHOLOGY AND THE DESIGN OF INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS