12. cau truc cua cac cuoc cach mang khoa hoc

8/3/2019 12. Cau Truc Cua Cac Cuoc Cach Mang Khoa Hoc

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THOMAS S. KUHN

CU TRC CA CC CUC CCH MNGKHOA HC

THE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS Ng i dch: Nguyn Quang A

L I GI I THIU

Bn c cm trn tay cun thm i hai* ca t sch SOS2,cun Cu trc ca cc cuc Cch mng Khoa hc ca ThomasS. Kuhn. Cun sch ny tr thnh kinhin t ln xut bnu tin nm 1962. Bn dch da vo bn xut bn ln th banm 1996.y l mt cun sch v trit hc khoa hc, phn

tch cu trc ca cc cuc cch mng khoa hc, cu trc cccngng khoa hc, s pht trin ca khoa hc. ng phn s pht trin ca cc khoa hc thnh cc giaion t ngi nnh m ng gi l khoa hc thng th ng, b ngt qung b icc th i k c gi l cch mng khoa hc. Trong khoa hcthng th ng vc bn khng c cnh tranh, cc nh khoa hctin hnh cng vic khoa hc nh vic gii cc cu. Khi ccd th ng (s khng kh p gia cc tinon v quan st) xuthin, cc nh khoa hc th ng tm cch gii quyt n, v th ng


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thnh cng. Tuy vy c cc d th ng c thgy ra khnghong. Khoa hc khc th ng ni ln trong cc giaion nh vy. Ny sinh nhiu tr ng phi khc nhau. V c t do t duyv cnh tranh, th ng ch c mt tr ng phi duy nht sng st,v khoa hc li b c vo pha khoa hc thng th ng m i. Tuyng ly cc th d chyu t l nh vc vt l hc, cun sch c p n khoa hc ni chung, v ch ca n cng c ngh ai v i cc khoa hc x hi, cc khoa hc cha tht tr ng

thnh.Khi nim paradigm do nga ra c tho lun chi tit trongcun sch ny. Theo t in cc tVit Nam t ngng v i paradigm l mu, m hnh. Do cha c thut ngVit thngnht t ngng, chng ti tm dng t khung much khinim ny. Khung mu l ci m mt cngng khoa hc chias, l hnh tr ng (constellation) ca cc cam k t ca mt cngng khoa hc, l mu dng chung ca mt cngng khoahc. C lnn dng nguyn paradigm thay v dch ra tingVit. Trung Quc, Nht Bn v Hn Quc th ng ch phin mcc khi nim m i, khngt vn dch khi nim ra ting

m v vic dch nh vy l khng th lm c v khng c ngh a [ma tr n xut pht tmatrix phin m qua ting TrungQuc l mt v dkh quen thuc]. Trong bn dch ny khungmu khng phi l t c dch ca paradigm, n l mt t


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c dngch khi nim paradigm. Bn c ng bn tm paradign, khung mu, matrix, ma tr n c ngh a l g, chngch l nhng ci tn, cc nhn ca cc khi nim. Phi ti p cnv i cc khi nim tr c v sau dng cc tn hay cc nhnnh vy gi chng. Ta sbt g p thm cc khi nim nh cngng khoa hc, cch mng khoa hc, khoa hc thngth ng, khoa hc khc th ng, v.v. trong cun sch ny. Ttnhin trong mt cngng ngn ng vic thng nht tn gi ca

cc khi nim l ht sc quan tr ng.Cun sch sb ch cho cc trit gia, cc nh s hc, cc nhkhoa hc (t nhin v x hi), cc sinh vin, v tt cnhng aiquan tmn khoa hc, n sng to. Ng i dch cht sc lm cho bn dch c chnh xc vd c, song do hiu bit c hn nn kh th trnh khi sai st.Phn ch mc ni dung, mi mc chnh, c km theo thut ng ting Anhbn c tin tham kho.Mi ch thch ca tc gi c nh bng s. Tt c cc chthchnh du sao (*) cui trang l ca ng i dch. Trong vn bn i khi ng i dch ca thm t hay cm t cho cu

c r ngh a, phn c t trong du [nh thny]. Bndch chc cn nhiu thiu st mong bn c thng cm, l ngth, v ch bo; xin lin h theoa ch T p ch Tin hc v isng, 54 Hong Ngc Phch H Ni [25/B7 Nam Thnh Cng],


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hoc quain th [email protected]@netnam.vn

06-2005

Nguy n Quang A

* Cc quyn tr c gm:

