1. research all about

8/12/2019 1. Research All About

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Research Methods

Presentation Credits to: UTA


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Definitions of Research The main goal of research is the gathering and

interpreting of information to answer questions(Hyllegard, Mood, and Morrow, 1996).

Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers toquestions (Tuckman, 1999).

Research may be defined as the systematic andobjective analysis and recording of controlledobservations that may lead to the development ofgeneralizations, principles, or theories, resulting inprediction and possible control of events (Best andKahn, 1998).

Research is a systematic way of asking questions, asystematic method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart,1996).


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Development of Research Skills

Learning how to conduct good research: New skills ( that many people do not have ) Better understanding and interpretation of the

literature Recognize new questions that need

investigation

Objectivity is the key element of research


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Search for Truth

Five sources of evidence in the pursuit oftruth:

1. Custom and tradition2. Authority3. Personal experience4. Deductive reasoning5. Scientific inquiry


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Deductive Reasoning

A.k.a., Logic. In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from

general assumption to specific application

GENERAL SPECIFIC Aristotle and other early philosophers

Drawing conclusions through categorical syllogism. All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher.

Therefore, Socrates is moral. Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing

body mass. Sandi is resistance training. Therefore, Sandiwill become big and bulky.

Not sufficient as a source of new truth


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Inductive Reasoning

Conclusions about events (general) arebased on information generated throughmany individual and direct observations(specific). SPECIFIC GENERAL Researchers observe an individual or group of

individuals from a larger population basedon these observations, generalizations aremade back to the larger population.


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Inductive Reasoning

Two kinds of induction: Perfect

Conclusions based on observations made from ALL members of a group or population

Imperfect Conclusions based on observations made from a

random sample of members of a population


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Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

Deductive: Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are

mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

Inductive: Every rabbit that has been observed has

lungs. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.


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The Scientific Method

Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps. Identifying the problem Formulating a hypothesis Developing the research plan Collecting and analyzing the data Interpreting results and forming conclusions

Example


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Identifying the Problem

First, and arguably the most important,step Several sources

Theoretical basis Professional practice Personal experience Shear curiosity

Starts as a broad question that must benarrowed

Problem statement; experimental approach tothe problem; etc.


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Identifying the Problem

Three categories when selecting aresearch problem

Those who know precisely what they want todo and have a well conceived problem

Those who have many interest areas andare having difficulty deciding exactly what

they want to study Those who do not have any idea about a

worthwhile research problem


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Philosophy of GraduateEducation

MENTORSHIP! Work with a professor/researcher that has

established a research agenda


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Formulating a Hypothesis

Hypothesis: A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome

of the research A concrete, specific statement about the

relationships between phenomena Based on deductive reasoning

2 types of hypotheses: Null hypothesis (H O)

All is equal; no differences exist

Alternative ( research ) hypothesis (H A) Usually specific and opposite to the null


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Developing the Research Plan

A strategy must be developed forgathering and analyzing the informationthat is required to test the hypotheses or

answer the research question Four parts:

Selection of a relevant research methodology Identification of subjects or participants Description of the data-gathering procedures Specification of the data analysis techniques

Pilot studies, IRB,all must be determined inadvance!


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Collecting and Analyzing the Data

Following all the pre-determined protocols Time in the lab collecting data Analyzing the composite data Controlling the environment

Easiest part of the process However, sometime the most time-consuming

part of the process


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Interpreting Results and FormingConclusions

DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END INITSELF!

Does the evidence support or refute theoriginal hypotheses? Accept or reject the hypotheses Conclusions should be drawn:

Develop new hypotheses to explain the results Inferences are typically made beyond the specific

study


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New Questions Arise

Results Interpreted

Data Collected

Question Identified

Hypotheses Formed

Research Plan

Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman,and Hart, 1996)


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Types of Research Questions

3 Types Descriptive questions Difference questions Relationship questions


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Descriptive Questions

Purpose: To describe phenomena or characteristics of

a particular group of subjects being studied Survey research Qualitative research


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Determinants of college students' health-promoting lifestyles.

Larouche R.

Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

This descriptive study of 151 university students in Boston, Massachusetts, wasundertaken to determine the relationships of their perceived health status, sex,grade point average, and health and nonhealth majors to their health-promotinglifestyles, using the Health Promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP) II, based on Pender'smodel. Students' perceived health status was significantly predictive of total HPLPII, exercise, stress management, and spiritual growth. College women practicedsignificantly better nutrition, interpersonal relationships, health responsibility, andtotal HPLP II than men. The whole sample scored lower in stress management thanany previous group studied. Male students, those reporting poor health, and allstudents are targeted for intervention and research in their deficient areas.Guidelines for nursing practice are derived from the HPLP II questionnaire. Theseclinically significant findings may guide nurse practitioners to intervene in the healthawareness and practices of college students.


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Weight management behaviors of African American female college students.

July F, Hawthorne D, Elliot J, Robinson W.

