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THE IMPLICATIONS AND CONSEQUENCES OF FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE OUTBREAK ON FOOD SECURITY AND HOUSEHOLD
INCOMES IN SELECTED DISTRICTS IN UGANDA
BY
THEOGEN RUTAGWENDA
FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
MAKERERE UNIVERSITY KAMPALA
A draft consultancy report submitted to the FAO Regional office Kampala Uganda
Emergency control of Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak
TCP/UGA/ 0168 (E) 1
May 2003
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
LIST OF TABLES:....................................................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES:.................................................................................................................................vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:...................................................................................................................vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:...................................................................................................................viii
1: INTRODUCTION:................................................................................................................................1
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
1.1: Background:.........................................................................................................................................1
1.2: Terms of reference:...............................................................................................................................2
2: METHODS OF THE STUDY:...........................................................................................................3
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
2.1: Study sites:...........................................................................................................................................3
2.2: Data collection.....................................................................................................................................3
2.2.1: Selection of farmers:..............................................................................................................6
ii
2.2.2: Personal interviews:...............................................................................................................6
2.2.3: Secondary data:......................................................................................................................6
2.2.4: Data analysis:.........................................................................................................................6
3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................................................7
3.1: Effects of Foot and Mouth Disease on food security and household incomes:..................................7
3.1.1: Effects of FMD outbreak on food production capacity:........................................................7
3.1.1.1: Agricultural Technology:............................................................................................7
3.1.1.2: Change in the cost of hire of oxen:.............................................................................7
3.1.1.3: Loss of revenue by oxen owners:...............................................................................8
3.1.1.4: Change in size of cultivated area:................................................................................8
3.1.1.5: Change in yield per type of crop:.................................................................................8
3.1.1.6: Deterioration of agricultural land:...............................................................................9
3.1.1.7: Change in crops cultivated:..........................................................................................9
3.1.1.8: Shortage of agricultural labour:...................................................................................9
3.1.2: Effects of FMD outbreak on household food situation:...................................................10
3.1.2.1: Food efficiency:.........................................................................................................10
3.1.2.2: Food sources:.............................................................................................................11
3.1.2.3: Food consumption patterns:.......................................................................................12
3.1.3: Effects of FMD outbreaks on household income and expenditure patterns:......................12
3.1.3.1: Sources of Income:...................................................................................................12
3.1.3.1.1: Number of animals sold:............................................................................14
3.1.3.1.2: Prices of animals:.......................................................................................14
3.1.3.2: Expenditure patterns during outbreaks:..................................................................14
iii
3.1.3.2.1: Major drugs used during outbreaks:..........................................................14
3.1.3.2.2: Cost of animal drugs:................................................................................15
3.1.3.2.3: Increase in prices of food items:...............................................................15
3.1.4: Effects of FMD outbreaks on social services:.................................................................15
3.1.4.1: School attendance:.....................................................................................................15
3.1.4.2: Access to markets:.....................................................................................................15
3.1.4.3: Access to credits:.......................................................................................................16
3.1.5: Effects of FMD outbreaks on natural resource utilization:..................................................16
3.1.6: Diminishing benefits associated with FMD outbreaks:.......................................................17
3.1.7: Other factors contributing to reduced incomes and food insecurity....................................17
3.1.7.1: Drought:..................................................................................................................17
3.1.7.2: Political instability:..................................................................................................18
3.1.7.3: Cattle raids:......................................................................................................................18
3.1.7.4: Wild animals:...................................................................................................................18
3.1.7.5: Plant diseases:..................................................................................................................18
3.1.7.6: Lack of land:....................................................................................................................18
3.1.8: Coping Mechanisms:......................................................................................................................19
3.1.8.1: Communal labour:...........................................................................................................19
3.1.8.2: Liquidation of assets:.......................................................................................................19
3.1.8.3: Borrowing:.......................................................................................................................20
3.1.8.4: Income from side business:..............................................................................................20
3.1.8.5: Foregoing of certain items:..............................................................................................20
3.1.8.6: Marketing by proxy:........................................................................................................20
iv
3.1.8.7: Coping mechanisms with negative implications:............................................................21
3.1.8.7.1: Out migration:...................................................................................................21
3.1.8.7.2: Lawlessness:.....................................................................................................21
3.1.8.7.3: Charcoal burning and brick making:................................................................21
3.2: The economic costs of FMD outbreaks:............................................................................................22
4.0 CONCLUSIONS: .............................................................................................................................28
5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS..................................................................................................................30
6.0 REFERENCES:................................................................................................................................31
7.0 APPENDIX: Questionnaire used in the survey...........................................................................32
v
LIST OF TABLES
Tables1: Use of oxen in agricultural practices.................................................................................7
Table 2: Number of meals per day in the two districts..................................................................10
Table 3: Proportion of food items grown and purchased during and when there
is no FMD......................................................................................................................................11
Table 4: Major source of income...................................................................................................12
Table 5: Income brackets of the respondents form the two districts.............................................13
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1: Map of Uganda showing the cattle corridor.........................................................................4
Fig. 2: Map of Uganda showing areas under the Teso framing system...........................................5
Fig. 3: Cost:Benefit analysis of FMD control in six districts visited.............................................25
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the Food and Agricultural organization for having
trusted me and accorded me the task of carrying out this consultancy. Dr.. David Nyakahuma of
FAO Rome, Dr. Rose Ademun, FMD national coordinator are thanked for the useful discussions
with regards to the concept and methodology. I wish to sincerely thank Dr. Ademun for her
contribution to the discussion especially with regard to the Teso farming system. My
appreciation goes to Dr. Rutebarika the PACE coordinator for the fruitful discussions regarding
the work.
I wish to thank Dr. E. Kabagambe for his invaluable contribution in the study design, execution
data analysis and modeling. The interest and his personal involvement were of great help in the
preparation or this report. The District Veterinary officers of Mbarara and Kumi and their
extension staff, the farmers are all recognized for their contribution during data collection. Last
but not least, Mr. G. Atuhaire for his careful driving while doing field work.
viii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report presents the findings of a study that was carried out to examine the implications and
consequences of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreaks on food security and household
incomes in Uganda. The study is a follow-up of an earlier one that investigated factors that
predispose to the occurrence of FMD in six districts of Mbarara, Ntungamo, Luwero, Mbale,
Pallisa and Kumi.
The objectives of this study were to:
Assess the implications and consequences of FMD outbreaks on food security and
household incomes.