1. J. Kornai: Con ng dn t i nn kinh t th tr ng, Hi Tinhc Vit Nam 2001, Nh Xut bn Vn ho Thng tin (NXBVHTT) 2002.2. J. Kornai: H thng X hi chngh a, NXB Vn ho Thngtin 20023. J. Kornai- K. Eggleston: Chm sc sc khocngng, NXBVHTT 20024. G. Soros: Gi kim thut ti chnh, s p xut bn5. H. de Soto: S bn ca t bn, s p xut bn6. J. E. Stiglitz: Chngh a x hi i v u? s p xut bn7. F.A. Hayek: Con ng dn t i ch nng n, s p xut bn

8. G. Soros: X hi M , s p xut bn9. K. Popper: SKhn cng ca Chngh a lch s, s p xut bn.10. K. Popper: X hi m v nhng k th ca n, I, Plato11. K. Popper: X hi m v nhng k th ca n, II, Hegel v


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Marx


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THOMAS S. KUHN



L i niu

Tiu lun ny l bo co c xut bn y u tin vmtcng trnh kh i u c hnh dung ra gn m i lm nm tr c.Khi ti l mt nghin cu sinh vvt l l thuyt s p honthnh lun vn ca mnh. Mt s dnh lu may mn v i mt cuath nghim dy khoa hc vt l cho ng i khng nghin cu

khoa hc ln u tina tin v i lch s khoa hc. Tihon ton ngc nhin, r ng vic ti p xc v i l thuyt v thchnh khoa hc li th i lm xi mn trit mt squan nimc bn ca ti vbn cht ca khoa hc v cc l do cho thnhcngc bit ca n. l cc quan nim m ti rt ra mt phn t bn thn qutrnho to khoa hc v mt phn tmt ch th c t lu v itrit hc khoa hc. Chng hiu sao, d tnh hu dng s phmca chng v vhin nhin tr u t ng ca chng c thno, cc


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quan nim ny khng hh p v i cng vic m nghin cu lchs ph i by. Thm chng v vn l c bn cho nhiu tholun vkhoa hc, v v thc v ng theoui k l ng s tht bi ca chng vv tht. K t qu l mt s dch chuynquyt lit trong cc d nh s nghi p ca ti, mt s dchchuyn t vt l hc sang lch s khoa hc v sau, dn dn, t cc vn lch s t ngi dhiu quay tr li cc lo ngi trithc banu dn tin v i lch s. Tr mt vi bi bo, tiu

lun ny l tc phm u tin trong cc cng trnh xut bnca ti trong cc mi lo ngi banu ny chi phi. Mt phnno n l mt n lc gii thch cho bn thn ti v cc bn b tr c ht ti b ko t khoa hc sang lch s khoa hc nh thno.C hi u tin ca titheoui su vi trong cc t ngnu ra d i y l ba nm v i t cch mt Nghin cu sinh Tr ca Hi cc Nghin cu sinh ca i hc Hardvard. Khng cgiaion t do th s chuyn i sang mt l nh vc nghincu m i chc kh h n nhiu v c th khngt c.Mt phn th i gian trong cc nm ti dnh cho lch s

khoa hc ch thc. c bit ti ti p tc nghin cu cc tc phm ca Alexandre Koyr vu tin lm quen v i cc tc phm ca Emile Meyerson, Hlne Metzger, v AnnelieseMaiser.1 Sng th n hu ht cc hc gikhc gn y, nhm


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ng i ny cho thy ci g ging nh suy ngh khoa hc trongmt th i k khi cc chun mc khoa hc r t khc cc chun mcngy nay. Mc d ti ngy cng nghi ng mt vi trong sccdin gii lch s c bit ca h, cc cng trnh ca h, cng v iGreat Chain of Being caA. O. Lovejoy, ch ng sau cc ngun t liu gc trong tohnh quan nim ca ti v lch s cc t ng khoa hc c th lg.

