1 word roots: cata- = down ana- = up kinet- = movement therm- = heat ex- = out endo- = within allo-...
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Word Roots:
cata- = down
ana- = up
kinet- = movement
therm- = heat
ex- = out
endo- = within
allo- = different
AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Metabolism• The sum of an organism’s chemical reactions
• Molecules being altered in a series of steps resulting in a product
Enzyme 1 Enzyme 2 Enzyme 3
Chemical Reactions
A DCB
•Catabolism
•Anabolism
AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Energy•Kinetic
•Potential
•Thermal
•Chemical
ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu
www.wildlandfire.com
AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
?
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AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Thermodynamics – the study of the energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter.
The laws that govern energy
The 1st law of thermodynamics
-Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only change forms.-Conservation of Energy
What does that tell you about the total energy in the universe? It is always the same.
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AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
The 2nd law of thermodynamics- With EVERY transfer of energy a bit is leaked to the surroundings (you can never transfer 100% of the energy) and in turn the universe ALWAYS becomes more disordered over time.
The question is, what does “disordered” mean?
Physical disintegration of a systems organized structure
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Explain “energy” and how it behaves.AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
DisorderFill it with gasoline and start using it. The chemical PE of the gas will be transferred to the engine as it gets burned causing the engine to move and rotate, which will transfer KE to the wheels. As you drive you are transferring KE to the air and the road as friction. All along, what is happening to your car?
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Explain “energy” and how it behaves.
- DNA will mutate as we are hit with UV light (energy transfer).
AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Disorder
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Explain “energy” and how it behaves.
Disorder
Cheetah converting chemical energy stored in food to kinetic energy in muscle contractions to run, disorder added to surroundings in the form of heat and by-products of metabolism
AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Second law of thermodynamics: Every energy transfer or transformation increasesthe disorder (entropy) of the universe. For example, disorder is added to the cheetah’ssurroundings in the form of heat and the small molecules that are the by-productsof metabolism.
(b)
Heat co2
H2O+
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AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
The 2nd law of thermodynamics
- With EVERY transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe
Entropy
-The terms we use to measure disorder. -The greater the entropy, the greater the disorder (the further away we are from the desired state).
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First law of thermodynamics: Energy can be transferred or transformed but Neither created nor destroyed. For example, the chemical (potential) energy in food will be converted to the kinetic energy of the cheetah’s movement in (b).
Chemicalenergy
Second law of thermodynamics: Every energy transfer or transformation increasesthe disorder (entropy) of the universe. For example, disorder is added to the cheetah’ssurroundings in the form of heat and the small molecules that are the by-productsof metabolism.
(b)
Heat co2
H2O+
AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Summary
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AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
How are we [life]able to be so ordered?
•Organisms create order using energy.
•Energy flows into the ecosystem as light (via anabolism) and leaves as heat (via catabolism)
•Disorder of the universe increases.
Now let’s talk about life (think of humans). What do we define as ordered?
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AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Endergonic Reactions• Reactions that require energy to happen (need something to accelerate them)
ADP + Pi ATP The synthesis of ATP
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 photosynthesis
-Absorbs free energy from its surroundings
-Stores free energy in its molecules
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Fig 5.3A
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
endergonic
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to MetabolismAIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
Energonic reactions are said to be:
NOT spontaneous (they do not spontaneously happen [occur by themselves] – they NEED an input of
energy)
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Exergonic Reactions• Reactions that transfers energy away (gives off energy)
ATP ADP + Pi Hydrolysis of ATP
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O cellular respiration
-Both of these reactions will occur without the input of outside energy (other than activation energy)
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
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Fig 5.3B
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to MetabolismAIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
exergonic
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to MetabolismAIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
Exergonic reactions are said to be:
Spontaneous (they do spontaneously happen [occur by themselves] – no energy input required)
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
How can we describe the energy in substances that is available to accelerate matter (do work)?