Assess in financial terms, the costs associated with FMD outbreaks
Find out any other aspects relevant to FMD that can be extrapolated to other areas.
This study confined itself to two districts of Kumi and Mbarara, representing the Teso and the
pastoral farming systems, respectively. The study used qualitative and quantitative methods to
assess the implications and consequences of FMD outbreaks on food security and household
incomes. The qualitative methods were based on participatory workshops, group discussions and
personal interviews of farmers, pastoralists as well as local and central government officials in
the two districts. The quantitative aspects involved administration of a questionnaire to
households in the two districts to obtain data on income, expenditure, food acquisition, levels of
meal efficiency, agricultural technology used in crop production and coping mechanisms used in
FMD outbreaks. Those interviewed included farmers whose animals were affected as well as
those whose animals had not been affected during the outbreak. Kumi district was under
quarantine when this study was carried out.
Data from the questionnaire survey, the original FAO report from the six districts as well as
published data on FMD were used in a spreadsheet model to estimate the costs associated with
FMD outbreaks and their control assuming a 100% vaccination coverage and quarantine in the
six districts. The assumptions used in the model included those related to cattle production, trade
ix
of cattle and their products, lost government revenue (i.e., due to an increase in number of tax
defaulters as a result of FMD outbreaks) in addition to revenue foregone by various stakeholders
in the livestock industry.
The results of the study showed that FMD had severe effects on food security and household
incomes. This was manifested in the reduction of food production capacity. Because of FMD
outbreaks, ox ploughs in Teso were substituted with a less efficient method of using hand hoes
and this affected food production capacity as follows:
The size of area under cultivation was reduced from 67% to 38% during FMD outbreaks.
The price of oxen hire went up by 39% during FMD outbreaks and oxen owners lost
income as they could not hire them out because of fear of contracting FMD.
Growing of cash crops was affected by lack of ploughing oxen and farmers changed to
growing food crops and this greatly reduced their income.
There was shortage of agricultural labour as most farmers were doing similar agricultural
activities at the same time.
Foot and Mouth disease also affected the food situation at the household level. Among the
pastoralists, the proportion of households who could afford three meals in a day was reduced
from 38% to 9% during FMD outbreaks and at the same time, 53% of the households could only
afford one meal in a day. In addition, the consumption of lower grade maize meal increased
among pastoralist families during FMD outbreaks. Consumption of protein was reduced as
more starch was substituted during FMD outbreaks. In the Teso farming system, the proportion
of farmers buying food increased during FMD outbreaks. Poverty increased among households
as their monthly income was reduced and more demands in expenditure increased. Cattle prices
fell by 55% during FMD outbreaks resulting in increased number of cattle sold by pastoralists to
obtain the same income they would obtain in times of no FMD. At the same time, food prices
increased causing farmers to spend more when their income was low and this increased their
level of poverty and food insecurity
x
School attendance as well as social gatherings at funerals and markets was reduced and social
functions like weddings suspended. Grazing under FMD outbreaks increased environmental
degradation as a result of animals concentrating only in a small area that is under quarantine
restrictions. There were other factors which contributed to food insecurity and this included
drought, political instability, cattle raids, wild animals, crop pests and lack of a secure land
tenure system.
The farmers and pastoralists coped with problems of FMD outbreaks by doing communal
cultivation in Teso, selling off more of their livestock, borrowing money as well as foregoing
social activities. However, out migration of young men from villages to towns, lawlessness,
charcoal burning and brick making, which are environmentally destructive, increased during
FMD outbreaks.
The economic costs of FMD outbreaks showed that stakeholders in the livestock industry lost
income. The total amount of money lost due to FMD outbreak was calculated for the six districts
of Mbarara, Ntungamo, Mbale, Kumi, Pallisa and Luwero as US $ 8,010,000 and the cost of
complete control by 100% vaccine coverage, quarantine and monitoring as US$ 3,300,000
giving a benefit:cost ratio of 2.4. This indicates that if US$ 3,300,000 was spent for the control
of FMD, US$ 4,690,000 would be saved from getting lost as a result of FMD outbreaks in the six
districts. The results from this study indicate that a strong national FMD control programme
involving 100% vaccine coverage, strict quarantine enforcement and monitoring should be
instituted.
xi
1.0: INTRODUCTION:
1.1: Background:
The current status of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in Uganda indicates that it is endemic
in the country (Nantima, 2002). Disease outbreaks have recently been reported in several
districts and have been associated with movement of livestock in search of better markets,
water and pasture especially during the dry seasons. In addition, movement of animals
through restocking has also contributed to the spread of the disease (Nantima, 2002). Wild
animals play a major role in the dynamics of the disease especially around the Lake Mburo
area of Mbarara District. In Kapchorwa, the disease has been associated with movement of
animals by the Pokot of Northwestern Kenya (Nantima, 2002).
Whenever FMD breaks out in an area, it usually starts from a focal point from which it
spreads to other areas. As the disease spreads, it affects animals and causes considerable
economic loses among the various key players in the livestock industry. The disease causes
death among affected animals and those that do not die may remain sick for a long time.
There is a decrease in milk production, animals take long to mature and long to conceive. In
addition, the control of the disease involves cash outflow from farmers, donors and
governments in purchasing drugs and vaccines. During disease outbreaks, quarantines are
imposed necessitating closing of cattle markets. Livestock owners find it difficult to market
their animals and resort to selling them to middlemen and itinerant traders who flock the
areas that are under quarantine restrictions. Faced with a situation where there is no
competition as in cattle markets, such itinerant traders offer very low prices for the animals
and this affects the cash incomes of farmers and may threaten their food security.
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food for a healthy and active life (World Food Summit Plan
of Action Par.1, 1996). Food security embraces food production, stability of supply and
access to food. The three most important dimensions of food security are; ensuring a safe
and nutritionally adequate food supply at the national and household levels, a reasonable
degree of stability in the supply of food from year to year and ensuring that each household
1
has physical, social and economic access to enough food to meet its needs. Livestock play a
role in all the three dimensions of food security. They make a contribution to food
production through the provision of high value protein-rich animal products. They indirectly
support crop production through draught power and provision of manure. They stabilize
food supply as they can provide milk and meat all the year round in addition to being the
most significant source of income and store of wealth for small holders thereby providing
access to food all the time. Food insecurity therefore occurs if food production capacity is
affected or if there is instability in food supply and if there is inaccessibility to food as a
result of a reduced purchasing power of the population.