Phn l n th i gian ca ti trong cc nmy, tuy vy, c dngkhm ph cc l nh vc khng c quan h r rng v i lch s khoa hc nhng trong nghin cu ngy nay ph i by ra ccvn ging cc vn m lch s lm cho ti ch . Mtch thch bt g p tnh c dn tin cc th nghim m JeanPiaget lm sng tc cc cuc i khc nhau ca a tr ang l n v qu trnh chuyn ti p tmt [cuc i] sang [cuc i] k ti p.2 Mt trong ccng nghi p ca ti bo tic cc bi bo v tm l hc tri gic,c bit cc nh tm l hc phiGestalt;ng nghi p khc gi i thiu cho ti nhng suy ngmca B. L. Whorf v nh h ng ca ngn ng ln thgi i quan;

v W. V. O. Quine m ra cho ti cc cutrit hc vs phn bit gii tch-tng h p (analytic-synthetic).3 l loi khm ph c tnh ngu nhin m Hi cc Nghin cu sinh cho php, vch qua m ti c thbt g p cun chuyn kho hu nh


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khng c bit n ca Ludwik Fleck, Entstehung undEntwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache (Basel, 1935),mt tiu lun thy tr c nhiu t ng ring ca ti. Cng v imt nhn xt ca mt Nghin cu sinh Tr khc, Francis X.Sutton, cng trnh ca Fleck lm cho ti thy r l cc t ng c thcn c t trong x hi hc ca cngngkhoa hc. Tuy d i y bn c s thy t dn chiu n cccng trnh hay cci thoi ny, ti mang n chng theo nhiu

cch h n l by gi ti c th ti dng li hay nh gi.Trong nm cui v i t cch mt Nghin cu sinh Tr , mt l im i ging cho Vin Lowell Boston to c hi u tin chotith quan nim vn ang pht trin ca ti vkhoa hc.K t qu l mt lot gm tm bi ging cng khai, c trnh bythng Ba, 1951, vTruy tm Khoa hc Vt l The Quest for Physical Science. Trong nm ti p theo ti bt u dy lch s khoa hc ch thc, v gn mt th p nin cc vn ging dytrong mt l nh vc ti cha bao gi nghin cu mt cch c h thng khngcho ti c my th i gian cho trnh by t ngminh cc t ngu tin ko ti vo l nh vc . Tuy vy,

tht may mn cc t ng to mt ngun ca nh h ngngm nh v ca cu trc-vn no cho phn l n vicging dy bc cao h n ca ti. V th ti c cc sinh vin cm n v cc bi hc c gi tr cvkhnngng vng ca


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cc quanim ca ti v vnhng k thut thch h p cho victruyn t chng mt cch hiu qu. Cng cc vn vnhh ng mang li tnh thng nht cho hu ht cc nghin cu lchs chim a s, v r rng kha dng, m ti cng bk t khi k t thc hc bng nghin cu sinh ca ti. Nhiu trong s chngc p n vai tr tr n vn do siu hnh hc ny hay kia ng trong nghin cu khoa hc sng to. Nhng nghin cukhc kho st cch trong cc c s th nghim ca mt l

thuyt m i c tch tv c nhng ng i cam k t v i mt lthuyt c khng t ng thch tiu ho ra sao. Trong qu trnhchng m t loi pht trin m d i y ti sgi l s ni ln-emergence ca mt l thuyt hay pht minh m i. Ngoi ra ccc rng buc khc nh vy.Chng cui cng trong s pht trin ca tiu lun ny bt uv i mt l i m i lm vic cho nm 1958-1959 Trung tm Nghin cu Cao c p vcc Khoa hc Hnh vi Center for Advanced Studies in the Behaviorial Sciences. Li mt ln nati c khnng ch tm hon ton vo cc vn c tho lund i y. Thm ch quan tr ng h n, sng mt nm trong mt

cngng chyu gm cc nh khoa hc x hi, ti i mtv i cc vn khng c d kin tr c vnhng khc bitgia cc cngng nh vy v i cngng cc nh khoa hc t nhin m trong ti c o to. c bit, ti b n t ng


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b i s l ng v mc ca cc bt ng khng p m gianhng nh khoa hc x hi vbn tnh ca cc vn v cc ph ng php khoa hc chnhng. C lch s ln s quen bitlm cho ti nghi ng r ng nhng ng i hnh nghkhoa hc t nhin c nhng cu tr l i vng chc h n hay v nh cu h n chocc cu hi nh vy so v i ccng nghi p khoa hc x hi cah. Thnhng, khng bit lm sao, s thc hnh thin vn hc,vt l hc, ho hc, hay sinh hc th ng khng gy ra cc tranh

ci vnhng ci c bn m ngy nay th ng c vnh cn bnha ph ng gia, th d, cc nh tm l hay cc nh x hihc. Vic th khm ph ra ngun ca s khc bit khinti nhn ra vai tr trong nghin cu khoa hc ca ci t tigi l cc khung mu- paradigm*. Nhng ci ny ti coi lcc thnh tu khoa hc c cng nhn mt cch phqutm trong mt th i gian cung c p cc vn mu v cc l i giicho mt cngng ca nhng ng i thc hnh. Mt khi ciming hnh ghp ca ti kh p vo ch trong cughp hnh,th mt bn tho ca tiu lun ny hin ra nhanh chng.Cu chuyn ti p theo ca bn tho khng cn c k y,

nhng phi ni vi l i vhnh thc m n vn gi c qua ccln sot xt li. Chon khi mt phin bn u tin c honthnh v phn l n c sot xt li, ti d kin r ng bn thosxut hin ch ring nhmt t p trong Bch khoa thKhoa


