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PS1001 Psychology & PS1018

Basic essay writingJohn Beech

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A couple of points

• Please switch off any mobile phones.• A register of names has to be kept of everyone attending

as attendance is compulsory for all these practical classes. Please sign the sheet against your name when you get it. If you are the last one to sign it, please make sure you bring it down to me after the lecture.

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First steps

Attitude: Be positive. Writing is a range of skills.

Planning: Allow enough time. 1000 words = 12 hrs minimum.

Handy tools: 1. Dictionary - see dictionary.com on the web

2. Thesaurus or synonym finder – see dictionary.com

3. Dictionary of Psychology. One or two on the web

4. Reference style guide.

5. A word processor.

Instructions Note the word count. Fill in everything on the covering sheet. All work word processed.

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Essay and paragraph structure

Essay structureBeginning, body and end

Introduction gives frame of reference. Interpret the question, outline coverage and define key words and concepts.

Body (a) description of evidence (b) analysis.

Conclusion Summarises key points. No new information. Bring out main points relevant to the question.

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Paragraphs

A paragraph is usually a single topic. You can test this by attempting to summarize it in a sentence, and if you find this problematic, it might suggest that there are too many themes and it needs sub-dividing.

The topic sentence the first sentence introduces the theme of the paragraph.

E.g. “Furnham (1990) has argued that academics have reacted in two characteristic ways to being evaluated. One line of thought (the un-cooperative) holds the view that…”

Body elaborates the first sentence.End linkage to the next paragraph or finishing off (optional – and not

necessarily important)

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Planning

Understand the topic. Note the question. Search terms? Scope?

Address the question. Note the key word or phrase (e.g. “To what extent is it the case that...?”)

Formulate the plan. Brainstorm. Use linear form or mindmap (see next slide)

Stance. Develop one.

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Mindmapping

idea

idea concept idea

idea idea

idea

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Mind Mapping

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Analysis

Need a critical perspective

• Descriptions are the building blocks. Analysis is the mortar.

• Evaluate evidence. Ask: why? Alternatives? Contradictions?

• Theories are important. Does a theory fit the evidence?

• Stance: develop clear argument. But evaluate other views.

• You must support with evidence. Types of evidence: (a) relevant (b) vague (c) ignored evidence because of your bias (d) reliant on only one author.

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Gathering information

Use different WORD files or pieces of paper with headings and sections for each basic part

Keep a references page. Distinguish primary and secondary sources

Beware highlighting photocopies

How much note taking do you need? Can take too little or too much. Try to be focussed in your note taking.

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The draft

Writer’s block: ways forwardWrite quickly without self-criticism

You may not have done enough background reading. Do more.

Resolve to write something every day.

Talk aloud about the problem.

You may be too parsimonious in

your writing and run out

too quickly.

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Main process

Creation On the basis of your notes write the essay. Forget spelling, the best expression, self-criticism etc. During this stage you are using “messy writing”.

Editing Leave aside for 1 or 2 days.

Keep creation and editing as distinct processes as far as possible.

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Further drafts

Check through from different perspectives. Further drafts will get better marks. Look for:

Sentence and paragraph structure. Do the paragraph divisions work?

Check in relation to the word limit and spellingDevelop your writing ‘voice’. Note you are addressing a

psychologist.Put yourself in the marker’s position. Look at the

department’s writing criteria. For instance, is there a good flow?

Temporarily adopt an opposite stanceRead it aloudHave you answered the question?

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Criteria of good writing style

This takes a lot of practice and means having several drafts. Analyse examples from the psychology literature.

• Don’t be vague• Don’t be emotional or overstate• Write formally• On the other hand, don’t try hard to impress by being

over-formal• Use the active, not the passive (‘it was suggested by

Smith’ is passive)

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Criteria of good writing style

• Avoid tautologies (‘two twins’)• Avoid slang (‘Freud is cool’)• Avoid padding (‘owing to the fact’)• No repetition (‘in other words, don’t say the same

thing’)• No cliches (‘or it will open a can of worms’)• Don’t qualify absolutes (‘completely empty’)• Avoid bullet points. (Do as I say, not as I do.)

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Style guideAvoid sexismSentences: verb and subject? Avoid long and complex.

Provide varietyReferencing in text (‘Smith (1999) found …’). These

conventions are in the “Reporting style guidelines…” booklet which will be distributed soon.

Abbreviations: avoid: e.g., i.e., etc in the text. This is OK: ‘their reaction time (RT) was taken..’ But don’t over-abbreviate. Abbreviations are allowed in brackets “(e.g. Smith, 2007)”.

Practise (verb) practice (noun)

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Style guide (continued)

Bad joke

Husband on phone to doctor: Doctor, doctor my pregnant wife has just started shouting out “Can’t, won’t, couldn’t, haven’t, shouldn’t…” What does it mean?

Doctor: Oh that’s all right she’s just started her contractions!

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Style guide (continued)

Do NOT use contractions such as can’t.

Note the distinction between “..it’s better now” and “the baby lost its bottle”. You would not use it’s anyway.

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Style guide (continued)

Affect (verb) ‘the gas affected her’. Effect (noun) ‘the effect was weak’.

Fewer and Less: ‘Fewer pints..’ ‘..less milk’

Capitalise names of institutions: ‘British Psychological Society’

Digits: if two or more digits (23, 456) write the digits. For one digit write the word

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Style guide (continued)

Should be Table 1, Figure 5 etc

Verb and subjects should agree in relation to the plural. ‘The data were…’ (is correct)

The participant chose ‘between 2 buttons’ or ‘among the left, middle and right buttons’

‘Try to’ not ‘try and’

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Connecting between sentences and between paragraphs

Link words What they indicate

As well as, also, and, again, consequently, furthermore, moreover

Adding something similar to what has been said

In brief, as a result, in other words, finally, accordingly

Summarising

But, although, however, yet, on the contrary

About to make a contrast

For instance, for example, to demonstrate, in particular

Giving examples

It can be seen, in fact You want to intensify this next bit

So, therefore You’re about to conclude your argument and bring out its significance

Because, since About to explain what has been said

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Copying and collusion

Copying from books

·   Do not copy notes verbatim (word for word).

·  If you don’t understand: 1. Try another source 2. Come back after a break 3. Try a dictionary 4. Ask someone.

Copying from lecture notes

· Quite common in exams. But supplement with other evidence.

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Copying and collusion

Copying from other students·   Plagiarism: passing others work off as your own·   If you are the copier the penalty is harsh·   If you are asked to lend out an essay prior to

deadline, this is risky·   Collusion: where there is a secret association

between people in which there is a division of labour. Team spirit is good, but there is a dividing line.

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Summary

First steps – Have a positive mental attitude, planning time, tools (e.g. dictionaries), instructions.

Essay structure and paragraphing Essays have intro, body, conclusion. Paragraphs are about a topic.

The process – deciding what to do and brainstorming. Being critical – asking why? Alternatives? Contradictions? Evaluating evidence and its relevance.

Organisation – using computer or paper for planning? Dealing with references. How much note taking?

Getting started – just do it! Don’t edit what you write – until later. Creation and editing are better separated.

Revision and good style - Try looking at your essay from different perspectives. Be willing to write several drafts. Be precise and formal (i.e. not chatty). Use the active voice and write in a straightforward way.

Copying - avoid copying notes verbatim. Take care not to plagiarise.

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For further reading

Beech, J.R. (2008). How to write in psychology. Oxford: Blackwell.