This available energy is called FREE ENERGY(energy that if free – meaning available – to accelerate matter)
Free energy = Gibbs Free Energy = G
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to MetabolismAIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
Let’s go back now and look at endergonic and exergonic reactions with Free Energy (G) in mind…
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Endergonic Reactions
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to MetabolismAIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
Reactions that require energy to happen (need something to accelerate them):
ADP + Pi ATP The synthesis of ATP
ΔG = +7.3 kcal/mol
ΔG = the change in (Δ) free energy (G) as you go from reactants to products
Therefore:1. The product (ATP) has more AVAILABLE energy than the reactants (ADP and P). Every mole of ATP has 7.3 kcal more available energy than a mole of ADP and P.
2. A +ΔG tells you the reactions is endergonic and therefore NOT SPONTANEOUS
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Endergonic Reactions
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to MetabolismAIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
How about photosynthesis? What do you know for sure about ΔG?
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
ΔG = +686 kcal/mol
Therefore, every mole of Glucose has 686 kcal more energy than a mole of water and CO2 (oxygen doesn’t have any free energy to speak of as the electrons are held quite tightly).
You know that photosynthesis doesn’t happen without an input of energy to get those electrons to move from water to CO2 and therefore if you input energy the products should have more available energy than the reactants…ΔG will be positive.
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
Reverse an Endergonic Rx What do you get?
ADP + Pi ATP(endergonic)
ATP ADP + Pi(exergonic)
reverse it
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”What about if we reverse these reactions in terms of free energy?
ATP ADP + Pi Hydrolysis of ATP
ADP + Pi ATP Dehydration synthesis of ATP
ΔG = +7.3 kcal/mol
ΔG = -7.3 kcal/mol
You simply reverse the sign of ΔG since the products (ADP and P) will now have less available energy than the reactant (ATP).
A -ΔG tells us that energy is lost and this reaction is exergonic and therefore SPONTANEOUS.
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to MetabolismAIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
Exergonic Endergonic
Spontaneous?
ΔG (+ or -)
Available Energy of products compared to reactants
Free Energy change (ΔG)
YES NoNegative(-)
Positive (+)
Products have less energy Products have
more energy
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
What is the sign for ΔG in each case?
ΔG is negative since both involve the release of energy and are spontaneous
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How is free energy change ΔG calculated?
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
Free Energy – the portion of an organism’s energy that can do work.
Enthalpy – a measure of heat energy.
Temperature – in Kelvin (formula assumes constant temperature)
Entropy – the measure of disorder.
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
ΔG = ΔH - TΔSΔH = change in enthalpy or change in total internal energy over the course of the reaction.
1. You can think of it like “heat”a. A negative ΔH (-ΔH) means that “heat energy” is lost by the reactants
b. A positive ΔH (+ΔH) means that “heat energy” is gained by the reactants
- Would this promote a spontaneous reactions (-ΔG)?
Yes, energy being released
- Would this promote a spontaneous reactions (-ΔG)?
No, requires energy
One must focus calculate two components…ΔH and ΔS, and know the temperature (T):
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Fig 8.5
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
ΔS = change in entropy (measure of disorder) over the course of the reaction.
b. A negative ΔS (-ΔS) means that disorder is decreased or the products are more ordered
a. A positive ΔS (+ΔS) means that disorder is increased or the products are more disordered
- Would this promote a spontaneous reactions?
No
- Would this promote a spontaneous reactions?
Yes
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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•When the value of ΔG is negative then the system has lost free energy.
•This is favored by cells
•In order for ΔG to be negative the system must either:
•give up enthalpy – lose heat – (H must decrease)
•give up order (TΔS must increase – disorder is favored)
•Both (H must decrease and S must increase)
•Losing Free Energy is favored by the universe
• - ΔG is “spontaneous”
• +ΔG is “non-spontaneous”
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Free energy = measure of system stability•High G – unstable system
•Low G – stable system
•Change in G (ΔG) can drive work.