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chng c t lch s khoa hc sinh hc cng nh vt l. Quytnh ca ti ych c p ringn vt l hc mt phn ldotng tnh cht chca tiu lun v mt phn do nng lchin ti. Ngoi ra, cch nhn vkhoa hc c trnh by yg i tim nng k t qu ca mt lot loi nghin cu m i, c lchs v x hi. Th d, cch trong cc d th ng, hay cc vi phm smong i, thu ht s ch ca mt cngng cnnghin cu chi tit, cng nh s ni ln ca cc khng hong c

thdo tht bi l p i l p li lm cho mt d th ng ph h pv i smong i gy ra. Hoc ln na, nu ting r ng micch mng khoa hc lm thayi vin cnh lch s ca cngng tr i nghim n, r i s thayi vin cnh s nh h ngn cu trc ca cc sch gio khoa v cc sch bo nghin cusau cch mng. Mt tcng nh vy - mt s dch chuyn v phn bca ti liu tham kho c trch dn trong cc ch giica cc bo co nghin cu- nn c nghin cu nhmt ch skhd i v i s xut hin ca cc cuc cch mng. Nhu cu cng khc nghit cng buc ti phi thi tholun mt svn chnh. S phn bit ca ti gia cc giai

on tr c- v sau-khung mu (pre- and post-paradigm) trongs pht trin ca mt khoa hc, chng hn, l qu gin l c.Mi tr ng phi m s cnh tranh ca chngc tr ng cho giaion s m h n c ci g r t ging mt khung mu h ng


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dn; c cc hon cnh, tuy ti ngh chng l him, trong haikhung mu c thcng tn ti mt cch ho bnh trong giaionmun h n. S chim hu n thun mt khung mu khng honton l mt tiu chun cho qupht trin c tho lun Mc II. Quan tr ng h n, tr cc l i ni ngu nhin ngn hi hu,ti khng ni g vvai tr ca tin bcng nghhay vcciu kin x hi, kinh tv tr tubn ngoi trong s pht trinca cc khoa hc. Tuy vy, ta khng cn nhn xa h n

Copernicus v lchnhn ra r ng cc iu kin bn ngoi cthgip mt d th ng n thun thnh mt ngun khng hongsu sc. Cng th d c thminh ho cch theo cciu kinngoi khoa hc c th nh h ngn di ca cc la chn kh d sn c cho ng i cgng k t thc mt khng hong bng xut mt ci cch cch mng ny hay ci cch cch mng khc.4Xem xt t ng minh cc tcng nh thny, ti ngh , s khng lm thayi cc lun chnh c trnh by trong tiulun ny, nhng chc chn s a thm vo mt chiu gii tchca tm quan tr ng hngu cho s hiu bit tin bkhoa hc.Cui cng, v c lquan tr ng nht, cc hn chvch nh

h ng mnh m n s lun bn ca ti vcc h lu trit hcca cch nhn mang tnh lch s ny vkhoa hc ca tiu lun.R rng, c cc dnh lu nh vy, v ti th c ch ra lnchng minh bng t liu nhng ci chnh. Nhng khi lm nh


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vy ti th ng t kim ch tho lun chi tit cc l p tr ng khcnhau ca cc trit gia ng th i vcc vn t ngng. N iti by ts nghi ng , n th ng h ng t i mt thitrit hch n l t i bt c din t no trong scc din t c trnh byy . K t qu l, mt sng i bit v hot ng v i mttrong cc l p tr ng c trnh by c thcm thy r ng ti bqun vn ca h. Ti ngh l hsai, nhng tiu lunny khng c d tnhthuyt phc h. th lm vic