Department of Nursing, Fayetteville State University, USA.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity among African American women is aproblem of significance, and one, which demands investigation through scientificresearch. The purpose of this study was to determine the weight management;behaviors among African American female college students. A descriptivecorrelational study was conducted to answer this question. The results revealed that

at least fifty percent (50%) of these students exhibited behavior that could lead toobesity.


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MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996 Sep 6;45(35):760-5. Related Articles, Links

School-based HIV-prevention education--United States, 1994. [No authors listed]

Many adolescents in the United States engage in behaviors that increase their risk for human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Because 95% of allyouth aged 5-17 years are enrolled in school, school health programs can be an efficient method to helpprevent these behaviors. Previous studies have examined selected characteristics of HIV education in theUnited States; however, none provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV education policies and programsnationwide. In 1994, CDC conducted the School Health Policies and Programs Study (SHPPS), whichassessed five components of the school health program: health education, physical education, health services,food service, and health policies. To provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV-prevention educationprograms nationwide in 1994, CDC analyzed data from the health education component of the study. Thisreport summarizes the findings, which indicate that although HIV-prevention education has been widelyimplemented in U.S. schools, improvement in these programs is needed.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Display&dopt=pubmed_pubmed&from_uid=8815397http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Display&dopt=pubmed_pubmed&from_uid=8815397


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Difference Questions

Purpose: To make comparisons between or within

groups. Is there a difference?

Experimental research Treatment vs. control Pre- vs. post-test comparisons

Nonexperimental research Compare one group to another based on existing

characteristics


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J Appl Physiol. 2000 Sep;89(3):1179-88.

Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors.

Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD.

Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1.

The purpose of this study was to assess strength performance after an acute bout of maximallytolerable passive stretch (PS(max)) in human subjects. Ten young adults (6 men and 4 women)underwent 30 min of cyclical PS(max) (13 stretches of 135 s each over 33 min) and a similar controlperiod (Con) of no stretch of the ankle plantarflexors. Measures of isometric strength (maximalvoluntary contraction), with twitch interpolation and electromyography, and twitch characteristicswere assessed before (Pre), immediately after (Post), and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after PS(max)or Con. Compared with Pre, maximal voluntary contraction was decreased at Post (28%) and at 5(21%), 15 (13%), 30 (12%), 45 (10%), and 60 (9%) min after PS(max) (P < 0.05). Motor unitactivation and electromyogram were significantly depressed after PS(max) but had recovered by 15

min. An additional testing trial confirmed that the torque-joint angle relation may have beentemporarily altered, but at Post only. These data indicate that prolonged stretching of a single muscledecreases voluntary strength for up to 1 h after the stretch as a result of impaired activation andcontractile force in the early phase of deficit and by impaired contractile force throughout the entireperiod of deficit.


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Relationship Questions

Purpose To investigate the degree to which two or

more variables covary or are associated witheach other

Rather than analyzing the differences betweengroups, researchers characterize the relationshipsamong them.

Extent to which variables are related Not to establish cause-and-effect


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Am J Epidemiol. 1988 May;127(5):933-41. Related Articles, Links

Relation of cardiovascular fitness and physical activity to cardiovasculardisease risk factors in children and adults.

Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Buono MJ, Nader PR.

Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla.

The associations of physical activity and cardiovascular fitness with cardiovascular disease risk factors werestudied in 88 male adults, 180 female adults, 148 male children, and 142 female children. Subjects werefamilies recruited from elementary schools in San Diego, California. Fitness (VO2 max) was measured by asubmaximal cycle ergometer test. Physical activity was assessed by seven-day recall interview, yielding caloric

expenditure, and by a simple self-rating of activity level. Risk factors included blood pressure, high densitylipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, the ratio of high density lipoproteins to low density lipoproteins (LDL), and bodymass index. For all subgroups, fitness was strongly and significantly correlated with virtually all risk factors.

After adjustment for body mass index, most fitness-risk factor associations were no longer significant. Seven-day caloric expenditure was significantly correlated with HDL/LDL only in female adults and children. Theactivity rating was significantly correlated with body mass index in all subgroups and with HDL/LDL in femaleadults and male adults. The simple activity rating tended to be correlated with fitness. The pattern of associationwas similar for adults and children.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Display&dopt=pubmed_pubmed&from_uid=3358413http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Display&dopt=pubmed_pubmed&from_uid=3358413


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Theory vs. Hypothesis

Hypothesis A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the

research A concrete, specific statement about the relationships

between phenomena Based on deductive reasoning

Theory A belief or assumption about how things relate to

each other A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship

between variables with a purpose of explaining andpredicting phenomena

Based on inductive reasoning


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Hypotheses

Theories

Laws

In an ideal

world


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Empiricism

Acquiring information and facts throughthe observation of our world Pragmatic observations Developing theory through experience and

observation Non-scientific

Quick and practical solution to a problem With little interest in explaining when, how, or why

Example: Anabolic steroid use (abuse)


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Research Classifications

System #1: Basic research Applied research

System #2: Quantitative research Qualitative research

System #3: Experimental research Nonexperimental research


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Basic vs. Applied Research

Basic Pure, fundamental

research

Discovery of newknowledge; theoreticalin nature

Takes many years forthe results of basicresearch to find somepractical utility

Applied Central purpose to

solve an immediateproblem

Improved products orprocesses

Infers beyond thegroup or situation

studied Interpretation ofresults relies uponBasic research


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J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Mar;43(1):21-7. Related Articles, Links

Effects of running, static stretching and practice jumps on explosive force productionand jumping performance.