•Max stability – equilibrium – G is lowest
•Change from equilibrium has a +ΔG and is not favored in closed systems
•However, living things are open systems and generally do not reach equilibrium
•Systems naturally favor moving high ΔG to lower ΔG
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Equilibrium & Metabolism•Reactions in closed systems usually reach equilibrium
•Reactions in open systems usually do not
•Cells harness these ‘downhill’ reactions to do work.
•“Downhill” = exergonic
•A cell that has reached metabolic equilibrium is DEAD
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Cells can perform 3 kinds of work:
•Mechanical: ex: cilia beating
•Transport: ex: pumping substances
•Chemical: ex: synthesis
How does one get anendergonic process to occur?
If something needs to lose energy, what kind of reaction will that be?
An exergonic reaction.
Therefore, an exergonic reaction will be required to make and endergonic reaction proceed.
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•Energy coupling: energy released by an exergonic reaction in a cell will be used to power a “coupled” endergonic one
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Energy Coupling
This is called:
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• ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
•5-carbon sugar
•Nitrogenous base: adenine
•3 identical functional groups
Mutual repulsion creates high - ΔG
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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ATP + H2O ADP + Pi
•ΔG = -7.3 kcal/mol
•‘High’ energy bonds result from interactions between phosphate groups – compressed spring.
•Creating ADP is an exergonic reaction: lowers free energy
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
•Hydrolysis of ATP decreases ΔG and creates heat.
•Enzymes couple ATP hydrolysis (an exergonic reaction) with endergonic reactions.
•Inorganic phosphate is attached to another molecule
•Creates an intermediate – more reactive
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•Exergonic reactions release the energy that power endergonic ones
•Catabolism powers anabolism
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
(Cell respiration)
Protein synthesis,DNA synthesis,RNA synthesis,Active transport, etc
ATP Regeneration•ADP + Pi ATP + H2O
•Energy comes from catabolism
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Interesting facts:
•Muscle cells regenerate 10 million molecules of ATP in 1 second.
•Humans would use their body’s weight in ATP every day if it were not recyclable.
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”
1. Cell Respiration (make fuel - transfer the energy)
2. Biosynthesis
3. Storage
What is the fate of the food you eat?
(exergonic) (endergonic)
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
1. Exergonic reactions like hydrolysis of polymers into monomers are spontaneous, which means they will happen all by themselves without an input of energy. The problem is that they typically happen far too_______ to sustain life.
SLOWLY
PROBLEM:
It would take years for the food you eat to hydrolyze down to monomers without any assistance and it might hydrolyze improperly resulting in molecules you cannot use…
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
2. The desired chemical reaction may not be the reaction that occurs…
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
What type of molecule is making all of these anabolic (endergonic) and catabolic (exergonic) reaction happen at a reasonable, life sustaining rate?
AIM: Describe chemical reactions in terms of “energy”.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
Enzymes2. Speed up SPECIFIC reactions
Enzymes orient the substrates properly for the proper reaction to occur in the proper amount of time…
1. Biological protein catalysts (remember enzymes are proteins)
The reaction would have happened by itself, it just takes too long
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
What does this figure depict?
This barrier is a symbol of the activation energy needed. The beans need a bit of starter energy (activation energy) to get them over the barrier before they can fall…
How do enzymes speed up reactions?
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AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Enzymes lower the activation energy
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Enzymes catalyze reactions by:
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
•Providing proper orientation
•Stressing bonds and creating transition states
•Providing favorable microenvironments
•Participating in reaction directly
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•Macromolecules are rich in free energy, so decomposition is naturally favored
•EA very high for natural decomposition, enzymes lower EA, allowing reactions to progress more quickly
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Substrate Specificity•Enzyme names end in –ase and usually start with some form of the substrate name.