cn n mt loi sch l n h n nhiu v r t khc.Cc mu t truyn m l i niu ny th l c dnh cho viccng nhn ci ti c thnhn ra nh smang n chnh ca tii v i c cc cng trnh uyn bc ln cc tchc gip hnhthnh t duy ca ti. Phn cn li ca s bit n ti s th by tbng vic nu tn d i y. Tuy vy, iu c ni trnhay d i y s tuyt nhin khng nhiu h n mt m ch ns l ng v bn cht cc ngh a v c nhn ca tii v i nhiuc nhn m nhng g i v ph bnh ca h lc ny lc khcduy tr v h ng dn s pht trin tr tuca ti. K t khi cc t ng ca tiu lun ny bt u thnh hnh th i gian trii

qu lu; mt danh mc v tt cnhng ng i c th thy mtcch thchng du hiu no ca h trn cc trang ca cunsch ny scng r ng nh danh mc vcc bn v nhng ng iquen ca ti. Trong hon cnh ny, ti phi t hn chmnh


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vinh h ng quan tr ng nht m ngay c tr nh khng honho cng chng bao gi ngn hon ton c.Chnh James B. Conant, ch tch khi ca i hc Harvard, lng i u tin dn tin lch s khoa hc v nh thkh ing s bin i trong quan nim ca ti vbn cht ca tin b khoa hc. Sut t khi qu trnh bt u, ng lun ho phng vcc t ng, cc ph bnh, v th i gian ca ng - k c th i gian cn c v g i cc thayi quan tr ng trong phc

tho ca bn tho ca ti. Leonard K. Nash, cng ng sut nmnm ti dy cua theo h ng lch sm Dr. Conant kh ing, l mt cng tc vin thm ch tch cc h n trong cc nmkhi cc t ng ca ti bt u hnh thnh, v r t thiu ngtrong cc giaion pht trin sau. Tuy vy, may mn l sau khiti r i Cambridge, v tr ca ng nhmn h ng m tch cc vh n th c ng nghi p ca ti Berkeley, Stanley Cavell,thay th. Chnh Cavell, mt nh trit hc chyu quan tmno c hc v m hc, t t i cc k t lun hon ton ph h pv i cc k t lun ring ca ti, l mt ngun kch thch vng vin lin tc i v i ti. H n na, ng l ng i duy nht

m ti tng c th thm d cc t ng ca mnh trongnhng cu cha hon thnh. Ph ng thc truyn thngchng thc mt s hiu bit cho php ng ch ng cho tiv t qua hayi vng qua nhiu ro cn l n g p phi khi ti


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chun b bn tho u tin ca mnh.K t khi phin bn c phc tho, nhiu bn khc gipti trnh by li n. Ti ngh , hs th li cho ti nu ti ch nhc n bn ng gp t ra c tcng su xa v quyt nhnht: Paul K. Feyerabend Berkeley, Ernest Nagel Columbia,H. Pier Noyes Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, v sinh vinca ti, John L. Heilbron, ng i th ng lm vic gn b v iti trong chun b phin bn cui cng cho inn. Ti thy vic

hdnh cho ti v cc g i ca h l cc k b ch, nhng tikhng c l do gtin (v l do no nghi ng ) r ng hochhay nhng ng i khc c nhc t i trn ch p thun bntho c sinh ra trong tnh ton vn ca n. Nhng l i cm n cui cng ca ti, dnh cho cha m, v vcc con ti, hn l mt loi khc. Trong chng mc noy tic l s l ng i cui cngnhn ra, mi trong shna cng hin cc thnh phn tr tucho cng trnh ca ti. Nhng, cc mc khc nhau, hcng lm ci g quan tr ngh n. Tc l, h cho ti lm v thm ch khch l s hindng ca ti cho vic . Bt c ai vt ln v i mt d n

ging nh ca ti snhn ra ci gii khi hphi tr . Tikhng bit cm n h thno.


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T. S. K.

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA Thng 2, 1962


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THOMAS S. KUHN



Ch ng 1

Dn nhp: Mt vai tr cho Lch s

Lch s, nu c xem nhmt kho cho nhiu h n chuyn vthay s p x p theo nini, c th to ra mt s bin i quytnh trong bc tranh vkhoa hc m gi y chng ta c. Bctranh c v tr c y, thm ch b i bn thn cc nhkhoa hc, chyu t nghin cu cc thnh tu khoa hc

hon tt nh cc thnh tu ny c ghi li trong cc kinhinv, gn y h n, trong cc sch gio khoa m t mi thh khoa hc m i hc hnh nghca mnh. Tuy vy, mc chca cc sch nh vy chc hn mang tnh thuyt phc v s phm; mt khi nim vkhoa hc rt ra t chng khng chch p v i hot ng to bo to ra chng nhiu h n mt bctranh vmt nn vn ho dn tc rt ra tmt cun sch mngqung co du lch hay mt bi vn. Tiu lun ny th chng t r ng chng ta b chng lm lm ng vnhiu mt c bn.