In an earlier survey, several possible predisposing factors that lead to the occurrence of
FMD were identified (Rutagwenda, 2002). However, because of shortage of time, it was not
possible to exhaust the consequences and implications of FMD on food security and
household incomes thus the need to extend the study. This report presents the findings of
the second study.
1.2: Terms of reference:
The terms of reference for this study were as follows:
1. To assess the implications and consequences of Foot and Mouth Disease
outbreaks on food security and household incomes.
2. To assess in financial terms the costs of FMD outbreaks.
3. To find out any other aspects relevant to the disease that can be extrapolated to
other areas.
2: METHODS OF THE STUDY:
2.1: Study sites:
2
Two farming systems were used in this study. A farming system was defined as an area
where the prevailing environmental conditions (physical, biological and human) allow
similar agricultural practices (MAAIF, 1997). The first was Sanga and Nyakashashara Sub-
counties in Nyabushozi County Mbarara District representing the pastoral farming system
where results obtained could be extrapolated to the cattle corridor (Fig. 1). The second was
Kumi district representing the Teso farming system where animal traction is used for
farming and whose results could be extrapolated to areas under similar farming systems
(Fig 2) (MAAIF 1997). In Kumi District, the study was carried out in three sub-counties of
Ongino, Kumi, and Ngora. In Ongino sub county, the study was carried out in Kachaboi,
Morupeded and Achelakweny parishes. In Kumi subcounty, two primary schools; Adesso
and Olelia were visited in addition to Ngora trading centre in Ngora sub county. Mbarara
and Kumi Districts were used in the first study and had yielded very useful information in
addition to representing the two farming systems.
2.2: Data collection:
The assessment of the implications and consequences of FMD on food security and
household incomes was conducted using qualitative and quantitative methods. The
qualitative methods were based on participatory workshops, group discussions and personal
interviews. The quantitative aspects of the study involved administration of a questionnaire
and analysis of household level data on income, expenditure and other economic activities.
Data from butchers, meat roasters, ghee vendors and other players in the livestock industry
was also collected.
3
Figure 1. Map of Uganda showing the cattle corridor.
4
KATAKWI
KUMISOROTI
KABERAMAIDO
PALLISA
90 0 90 180 Miles
Admin1.shpDistricts underTeso farming system.shp
N
EW
S
MAP SHOWING DISTRICTS UNDER THE TESO FARMING SYSTEM
Figure 2. Map of Uganda showing the areas under the Teso farming system.
5
2.2.1: Selection of farmers:
In each of the study sites, farmers were invited to participate in group discussions which
involved open ended questions being asked in these meetings to assess the economic
activities of farmers and evaluate problems caused by FMD and how they coped with the
outbreaks.
2.2.2: Personal interviews:
Personal interviews were held with staff of the veterinary department in both Mbarara and
Kumi Districts and officials from MAAIF. In addition, households from both districts were
interviewed (Appendix) in order to obtain household income and expenditure data, the
acquisition of food, the levels of meal efficiency, the agricultural technology used in crop
production, the coping mechanisms employed in FMD outbreaks and the cost of the
outbreak at the household level. Those interviewed included farmers who had had FMD in
their herds and those that were not affected by the FMD outbreaks. In Kumi District, the
study was carried out when the area was under FMD quarantine.
2.2.3: Secondary data:
Data from Sanga sub-county on tax collected was analyzed to find out the impacts of FMD
outbreak on tax collection in the sub-county. Data from the districts veterinary offices and
from the PACE office on the expenditure for controlling FMD was also used for calculating
economic losses due to the disease.
2.2.4: Data analysis:
The data obtained was managed and analyzed using Epi Info 2002 (CDC, 2002) to obtain
descriptive statistics of the various parameters investigated in the field. The results obtained
from the field were used to calculate the economic costs of FMD control in the districts
visited and extrapolated to the whole country.
6
3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
3.1: Effects of Foot and Mouth Disease on food security and household incomes:
3.1.1: Effects of FMD outbreak on food production capacity:
Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak had a significant effect on the food production capacity
especially in the Teso farming system and this was manifested in the region as follows.
3.1.1.1: Agricultural Technology:
The major source of agricultural labour for land preparation in the Teso farming system is
the use of oxen to plough the land. Oxen are either individually owned or hired. The use of
oxen in agricultural practices without and under FMD outbreaks is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Use of oxen in agricultural practices
Use Oxen (% respondents) Use hand labour (% respondents)
NO FMD 67 33
FMD 14 86
The result show that 67% of the respondents use oxen for cultivation when there is no FMD
and 86% use hand hoes when there is FMD. This is because the majority of farmers hire
oxen from oxen owners to carry out cropping activities. However, during FMD outbreaks,
fewer oxen are available for hire and the majority of those who use hired oxen are forced to
change to hand hoes. It was established that the work done by one pair of oxen in one day
takes on average 15 days to be completed by one man. Therefore changes in agricultural
technology from using oxen to hand hoes during FMD outbreaks is a less efficient way of
food production in the Teso farming system. As a result of this change in technology, the
following effects were observed.
3.1.1.2: Change in the cost of hire of oxen:
From the survey, 18% of the respondents said they hired oxen when there is no FMD. The
mean price of hire of a pair of oxen was 9,200/= with no FMD but increased to 12,800/=
during FMD outbreaks representing a 39% increase in price. The increase in price of hiring
7
oxen was due to the fear of disease transmission oxen owners had as a result of the FMD
outbreak. Those who were willing to risk their oxen charged higher prices. The use of oxen
for agriculture is therefore reduced during FMD outbreaks. Moreover, oxen that have
contracted FMD cannot plough the land and this greatly affects the food production capacity
of the area.
3.1.1.3: Loss of revenue by oxen owners:
The FMD outbreak caused loss of revenue to oxen owners who normally hire them out.
From the survey, it was established that the average income from hiring out a pair of oxen
by the owners in one season was 75,000/=. That means the owners do not earn that money if
they fail to hire out their oxen as a result of FMD outbreaks.
3.1.1.4: Change in size of cultivated area:
As a result of not using oxen but hand hoes, the size of the cultivated area is reduced.
From the survey, it was established that the size of agricultural land is reduced by 67% in
size during FMD outbreaks when ploughing oxen are not used. This was further confirmed
by observations and discussions with leaders and farmers in the field.
