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The following pages illustrate the differences between source content and content which has been adapted for a language learning classroom. 1. Source Content

The Development of Ancient Civilizations

A universal pattern of development resulted in the ancient civilizations of Kush, Zimbabwe, Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Aztecs, the Inca, India, and China. These ancient societies began as nomadic tribes and evolved into societies characterized by social differentiation of their members. The discoveries of the oldest human remains indicate that human life originated in East Africa; consequently Africa is understood to be the “cradle of civilization”. Over centuries, human migration took place. Families coalesced to form tribes and as these nomadic groups followed their food source, such as wild horses or buffalo they found themselves in new geographical locations. One of the earliest forms of social differentiation was according to gender. Traditionally, men were the hunters and the women harvested berries, nuts, and shellfish which were more reliable food sources than game. The members of these societies were heavily dependent on each other for their mutual survival. Decisions affecting the entire group were made through discussion and consensus including who, if anyone should lead the group. The transition from nomadism to settlement was often founded on the discovery of a reliable food source. Tribes that found a river were able to use this source of seafood and transportation as the basis for settlement. Having a reliable source of potable water facilitated irrigation resulting in the earliest forms of agriculture as exemplified by the farming of crops such as corn in the Americas, rice in Asia, and barley in Africa. The domestication of wild animals such as cattle, donkeys, and camels evolved into the breeding of livestock which provided another reliable food source. In addition, animal husbandry lay the foundation for the development of a reliable means of transportation and plowing. Families were able to be self-sufficient as they grew and bred enough food for their survival and bartered surplus crops and animals giving rise to the diversification of the goods they owned. As communities continued to grow, the next form of social differentiation was according to specialized skills. Some members of the community were able to sell their labour in exchange for crops or livestock. Most members were farmers but warriors, craftsmen, priests, and administrators played important roles as societies became increasingly complex and tasks became increasingly specialized. Over time as property relations changed, societies became hierarchal

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and stratified resulting in different social castes or sometimes classes. Decisions affecting the entire group were no longer made through consensus. The leader, be it an emperor, king, chief, sultan, emir, khan, or pharaoh often affirmed his legitimacy with his subjects through a declaration of divine rule in conjunction with securing the loyalty of an army and religious leaders to consolidate validation. Encounters between established river societies and newcomer nomads were sometimes characterized by the exchange of goods and ideas, but often resulted in conflict over scarce resources. Attempts to invade and conquer were sometimes successful, sometimes defeated as archeological evidence indicates. The history of the modern world has often been described as the history of imperialism—one guy trying to take another guy’s stuff.

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2. Adapted Content

Focus Questions 1. When did nomadic groups stop following their food source? 2. What were the advantages to settling near a river? 3. How did communities change from every member having equal social status

to hierarchal societies?

The Development of Ancient Civilizations

Ancient societies began as nomadic tribes and changed into societies characterized by social differentiation of their members. The oldest human remains were found in East Africa. Human life began in Africa. Over centuries, humans migrated. Families came together to form tribes. These nomadic groups followed their food source, such as wild horses or buffalo. They found new geographical locations. Society was divided according to gender. Traditionally, men were the hunters and the women harvested. The berries, nuts, and shellfish the women harvested were reliable as a food source rather than wild game.

When these nomadic groups found a reliable food source they usually settled near the food source. Tribes that found a river created settlements because the river gave them food and transportation. These groups could use the river water to

irrigate crops. They could also domesticate wild animals because they had food and water to give the animals. The crops and livestock became reliable sources of food. Farmers traded surplus crops and animals with other farmers.

Communities continued to grow and knowledge increased. Some people developed special skills. They sold their labour for crops and livestock. Most people were farmers but warriors, craftsmen, priests, and administrators played important roles. Communities became societies. Over time some people owned more land and goods than others. Societies became hierarchal

resulting in different social castes or sometimes classes.