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Mc tiu ca n l phc homt khi nim hon ton khc v khoa hc ci c thni ln t t liu lch s ca bn thn hotng nghin cu. Ngay c t lch s, tuy vy, khi nim m i skhng t i nud liu lch s ti p tc c tm kim v xem xt t m chyutr l i cc cu hi don t ng r p khun c rt ra t ccvn bn khoa hc nu ra. Cc vn bn ny, th d, th ng c v hm r ng ni dung ca khoa hc c minh hobng th d

mt cch duy nht bng cc quan st, qui lut, v l thuyt cm t trn cc trang ca chng. Hu nh th ng xuyn, cngcc cun sch c cho l ni r ng cc ph ng php khoa hc n gin l cc ph ng php c minh hob i cc k thutthao tc c dngthu th p cc s liu gio khoa, cng v icc thao tc logic c dng khi lin hcc s liu v inhng khi qut ho l thuyt ca sch gio khoa. K t qu lmt khi nim vkhoa hc v i cc h lu su sc vbn cht vs pht trin ca n. Nu khoa hc l mt hnh tr ng (constellation) ca cc s thc,cc l thuyt, v cc ph ng php c su t p trong cc vn

bn hin hnh, th cc nh khoa hc l nhng ng i, thnh cnghay khng, cgngng gp mt yu thay yu tkhc chohnh tr ng c bit . S pht trin khoa hc tr thnh mt qutrnh t t theo cc tit mc ny c thm, mt cch n l


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v k t h p, vo kho d tr tng khng ngng, ci [kho] tothnh k thut v tri thc khoa hc. V lch s khoa hc tr thnhmt mn ghi nini ca c s gia tng lin ti p ny v cc tr ngi ngn cn s tch lu ca chng. Quan tmn s phttrin khoa hc, nh s hc khi hnh nh c hai nhim v chnh. Mt mt, ng ta phi xcnh ai v th i im nokhm ph hay pht minh ra s thc, qui lut, v l thuyt khoahc ng th i. Mt khc, ng ta phi m tv gii thch m sai

lm, huyn thoi, v m tn ngn cn s tch tnhanh h nca cc h p thnh ca vn bn khoa hc hin i. Nhiu nghincu h ng theo cc mc ch ny, v mt svn th.Tuy vy, trong cc nm gn y vi s gia khoa hc thyngy cng khhon thnh cc chc nng m khi nim v pht trin-bng-tch lu phn cho chng. V i t cch nhngng i ghi nini ca mt qu trnh tng thm, hnhn ra r ngnghin cu thm lm cho kh h n, ch khng dh n, tr l icc cu hi nh: Oxy c khm ph ra khi no? Ai l ng iu tin quan nim vbo ton nng l ng? Vi ng i trong s hngy cng nghi ng r ngy n gin l cc loi cu hi sai

hi. C lkhoa hc khng pht trin bng tch lu cc khm ph v pht minh ring l. ng th i, cng cc s gia imt v i cc kh khn ngy cng tng vs phn bit cu thnhkhoa hc ca quan st v lng tin qu kh khi ci m cc


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tin bi ca h gn cho ci nhn sai lm v m tn r i.Cng nghin cu cn thn h n, th d, ng hc Aristotlian, hohc nhin t (phlogistic), hay nhit ng hc, hcng cm thychc chn h n r ng nhng ci mt th i l cc quanim hinhnh v t nhin, nhmt tng th, khng km khoa hc h ncng chng nhiu h n sn phm ca tnh kh ring ca conng i so v i cc quanim hin hnh ngy nay. Nu cc lngtin li th i ny phi c gi l cc huyn thoi, th cc huyn

thoi c th c to ra bng cng cc loi ph ng php v c tin v cng loi l do m by gi dn t i tri thc khoa hc. Nu, mt khc, chng phi c gi l khoa hc, th khoa hc bao hm cc khi lng tin hon ton khng t ng thch v inhng ci chng ta tin ngy nay. Cn c vo cc la chn khd ny, s gia phi chn ci sau. Cc l thuyt li th i vnguyn tckhng phi phi khoa hc b i v chng b loi ra. Tuy vy, s la chn lm cho kh khn hiu r s pht trin khoa hcnhmt qu trnh pht trin dn ln. Cng nghin cu lch s ph i by cc kh khn vc l p cc sng chv pht minhring r to l do cho nhng nghi ng su sc vqu trnh tch t

qua ccng gp ring r ny cho khoa hc c ngh l h p thnh.K t qu ca tt cnhng nghi ng v cc kh khn ny l mtcuc cch mng vghi chp s trong nghin cu khoa hc, tuy