•Substrate: reactant the enzyme acts on
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Enzyme examples:-Suscrase-Protease-Lipase-Polymerase
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Shape Determines Function•Enzyme + Substrate = Enzyme-substrate Complex
•Active site: enzyme location where substrate can bind
•Uses H-bonds (and ionic occasionally)
•Determined by R-group interactions, such as disulfide bridging in amino acid chain
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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LOCK and KEY MODEL
Model for how enzymes bind their substrates…
With more and more observations we now that this model does NOT fit the data!
Then what do we observe?
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Active site
According to the induced fit model of enzyme catalysis, the substrate initially does not fit perfectly and therefore binds weakly to the active site, but induces or causes a conformational change in the enzyme resulting in a better fit and in turn tighter binding, like clasping your hands.
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Induced Fit Model
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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1. Substrate enters active site – induced fit.
2. Substrate held by weak bonds
3. Substrates converted into products.
4. Products are released.
5. Enzyme available to assist next reaction.
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
Enzymatic Reaction Rates
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
In what pH and temperature do enzymes work best?
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Rate of Enzyme Activity – pH
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Rate of Enzyme Activity – Temperature
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
How does [enzyme]affect Rx rate ?
[enzyme] = enzyme concentration
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
Imagine that the students in the classroom are enzymes (each student is one enzyme). The reaction being catalyzed is eating a slice of pizza. Assuming that the room is totally filled with pizza (saturated with pizza), what would happen to the rate at which pizza is being eaten if we add more students?
It should increase since more students would mean more pizza is being eaten. Therefore, the more enzyme, the greater the reaction rate assuming there is plenty of substrate – see graph on next slide.
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
As enzyme concentration increases, reaction rate increases
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
How does [substrate]affect Rx rate ?
Use the same analogy as before – student is enzyme, pizza eating is reaction.
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
Similar analogy as before. This time there are 20 students and each student has a maximum rate of eating 1 slice of pizza every 2 minutes. What would the rate be if there was no pizza? As we add pizza to the room, what should happen to the rate? Will the rate keep going up as we saw before?
-If there were no pizza, the rate would be zero. Nothing can be eaten. -As we add pizza, the rate should start to rise.
-The rate will max out at high substrate concentrations because the students can only eat so fast. I can keep adding more and more pizza, but they are already working as fast as they can, they are saturated. The pizza would just pile up all around them. The rate therefore will max out – see graph on next slide.
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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www.chemsoc.org
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Cofactors : non-protein chemical bound to a protein and required for it to function properly.
ANALOGY: a hammer is a tool used by a construction worker to do their job, while a cofactor is a tool used by a protein to do its job. Cofactor = tool.
1. Inorganic
2. Organic = coenzyme
Two types of cofactors:
Ex. Zn, Mg, Mn, Fe (minerals)
Ex. Vitamins
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AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
What protein is this?
This is hemoglobin.
What is the function of this protein?
To carry molecular oxygen (O2) from the lungs to all other cells in the body.
Where is it found?
Inside red blood cells (RBCs)
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: Describe the structure/function of Enzymes.
Amino acids cannot bind to molecular oxygen (O2). How is this accomplished?It must have a cofactor
What cofactor does it have?
AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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AIM: Describe the structure and function of enzymes.
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Fe
Molecular oxygen
Cofactors 4 Heme cofactors
The iron atom in the center of each heme (orange) can bind a single O2 molecule (red).
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AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Enzymes need to be regulated
-Enzymes are not always on. -Some have “on/off switches”.
Why is this important? -The cell needs to maintain specific levels of substrates and products (homeostasis).
-We should not waste resources
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AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Inhibiting (turning off) enzymes
(This is NOT denaturing)
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AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Competitive inhibitors: compete against the substrate for the active site.
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AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Noncompetitive inhibitors do not compete.