3.1.1.5: Change in yield per type of crop:
Because of reduction in size of the land that is normally under cultivation, there was a
decrease in crop yield. The reduction in crop yield is very critical because it was established
that for a family of 10 people, it would require the following yields to ensure food security.
3 gardens of cassava ( 18 bags)
3 gardens of groundnuts (18 bags)
1 garden of sorghum (6 bags)
1 garden of millet (6 bags)
1 garden of peas (6 bags)
1 garden of sweet potatoes (6 bags)
It would require 10 days for a pair of working oxen to produce this amount of food as a pair
normally ploughs one garden in a day. Without using oxen during FMD outbreaks, the
family would need 5 months to cultivate the same size of land with one man working every
8
day. However, the rainy season normally lasts only about three months and this would mean
that this family would not be able to produce the required amount of food to ensure food
security. In addition, agricultural time would be lost resulting in late planting because the
dry season normally starts after three months. The average family size according to the
survey was 12 people per household making food sufficiency at the household level a major
challenge (MFPED, 1996) but a real threat without animal labour.
3.1.1.6: Deterioration of agricultural land:
Agricultural land is an important asset for food production. However, as indicated in 3.1.1.4
above, 67% of the total cultivated area is not used because of the reduced capacity caused by
changing from the use of oxen to hand hoes. That indicates that previously used land for
crop production becomes bush. As a result, undesirable weeds tend to flourish in wasted
land and it becomes difficult to open up such land during the next planting season which
further contributes to reduction in food production
3.1.1.7: Change in crops cultivated:
Because of the difficulties caused by the FMD outbreaks where hand-hoes were used instead
of oxen, farmers changed from growing cash crops to fast growing food crops. The main
cash crop grown was said to be cotton which sells at 750/= per kilogram compared to 120/=
per kilogram of groundnuts. This means that farmers lost income by changing from growing
cotton to groundnuts as a result of FMD outbreaks. Growing cotton needs to be done on a
large scale and covering a wider area. This can only be done by using ox ploughs. With the
cotton industry, there is also the use of cotton seed cake for animal feeding which is not
realized when cotton is substituted by groundnuts as a result of FMD out breaks.
3.1.1.8: Shortage of agricultural labour:
As a result of the shift from using oxen to hand hoes, farmers complained of shortage of
labour to carry out agricultural activities. This is because almost all households are involved
in similar activities at the same time and it becomes difficult to get labour for agricultural
activities in addition to attending to sick animals.
9
This shows that food production capacity which is one of the key pillars of food security is
greatly affected by FMD outbreaks. The same effects can also be obtained as a result of
other epidemic disease outbreaks in the country.
3.1.2: Effects of FMD outbreak on household food situation:
As earlier observed, food insecurity occurs when there is instability in food supply from
time to time and when people do not access food because of the low purchasing power in
addition to the low agricultural production. At the household level, FMD outbreak had the
following effects on food security.
3.1.2.1: Food efficiency:
The proportion of respondents from the two districts who could afford 1, 2, or 3 meals per
day during and without FMD are shown in table 2.
Table 2: Number of meals per day in the two districts:
NUMBR OF
MEALS/DAY
MBARARA (% respondents) KUMI (% respondents)
No. FMD FMD NO. FMD FMD
1 11 53 0 0
2 51 38 42 75
3 38 9 58 25
The survey results show that 38% of the respondents in Mbarara could afford 3 meals in a
day when there was no FMD but this proportion dropped to 9% during FMD outbreaks. The
results further show that more than 50% of the respondents in Mbarara can only afford one
meal in a day during FMD outbreaks. In Kumi, 58% could afford 3 meals in a day but this
dropped to 25% during FMD outbreaks. The results also show that at least every body can
still afford two meals per day in Kumi even during FMD outbreaks. It was mentioned in
Kumi that households can still have the meals but reduce in quantities consumed during
FMD outbreaks.
10
3.1.2.2: Food sources:
Most food crops like beans, peas, cassava, matoke, groundnuts, millet and sweet potatoes
are grown in the Teso farming system. However, their availability varies from time to time
as some of them cannot be stored for use during critical periods. The availability of food
crops grown during FMD and normal times when there is no FMD is given in table 3.
Table 3: Proportion of food items grown and purchased during and when there is no FMD.
Food type No FMD (% respondents) Under FMD (%respondents)
Grown Purchased Grown Purchased
Cassava 81 19 19 81
Beans 30 70 17 83
Matoke 34 66 27 73
Groundnuts 100 0 14 86
Millet 96 4 0 100
Peas 95 5 11 89
Sweet potatoes 89 11 17 83
The results show that in the Teso farming system under no FMD, most of the respondents
grow the important food items themselves. The proportion of foods purchased when there is
no FMD is lower for every food category apart from beans and matooke. However, during
FMD outbreaks the proportion of respondents purchasing all the food items increases. The
results further show that the proportion of the respondents buying food increases during
FMD outbreaks as compared to when there is no FMD. The implications of this is that the
food production capacity is not sufficient to meet the demands of the population as they
have to purchase various food items. It was mentioned that during some seasons, the harvest
is good but most of the foods cannot be stored for critical periods. Farmers therefore tend to
sell food at cheap prices after harvest only to be insecure during the dry season and then buy
them at higher prices. They requested to be guided in knowledge of food preservation.
11
3.1.2.3: Food consumption patterns:
All the pastoralists interviewed indicated that they consumed mainly maize meal and
matoke purchased from the market and shops. However, during FMD outbreaks, more
maize meal and beans are consumed. Changes in food consumption patterns in Kumi were
not very apparent as they said that after harvest there is normally a wide variety of
categories of food items to eat. In Mbarara, it was stated (20% of the respondents) that
during FMD outbreaks the consumption of maize meal changes from grade 1 to grade 3. Of
course grade 3 is more nutritious than grade 1 because of the higher fibre content it contains
but because grade 1 is whiter, more sifted and finer, it is preferred than grade 3. It is also
more prestigious to eat grade 1 and families who buy grade 3 are considered poor
households. It was also established (30% of the respondents) that certain food items like
sugar and tea are completely done away with during FMD outbreaks. In addition milk would
be sold to neighbours in order to raise cash with which to buy maize meal. This of course
has implications especially on growing children if one is substituting proteins to starch
denying the children of an important protein source.