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l cuc cch mng vn cc giaion u ca n. Dn dn, vth ng hon ton khng c nhn ra l h ang lm vy, ccnh s hc vkhoa hc bt u hi nhng loi cu hi khcv ln theo cc tuyn pht trin khc, v th ng b t tnh tch lu h n, cho cc khoa hc. Thay v tm kim nhngng gp ludi ca mt khoa hc ch n i v i u thhin ti ca chngta, h th tr ng by tnh nht qun lch s ca khoa hc trongth i ca chnh n. Hhi, th d, khng vquan hca cc

quan im ca Galileoi v i cc quanim ca khoa hc hini, mng h n vquan hgia nhng quanim ca ng vcc quanim ca nhm ng, tc l, cc thy ng, nhng ng i ng th i, v nhng ng i k tc tr c ti p trong cc khoa hc.H n na, hnhn mnhn nghin cu nhng kin ca nhm v cc nhm t ng t khc t quanim - th ng r t khcv i quanim ca khoa hc hin i ci cho cc kin s ck t ni ti cc i v kh p st nht c thv i t nhin. Nhnqua cc cng trnh sinh ra nh th, cc cng trnh c l cminh ho tt nht trong cc tc phm ca Alexandre Koyr,khoa hc hon ton khng c v l cng hot ng to bo nh

c cc tc gi theo truyn thng lch s c h n tho lun.Bng ng, ch t, cc nghin cu lch s ny g i khnng v mt bc tranh m i vkhoa hc. Tiu lun ny nhm phc ho bc tranh bng lm r mt s trong nhng dnh lu ca vic


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chp sm i.Cc kha cnh no ca khoa hc sni bt ln trong tin trnhca n lc ny? Th nht, ch t v th t trnh by, l s thiucc ch dn ph ng php lun, m v i bn thn chng,ptmt k t lun duy nht thc s i v i nhiu loi cu hi khoahc. c bo phi kho st cc hin t ngin hay ho hc,ng i khng bit v l nh vc ny nhng bit ci g l khoa hcc th t mt cch h p ln bt cmt trong mt sk t lun

khng t ng thch nhau. Gia cc khnng h p l, cc k t lunc bit m anh tai n c l c xcnh b i kinh nghimtr c y ca anh ta trong cc l nh vc khc, b i nhng ngunhin trong kho st ca anh ta, v b i cu to ring ca chnhanh ta. Th d, nhng lng tin no vcc ngi sao m anh tamang vo nghin cu ho hc hayin hc? Ci no trongnhiu th nghim c thhnh dung ra lin quann l nh vc m im anh ta schn thc hin u tin? V cc kha cnh noca hin t ng phc t p sinh ra khi sgyn t ng cho anhta nh c bit xcng cho mt s lm sng tbn cht ca s thayi ho hc hay ca i lc in?i v i c nhn, ch t, v

i khi c i v i cngng khoa hc na, cc cu tr l i chocc cu hi nh thny th ng l cc nhn tquyt nh c bnca s pht trin khoa hc. Chng ta s lu , th d, trong McII r ng cc giaion pht trin banu ca hu ht cc khoa hc


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c c tr ng b i s cnh tranh lin tc gia mt squanim khc nhau v t nhin, mi quanim c dn ra mt phn t, v tt c i th t ng thch v i, nhng ting gi caquan st v ph ng php khoa hc. Ci phn bit cc tr ng phi khc nhau ny khng phi l tht bi ny hay tht bikhc ca ph ng php chng u l khoa hc m lci chng ta sgi l nhng cch khng thso snh v i nhauca chng vnhn nhn thgi i v v thc hnh khoa hc trong