Young WB, Behm DG.School of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. [email protected]

AIM: The interaction between running, stretching and practice jumps during warm-up for jumping tests has notbeen investigated. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of running, static stretching ofthe leg extensors and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance. METHODS:Sixteen volunteers (13 male and 3 female) participated in five different warm-ups in a randomised order priorto the performance of two jumping tests. The warm-ups were control, 4 min run, static stretch, run + stretch,

and run + stretch + practice jumps. After a 2 min rest, a concentric jump and a drop jump were performed,which yielded 6 variables expressing fast force production and jumping performance of the leg extensormuscles (concentric jump height, peak force, rate of force developed, drop jump height, contact time andheight/time). RESULTS: Generally the stretching warm-up produced the lowest values and the run or run +stretch + jumps warm-ups produced the highest values of explosive force production. There were nosignificant differences (p


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J Strength Cond Res. 2002 Aug;16(3):399-408.

P ower output, mechanomyographic, and electromyographic responses to maximal,concentric, isokinetic muscle actions in men and women.

Cramer JT, Housh TJ, Weir JP, Johnson GO, Ebersole KT, Perry SR, Bull AJ. Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln 68588, USA. [email protected]

The purpose of this study was to examine the responses of peak torque (PT), mean power output (MP),mechanomyographic (MMG) and electromyographic (EMG) amplitudes, and mean power frequencies(MPFs) of the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), and vastus medialis (VM) in men and women duringdynamic muscle actions. Twelve women (mean +/- SD age = 22 +/- 3 years) and 11 men (22 +/- 3 years)performed maximal, concentric, isokinetic leg extensions at velocities of 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300 degrees

x s(-1) on a Cybex 6000 dynamometer. Piezoelectric MMG-recording sensors and bipolar surface EMGelectrodes were placed over the VL, RF, and VM muscles. No sex-related differences were found among thevelocity-related patterns for PT, MP, MMG amplitude, MMG MPF, or EMG MPF. There were, however, sex-related differences in the patterns of EMG amplitude across velocity. The results indicated similar velocity-related patterns of increase of MP and MMG amplitude for all 3 muscles and of EMG amplitude for the VLand VM in the women. Velocity-related decreases (p 0.05) across velocity. MMG MPF increased (p < or = 0.05) only between240 and 300 degrees x s(-1). Overall, these findings suggested that there were sex- and muscle-specific,velocity-related differences in the associations among motor unit activation strategies (EMG amplitude andMPF) and the mechanical aspects of muscular activity (MMG amplitude and MPF). With additionalexamination and validation, however, MMG may prove useful to practitioners for monitoring training-inducedchanges in muscle power output.


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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative

Numerical, measurabledata

Traditional or positivistapproach

Clearly stated questions Rational hypotheses Developed research

procedures Extraneous variable

controls Large samples Traditional, statistical

analyses

Qualitative Generally non-numerical

data Typically anthropological

and sociological researchmethods Observations of a natural

setting In-depth descriptions of

situations Interpretive and descriptive


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Experimental vs.Nonexperimental

Experimental IVs and DVs Cause-and-effect Extraneous variable

controls 3 fundamental

characteristics1. At least 1 active IV

2. Extraneous varcontrols3. Observation of the DV

response to the IV

Nonexperimental1. Causal-comparative2. Descriptive

3. Correlational4. Historical


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Steps to Experimental Research

1. Identifying the research question or problemarea

2. Initial review of literature

3. Distilling the question to a specific researchproblem

4. Continued review of literature

5. Formulation of hypotheses6. Determining the basic research approach7. Identifying the population and sample


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Steps to Experimental Research

8. Designing data collection plan9. Selecting or developing specific data collection

instruments or procedures

10. Choosing the method of data analysis11. Implementing the research plan12. Preparing the research report


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Questions

1. Write two new conclusion statements by usingdeductive and inductive reasoning.

2. Identify the research problem.

3. Identify the research plan.4. How did they collect the data?

What equipment/methods/procedures did they use?

5. How did they analyze the data?6. Did they support or reject the original research

hypothesis? Why?


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Questions

7. What were the conclusions? Futurestudies?

8. Identify the purpose statement.9. Identify the hypotheses.


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Additional Questions

1. Re-write the title using 5 8 words.2. Re-write the title using 15 18 words.

3. Provide the delimitations for this study.4. What are 2 examples of the limitations ofthis study?

5. Does this study answer the questions ofthe Methods section checklist?

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