They will bind another part of the enzyme, an allosteric inhibitor, cause a conformational change in the active site, and the substrate will no longer fit.
some anti-cancer drugsinhibit enzymes involved in DNA synthesis
stop DNA production stop division of more cancer cells
cyanide poisoningirreversible inhibitor of Cytochrome C, an enzyme in cellular respiration
stops production of ATP
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AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Allosteric regulation of Enzymes
Allo – “other” Steric – “relating to the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule
- Occurs when a molecule binds to a site of the protein “other” than the active site causing a conformational (steric) change resulting in a functional change.
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AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
Allosteric regulation of Enzymes
-Can inhibit or activate an enzyme
-Example: ATP can be an inhibitor and ADP can be an activator
ATP binds allosterically to several catabolic enzymes, inhibiting their activity when there is an accumulation of ATP
What will happen when ATP is being used faster than it is being produced?
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Feedback Inhibition
•Pathway is switched off by noncompetitve/competitive inhibition of an enzyme early in a pathway with a product of the pathway
•No unecessary accumulation of product
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
threonine
isoleucine
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1 2
3
4 5 6
In this example, a series of enzymes will convert substrate A into end product G using six reactions (six enzymes). Remember, this is like a factory line where each worker (enzyme) makes a small change to the substrate to get the end product.
The concentration of G is low now, so what will these enzymes do?
Using inhibition to maintain specific solute concentrations:
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1 2
3
4 5 6
TOO MANY!!!!!!STOOOOPPPP!
Using inhibition to maintain specific solute concentrations:
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1 2
3
4 5 6
When the concentration of the product “G” gets too high, it will bind to enzyme 3 and shut it off. “G” will no longer be made. It shut itself off…negative feedback. What will happen when levels of “G” decrease? “G” will fall off enzyme 3 and production will
resume.
What type of inhibitor is “G”?
It is noncompetitive!
Using inhibition to maintain specific solute concentrations:
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1 2
3
4 5 6
This method of inhibition where the product shuts off its own production has a name…
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Using inhibition to maintain specific solute concentrations:
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Negative Feedback
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
When the output of a system goes back (feeds back) and inhibits or turns down (in the negative direction) its own production when it gets too high thereby maintaining a specific concentration.
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Positive Feedback When the output of a system goes back (feeds back) and further enhances its own production (in the positive direction) leading to more output and in turn more enhancement and even more output, etc…
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Opposite of negative feedback.
Such a condition is considered unstable…
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
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Positive Feedback
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
Examples:
2. Child Birth contractions – the hormone oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterus. This will cause the baby to press up against the uterus, which causes more oxytocin release, more contractions, more pushing of the baby.
1. Hypothetical – if your house thermostat worked based on positive feedback, the output (heat) would further activate the thermostat, which would instruct the release of more heat, which would even further activate thermostat, etc…
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
![Page 88: 1 Word Roots: cata- = down ana- = up kinet- = movement therm- = heat ex- = out endo- = within allo- = different AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022070410/56649ec55503460f94bd0b8e/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
Chapter 8 - An Introduction to Metabolism
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
We will purposely inhibit enzymes…why?This is how you treat many diseases. You can kill bacteria and viruses is you stop their workers from working by inhibiting them.
If your own proteins are making too much product like too much cholesterol, we can make inhibitors to stop them from working, etc… By controlling the workers you can control what happens in the organism to some degree.
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism
![Page 89: 1 Word Roots: cata- = down ana- = up kinet- = movement therm- = heat ex- = out endo- = within allo- = different AIM: How is matter and energy transformed?](https://reader035.vdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022070410/56649ec55503460f94bd0b8e/html5/thumbnails/89.jpg)
Specific Locations of Enzymes in a Cell•Multi-enzyme complexes: enzymes in a cascade are located near each other, facilitates a chain of reactions
•Enzymes in solution can be separated by membranes
•Enzymes can be incorporated into membranes
AIM: How are enzymes regulated (controlled)?
Chapter 8 – An Introduction to Metabolism