3.1.3: Effects of FMD outbreaks on household income and expenditure patterns:
3.1.3.1: Sources of Income:
The major source of income of the respondents is given in Table 4.
Table 4. Major source of income
Source
Kumi
( % respondents)
Mbarara
(% respondents)
Crops 70 6
Livestock 26 70
Others 4 24
The results show that 70% of the respondents from Kumi rated crops as their major source
of income while 30% obtained their income from livestock and other sources which
included trade and labour. Seventy percent of respondents in Mbarara stated that their
major source of income was livestock and only 6% depended on crops. The income bracket
12
of the respondents from the two districts was divided into 4 categories and the results are
summarized in table 5.
Table 5. Income brackets of the respondents from the two districts.
Income/month
(Shs)
NO FMD (% of the respondents) FMD (% of the respondents)
KUMI MBARARA KUMI MBARARA
< 10,000/= 13 12 29 87
10,000/= -
49,000/=
61 36 57 9
50,000/= -
100,000/=
13 30 14 4
> 100,000 13 22 - -
In both districts, income per household is reduced during FMD outbreaks. With no FMD,
61% of the respondents from Kumi stated that their monthly income is between 10,000 -
49.000/= with 13% of the respondents having a monthly income of over 100.000/= per
month with a similar number of respondents below 10.000/= per month. However, in
Mbarara the proportion of people with less then 10,000/= income increases from 12% when
there is no FMD to 87% during FMD outbreaks. Among the pastoralists, no one had an
income of more than 100,000/= per month. Poverty in Uganda is defined as lack of income,
material assets and absence of social aspects that support life. Poverty is also seasonal
depending in climatic patterns that create seasonality in production and disease incidence
coupled with seasonality of expenditure that fluctuate in levels from year to year (UNDP,
2002). It clearly shows that FMD increases poverty among the population especially among
pastoralists whose major source of income is from livestock. Poverty is also a big problem
for Kumi because the proportion of people with less than 10,000/= income per month
doubles and no body earns more than 100,000/= per month like when there is no FMD.
13
3.1.3.1.1: Number of animals sold:
The results from Mbarara showed that the average number of animals sold per household
per year is 10. However, during the FMD quarantine of three months, each family would
sell on average 6 animals to be able to afford the needs of the family which were mainly
animal drugs and food. That shows that many animals are sold during FMD outbreaks than
when there is no disease. When asked to chose only one item to be bought during the FMD
outbreak, 95% of the respondents chose animal drugs with food obtaining a mere 5%
arguing that only healthy animals were a good source of livelihood.
3.1.3.1.2: Prices of animals:
The average price of a mature cow when there is no FMD was given as 290.000/= but went
down to 130.000/= during FMD outbreak. This shows that a household has to sell more
than two animals during FMD outbreak to realize the value of one animal. This supports the
observation made in 3.1.3.1.1 above.
3.1.3.2: Expenditure patterns during outbreaks:
As observed elsewhere in this report, several factors contribute to changes in the expenditure
patterns during disease outbreaks. The incomes are reduced, food prices increase and the
family needs change because it has to deal with a crisis when the purchasing power is low.
Therefore patterns of expenditure shift to only critical needs and the family has to devise
survival strategies. During FMD outbreaks, several social obligations are completely
suspended. In the Teso region, the number of Ajon (local brew) drinking places is reduced
and most people completely give up drinking. This is also the same with pastoralists. The
contributions to weddings and funerals is also reduced, children may fail to go to school
because of school fees as the only emphasis on expenditure is on animal drugs and food if
money can be obtained.
3.1.3.2.1: Major drugs used during outbreaks:
The major drugs used by the farmers during FMD outbreaks were mainly antibiotics and
antiseptics to manage wounds caused by the disease. All the respondents said they used
antibiotics but only 40% said they used antiseptics to clean the wounds in addition to the
14
antibiotic treatments. Long acting oxy tetracycline accounted for 90% of the antibiotic used
while Penstrep accounted for 10%.
3.1.3.2.2: Cost of animal drugs:
The mean cost of drugs for treatment was 190,232/=. This ranged between 50,000/= to
800,000/= depending on the number of animals treated.
3.1.3.2.3: Increase in prices of food items:
All the respondents indicated that food items increase during FMD outbreaks. This is
significant in food insecurity because as indicated in 3.1.3.1 above, the income of the
farmers and therefore their purchasing power is low. And as mentioned earlier, food
insecurity occurs if there is inaccessibility of food as a result of reduced purchasing power
of the population. This was reported during FMD outbreaks and therefore the disease
contributes significantly to food insecurity.
3.1.4: Effects of FMD outbreaks on social services:
3.1.4.1: School attendance:
There are times when school attendance in both study areas is reduced. Lack of food and
increased labour demands were cited as the major reasons for the withdrawal of children
from school. “Up to 30% of the school enrollment may not turn up in the second term”
affirmed teachers from Adesso and Olelia primary schools in Kumi. This trend is due to the
fact that there is increased labour demands during FMD outbreaks and also because there is
no money for fees. Very few households can afford to hire extra outside labour to help so
they greatly rely on the family labour to do all the jobs of working in gardens and looking
after animals. The withdrawal of children from school is critical as it affects their
performance.
3.1.4.2: Access to markets:
Cattle markets are big events in the pastoralist’s calendar. These are held regularly on
weekly, bi monthly or monthly basis. These markets not only serve as avenues for selling
cattle and buying essentials like animal drugs and food, they are also centers for meeting and
15
socializing among pastoralists. They serve as meeting places where market information is
shared. They also serve as meeting places for social transactions among the community. For
example when a donation involving cattle is made, the animals may be driven to the market
and the person receiving the cow picks it from the market and takes it to his home. As a
result of FMD and quarantines, all these social gatherings do not take place and no wonder
cattle traders who come buying animals from pastoralists pay little money because
pastoralists have no way of knowing the current cattle prices.
3.1.4.3: Access to credits:
As a result of closing cattle markets during quarantines, pastoralists have to obtain credits
from business people but there are always at exorbitant interest rates. What usually happens
is that a pastoralist gives a cow or bull to a shop owner and takes goods from the shop until
the money equivalent is exhausted. However, pastoralists complained that shop owners
sometimes cheat them as the pastoralists may not be able to keep a proper record of the cost
of items removed from the shop. They end up losing many animals in this barter with shop
owners.
3.1.5: Effects of FMD outbreaks on natural resource utilization:
From years of experience, pastoralists have developed numerous strategies to cope with
economic and ecological challenges in their often harsh environment (Morton, 2002). Most
of these strategies revolve around the flexibility that is offered by the mobility of livestock.
In times of water and pasture shortages, pastoralists move in the cattle corridor until they
find sufficient water and pasture for their livestock. The pastoralists may also split their
herds with one part remaining at the homestead to provide milk for the household and the
other part moving to look for better pastures. When the situation improves, the part of the
herd that had moved comes back to the original home. This is also done to even out the
odds should there be a severe drought or serious disease outbreak, at least part of the herd
would remain to provide starting stock. This is also a way to manage the fragile rangeland
ecosystem in which pastoralists live without concentrating their stock in one area (Pratt and
Gwyne, 1963). However, when FMD breaks out, this mobility is restricted by quarantines.
Cattle are restrained and graze in the same place exhausting pasture and water. Their
16
production is reduced and animals are prone to other diseases. The ecosystem is
considerably damaged by overgrazing leading to a vicious cycle of poverty. The animals do
not look healthy and itinerant traders take advantage and buy them “at throw away prices”
commented one elder in Sanga.
3.1.6: Diminishing benefits associated with FMD outbreaks:
An indirect effect of FMD and indeed other epidemic diseases are resistance of the
population especially pastoralists to benefits of improved technology in animal production.
Exotic animals were imported into Uganda to enhance milk and meat productivity. Cross
breeding programes between exotic and local breeds were started in order to improve the
productivity of the local breeds. It is a well established fact that the productivity of exotic,
crosses and indigenous breeds decreases in that order. However, pastoralists expressed a
reluctance to acquire high yielding animals for fear of FMD and other diseases. It was
revealed that pastoralists from Bukanga sub county Mbarara District refused to take high
breeding animals offered by the Prime Minister’s office under the restocking programe for
fear of FMD and other diseases. They argued that only local breeds could survive FMD
although they are of low productivity. Obviously these farmers cannot benefit from higher
productivity offered by the exotic animals. The low productivity of indigenous animals
especially in marginal areas increases the food insecurity problems.
3.1.7: Other factors contributing to reduced incomes and food insecurity:
3.1.7.1: Drought:
Drought was major cause of food insecurity according to 85% of the respondents in
Mbarara and 32% of Kumi. For the pastoralists, drought was associated with lack of water
and pasture necessitating the animals to move out of their homes. Some moved into Lake
Mburo National park from where they contracted diseases. Others move into northern
Tanzania where animal diseases are a problem in addition to families now having to split
with some members living with the animals and others staying in the homesteads with
insufficient food.
17
3.1.7.2: Political instability:
Insurgency in Teso was mentioned by 36% of the respondents as one major cause of food
insecurity in the region. This is because there were a lot of insecurity in the area and people
could not attend to their gardens. As a result, there was little farming activity carried out
and most families were food insecure. In Mbarara, political instability was also mentioned
especially during wars of 1979 and 1985 when families had to migrate and others could not
attend to their livestock. Many animals died because of lack of care and animal drugs and
families were insecure as far as food security was concerned.
3.1.7.3: Cattle raids:
Cattle raids by the Karimajong from the Teso region have according to 25% of the
respondents contributed to food insecurity. The raids deny the population of cattle to
provide milk, meat and the cash income. They also deny them the work force for land
preparation as ox ploughing is a major component of agricultural practice in the region.
3.1.7.4: Wild animals:
Wild animals were mentioned by 15% of respondents from Mbarara as a problem associated
with food security. This is because the wild animals especially wild pigs destroy crops from
the area of study near lake Mburo National park and this had discouraged them from
attempting to do crop agriculture.
3.1.7.5: Plant diseases:
Plant diseases especially cassava mosaic and groundnut rosette had according to 33% of the
respondents from Kumi contributed to food insecurity. This is because the diseases affect
the crops and greatly reduce the yields.
3.1.7.6: Lack of land:
The study in Mbarara was conducted among pastoralists living in the Ankole Ranching
Scheme. These were originally squatters who were allocated land by Government in the
ranching scheme. However, 35 % of the respondents said that lack of sufficient land was a
18
problem to food security. This is because they felt that they land allocated to them was not
sufficient to carry out crop agriculture as well as animal farming.
3.1.8: Coping mechanisms:
There are several mechanisms by which the farmers were found to use in coping with
problems associated with food insecurity. From years of experience, pastoralists have
developed numerous strategies to cope with economic, political and ecological challenges in
their often harsh environment (Morton and Meadows, 2002). Pastoralism is more than an
extensive production system that exploits the natural resources. It is away of life (Swift and
Hamilton, 2002). It is often confined to regions with high environment constraints and
therefore bound to the changes of climate and resources. The more the arid the
environment, the higher the increase in pastoralism and the greater is the risk to food
security. Several coping mechanisms to food insecurity which were found among
pastoralists included selling cattle, borrowing from friends, having income generating
business, casual labour and migration. In the Teso farming system, food purchases,
reduction in size of meals, growing fast maturing crops, income generating business and
communal labour. It is important to discuss how some of these mechanisms work.
3.1.8.1: Communal labour:
It was mentioned in the Teso farming system that during times of food crisis as in FMD
outbreaks, farmers come together to contribute agricultural labour to one individual (Eitai).
They dig for one person and move to dig for another in a rotational communal basis. This is
done for activities like weeding and harvesting which needs to be completed as fast as
possible. What is only needed is for the farmer to prepare local millet wine (Ajon) with
which communal labour is done.
3.1.8.2: Liquidation of assets:
Selling assets during times of crisis was common among the respondents. The major assets
sold were cattle. 47% of the respondents in Mbarara said they sell cattle as quick way of
raising income to buy food during the crisis period created by FMD outbreaks. The average
19
number of cattle sold during the crisis period as seen earlier is higher than during the normal
period.
3.1.8.3: Borrowing:
This was common among the pastoralists as 50% of the respondents admitted that they
borrow money from their friends in times of severe shortage. The borrowing among
pastoralists involved cash or taking credits of food from the shops till markets opened when
they would be able to pay back. A pastoralist would borrow a bull or a mature cow from a
friend, sell it to raise cash and would pay in kind a similar animal later. Borrowing was only
reported by 4% of respondents from Kumi
3.1.8.4: Income from side business:
Among the respondents, were shop owners whose coping mechanisms involved income
from business especially trade. Other people would take up casual labour to raise money to
buy food during the crisis period.
3.1.8.5: Foregoing of certain items:
It was mentioned earlier that during times of crisis, households especially pastoralist
families would forego taking sugar in their tea.. Drinking of alcohol would also be reduced
Farmers in the Teso farming system forego Ajono drinking during periods of outbreaks. A
trader who normally sold 5 crates a beer and 10 of soda per day would now be selling one
crate of beer in 3 days and 1 crate of soda per day. Other social activities like wedding and
dowry payments would all be suspended.
At the same time payment of graduated tax also goes down. In Sanga subcounty, the number
of tax defaulters went up by 6%. All these are done in order to reduce expenditure as the
level of poverty in the household increases.
3.1.8.6: Marketing by proxy:
A survival strategy according to 45% of the pastoralists interviewed was that of animal
exchange. This worked in situations where a household would not have a category of
animals that is preferred by the livestock traders usually mature cows and big bulls. An
20
arrangement would be made with another pastoralist to exchange two or three young heifers
with the adult cow which would then be sold to generate cash income. However, in terms of
numbers, this could indicate that the herd size of the person borrowing would be reduced
tremendously. The other alternative would be to request his friend to give him an animal
which would be sold and this would be replaced later.
3.1.8.7: Coping mechanisms with negative implications:
There are several coping mechanisms which according to the local authorities have negative
implications and these include:
3.1.8.7.1: Out migration:
Out migration was reported in Kumi district as one of the coping mechanism during FMD
outbreaks. This involves young men moving out of the villages to towns like Kumi , Soroti
and Mbale just “ to do nothing” according to one councilor. However, with many
unemployed young men in town, chances of engaging themselves in lawless activities is
high and this is a concern to the authorities.
3.1.8.7.2: Lawlessness:
Lawlessness was mentioned by local officials in Mbarara as of major concern during FMD
outbreaks. Livestock thefts were said to increase by 10% in Sanga and Nyakashashara sub
counties of Mbarara district during FMD outbreaks. These thefts were attributed to young
men who were redundant in trading centers with no economic activities as a result of closing
cattle markets.
3.1.8.7.3: Charcoal burning and brick making:
Charcoal burning as a means of raising income was said to increase in Mbarara area during
FMD outbreaks. Charcoal burning involves cutting down of trees and this is an obvious
environmentally unfriendly act to an already fragile ecosystem where pastoralists live. In
addition, making bricks also involves cutting down trees to make bricks and this contributes
to environmental degradation.
21
3.2: The economic costs of FMD outbreaks:
A cost benefit analysis of controlling FMD by vaccination and quarantine was done in order
to find out the economic costs of FMD outbreak. This analysis is described in detail in the
next sections.
22
24
25
Figure 3. Cost:Benefit analysis of FMD control in six districts visited.
26
Methodology:
A spreadsheet model in Excel (Microsoft Office XP) was used to estimate the costs
associated with FMD outbreaks and the costs associated with control of FMD by 100%
vaccine coverage and quarantine. The model inputs were obtained from (a) published
data, (b) FAO report on FMD effects in Uganda (Rutagwenda, 2002) and (c)
questionnaire interviews in Kumi (representing the Teso farming system) and from
Mbarara (representing the pastoral system). Model outputs are presented in Uganda
shillings and in US$. In all the computations the following assumptions were made.
General assumptions
1. The average dollar exchange rate is US$1 to UShs. 1800.
2. FMD effects last for at least 90 days, the average duration of quarantine in most
districts.
3. Salaries for regulatory veterinarians in charge of control of FMD were computed
assuming that they work all year round and that for each district there would be 3
veterinarians spending 6 nights in the field per month.
4. It was assumed that there is no significant export of animals and animal products in
Uganda that has greatly been impacted by FMD outbreaks. In addition, it was
assumed that outbreaks and effects of FMD in pigs and small ruminants are not
significant in Uganda.
Assumptions on costs directly related to cattle
5. It was assumed that 10% of all cattle in an FMD area are at risk of FMD and that
FMD causes mortality of up to 10%.
6. It was also assumed that 20% of cattle are in lactation and that on average each
cow’s milk production decreased by 10% due to FMD. The average milk production
per cow per day was assumed to be 3 Litres. The cost of a litre of milk was reported
at 300/= in times of no FMD.
7. Because of quarantine restrictions—usually for 90 days—the milk prices fall by 33%.
8. Published morbidity rates for FMD (80%) were used in this study. A 5% loss in value
of an adult cattle following clinical FMD was assumed.
9. It was estimated from the FMD survey that on average a farmer spends 10,000/= on
treating one animal for FMD.
10. It was further assumed that 40% of cattle are of breeding age and 50% of affected
cattle will get reproductive problems.
Assumptions on costs related to trade of cattle and their products
11. These were based on survey data in Sanga and Nyakashara subcounties in Mbarara
district and are outlined in the attached spreadsheet.
Assumptions on the computation of lost government revenue
The FMD survey in Sanga and Nyakashara showed that in times of FMD the percentage
of tax defaulters increased by 13%. Because Sanga and Nyakashara are pastoral areas and
are more likely to have been more impacted by FMD that other places, a tax default rate
attributable to FMD outbreak and quarantine was set at 10%. It was also assumed that of
the published 4,000,000 graduated tax payers in the 56 districts in Uganda, about 50,000
are in each study district.
28
4. 0: CONCLUSIONS:
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study.
1. Foot and Mouth Disease greatly affects food security and household incomes in
Uganda by reducing the food production capacity of farmers.
When there is FMD, the use of oxen for ploughing land is reduced because
oxen owners fear hiring them out. This reduces the size of land ploughed
for crop agriculture and decreases household income because their oxen
are not hired.
The price of hire of a pair of oxen increases by 39% during FMD
outbreaks.
Using hand hoes as a substitute for oxen is a less efficient way of food
production and this leads to low yields as less land is cultivated during
FMD outbreaks.
Farmers shift from growing cash crops to annual food crops which
generate less household income.
2. Foot and Mouth Disease affects the availability of food to the households.
The number of pastoral households who can afford three meals in a day is
reduced from 38% to 9% during FMD outbreaks.
More than 50% of pastoral households can only afford one meal a day
during FMD outbreaks while it was only 11% during times of no FMD.
Consumption of poor quality maize meal increases and certain food items
are withdrawn from their menu during FMD outbreaks.
3. Foot and Mouth Disease increases the levels of poverty and reduces the
purchasing power of pastoralists and farmers in Uganda.
Cattle prices fall by 55% during FMD outbreaks.
Pastoralists have to double the number of animals sold in order to meet
their financial obligations.
Demands for drugs and food go up during FMD outbreaks and food prices
increase.
29
To maintain their living standards households have to spend more money
at a time when their income sources are reduced. This increases their level
of poverty.
Pastoralists are reluctant to upgrade their livestock for fear of FMD and
other diseases and prefer to keep indigenous animals which have low
productivity. This prevents farmers from improving their household
incomes.
4. Foot and Mouth Disease causes disruption in the social lives of the farmers.
School drop out rate increases during FMD outbreaks.
Social gatherings e.g., funerals and weddings are reduced.
There is an increase of young men migrating to towns to look for
employment.
Lawlessness as well as charcoal burning and brick making increase. The
latter severely damage the environment.
5. Foot and Mouth Disease, especially if it occurs during the dry season, causes
environmental degradation as animals are forced to concentrate in small grazing
areas that are under the quarantine.
6. Foot and Mouth Disease causes loss of money to Government, farmers and other
stakeholders. The loss of revenue as a result of FMD outbreak in the districts of
Mbarara, Ntungamo, Luwero, Pallisa, Mbale and Kumi was estimated at US$
8,010,000. The total cost of control of FMD by vaccination (100% coverage),
quarantine and monitoring in the six districts was estimated at US$ 3,300,000
giving a benefit:cost ratio of 2.4.
30
5. 0: RECOMMENDATIONS:
It is strongly recommended that a strong national FMD vaccination strategy
involving 100% vaccination coverage, strict quarantine restrictions and
monitoring of the vaccinated cattle for vaccine efficacy should be instituted. The
key elements of the strategy will be to:
Ensure 100% vaccination coverage
Establish a vaccine bank in the country for emergency disease outbreaks.
This will involve availability of the vaccine in the country within the
shortest time possible.
Sufficient mobilization of farmers on the effects of FMD and its control.
Ensuring that there is sufficient logistical support to the field veterinarians
to carry out vaccination as quickly as possible.
Ensure adherence to quarantine restrictions
The central and local administration should work together to ensure strict
adherence to quarantine restrictions.
Regular checks on highways for animal movement should be instituted.
Regulations on trade of livestock and livestock products should be
enforced.
Clearly gazette holding grounds where impounded animals found to be
breaking quarantine restrictions should be established.
Foot and mouth disease sero-monitoring
Improve the capacity to monitor the serological status of vaccinated
animals and be able to type each particular FMD outbreak.
31
6.0 REFERENCES
MAAIF (1997): Meat Production Master Plan study. Draft Final Report. Ministry of
Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Uganda.
MFPED (1996): National Food Strategy Report. Ministry of Planning and Economic
Development. Entebbe Government of Uganda Publications.
Morton J., and N. Meadows (2000): Pastoralism and Sustainable Livelihoods: An
Emerging Agenda, Policy Series 11. Chatham, UK, Natural Resources Institute,
University of Greenwich.
Nantima, N. (2002): Current disease status in the country, PACE Uganda Bulletin,
September – December 2002. PACE Office, MAAIF Entebbe.
Pratt D.J., and Gwynne M.D., (1963): Rangeland Management and ecology in East
Africa, London Sidney, Aukland, Toronto. Hodder and Staughton.
Rutagwenda T., (2002): Report on the study of the Implications and Consequences of
Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak in Selected Districts in Uganda. FAO office Kampala.
Swift J., and K., Hamilton (2000): Household Food and Livelihood Security. In Devereux
S and Maxwell S (Eds) Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa, London, ITDG/IDS.
UNDP, (2002): Eradicating poverty by transforming subsistence agriculture to
commercial agriculture. UNDP 2002 Report.
32
7. 0 APPENDIX
Baseline data for the effect of FMD on food security and household incomes
Basic information
Last name____________________ First name____________________________
Date_________ District_____________________
Number of persons in the household -------------------------------
Food security
1. In order to consider your household secure in terms of food what must you have?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. What are your staple foods with and without FMD quarantine?
Without FMD With FMD Reason for change
Food Grown Purchased Grown Purchased
Matooke
Cassava
Potatoes
Millet
Posho
Peas
Beans
Groundnuts
Vegetables
Tea/Sugar
3. On average, how many meals do you have per day?
Without
FMD
With
FMD
Reason for change
Meals/day
33
FMD effect on agricultural technology and farm outputs
Variable Witho
ut
FMD
With
FMD
Reason for change
How land is
ploughed
for food
Hand
Oxen
Labour
Source of
oxen
Own
Hired
Other
Price of hire of an ox
Availability
of oxen
Readily available
No readily
available
Acreage
used for
food
production
¼ of the land
½ of the land
¾ of the land
All the land
Types of crops grown (list
below)
House hold incomes
What is your major source of income from? Tick the most important source of income
only. Livestock____ Crops________ Other_______
34
Witho
ut
FMD
With
FMD
Reason for change
Which of the
following
categories best
describes your
monthly
household income?
<10,000/= pm
10,000-49,000/= pm
50,000-100000/= pm
>100,000/= pm
Without FMD
With FMD
Reason for change
Where do you spend most of your household income?
Food
Livestock drugs, salt,
etc
Social events e.g.,
weddings, funerals,
etc
Coping strategies in times of financial stress
Liquidate assets
Forego certain servicesBorrow
Any other
KUMI
1. How much time can 2 men take to dig an area that is ploughed by a pair of bulls?
2. Compare prices of food items during and not so good a harvest.
3. What happens to the population during disease outbreaks?
4. What is the price of 1 kilo of cotton?
5. What is the price of 1 kilo of groundnuts?
6. Which are the critical months as far as food security is concerned?
7. When was the last time your family was insecure with regards to food?
35
8. What had happened? How did you cope?
9. What advice can you give to avoid such a situation?
MBARARA
1. How many animals do you normally sell in a year?
2. During the last outbreak how many did you sell?
3. Which drugs did you use?
4. What was the cost?
5. How many animals did you sell and where in the last quarantine?
6. Which are the critical months as far as food security is concerned?
7. When was the last time your family was insecure with regards to food?
8. What had happened? How did you cope?
9. What advice can you give to avoid such a situation?
36