. Quan st v kinh nghim c thv phi gi i hn mt cchmnh mdi ca lng tin khoa hc c php, v khci th s khng c khoa hc no. Nhng ring chng khng thxcnhkhi c bit ca lng tin nh vy. Mt yu td ng nh tu , c ho tr n b i s tnh c c nhn v lch s, lun lun l mtthnh tcu thnh ca cc lng tin c mt cngng khoahc cho tr c mt th i im cho tr c tn thnh.Yu t tu , tuy vy, khng biu l r ng bt c nhm khoahc no c th thc hnh nghnghi p ca mnh m khng cmt t p cc lng tin nhn c no. N cng khng lm chohnh tr ng c bit m nhm, th i im cho tr c, thc ra

cam k t, l t hu quh n. Nghin cu hu hiu hu nh khng bt u tr c khi mt cngng khoa hc ngh n thu ccc cu tr l i vng chc cho cc cu hi nh sau: Cc thc th c bn to thnh thgi i l g? Nhng thc thny t ng tc


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v i nhau v v i cc gic quan thno? Cc cu hi no c th c hi mt cch chnhng vcc thc thnh vy v cc k thut no c dngtm kim cc gii php? Ch t trong cckhoa hc chn mui, cc cu tr l i (hay nhng ci thay th ycho cc cu tr l i) cho cc cu hi ging thny c gnvng chc trong nh p mn gio dc chun b v c p bng chosinh vinhnh ngh. B i v vic gio dc va nghimngt va cng nhc, cc cu tr l i ny cnh h ng su sc ln

u c khoa hc. R ng chng c thcnh h ng vy gp phnl n gii thch c tnh hiu qu lk ca hot ng nghin cuthng th ng v chiu h ng n c tin hnh bt k th igian cho tr c no. Khi kho st khoa hc thng th ng ccMc III, IV, v V, chng ta smun m tdt khot r ng vicnghin cu nh l mt n lc cgng ht sc v tn tm buc t nhin vo cc h p quan nim do gio dc chuynnghi p cung c p. ng th i, chng ta s t hi liu vic nghincu c th tin hnh m khng c cc h p nh vy c khng,d yu t tu trong ngun gc lch s ca chng v,i khi,trong s pht trin ti p ca chng c thno.

Thnhng c yu t tu , v cn na cng c mt tcngquan tr ng ln s pht trin khoa hc, m chng ta skho st k cc Mc VI, VII, v VIII. Khoa hc thng th ng, hot ngm trong hu ht cc nh khoa hc chc hn dng hu ht


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th i gian ca h, c khngnh trn gi thit r ng cngngkhoa hc bit thgi i ging ci g. Phn l n thnh cng cahot ng to bo bt ngun t s t nguyn ca cngng bo vgi thit , nu cn v i ci ging k . Khoa hc thngth ng, th d, th ng chn cc tnh m i cn bn b i v chngtt yu mang tnh lt cc cam k t c bn ca n. Tuy nhin,chng no cc cam k t ny vn gi c mt yu t tu , chnh bn tnh ca nghin cu thng th ngm bo r ng tnh m i l

skhng b chn qu lu.i khi mt vn bnh th ng, vnchc c thgii c bng cc quy tc v th tc quen bit,li c ng li s tn cng d di l p i l p li ca cc thnh vinc nng lc nht ca nhm m vn thuc v thm quyn cah. Trong cc d p khc mt thit b c thit k v xy dngcho nghin cu bnh th ng li khng thc hin theo cch cd kin, tit lmt d th ng khng thkh p v i smong ichuyn mn, bt ch p cc n lc l p i l p li. Trong cc con ng ny v cc con ng khc na, khoa hc thng th nglc li ht ln nyn ln khc. V khi n hot ng- tc l, khinhng ng i trong nghkhng cn c th ln trnh cc d

th ng lt truyn thng hin hnh ca thc hnh khoa hc c na th bt u cc cuc kho stc bit dn nhngng i trong ngh r t cuc n mt t p m i ca nhng cam k t,mt c s m i cho thc hnh khoa hc. Cc giaion c bit


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trong s dch chuyn vcc cam k t chuyn nghi p xy ra lcc giaion c bit n trong tiu lun ny nh cc cuccch mng khoa hc. Chng l nhng phn bsung gyo lntruyn thng cho hot ng gn v i truyn thng ca khoa hcthng th ng.Cc th dhin nhin nht ca cc cuc cch mng khoa hc lcc giaion trong s pht trin khoa hc m th ng cgn cho ci nhn cch mng tr c y. V th, trong cc Mc IX

v X, n i bn cht ca cc cuc cch mng khoa hc ln utin c kho st t m mt cch tr c ti p, chng ta s c pl p i l p li n ccim ngot chnh trong s pht trin khoahc gn v i tn tui ca Copernicus, Newton, Lavoisier, vEinstein. Sng th n hu ht cc giaion khc trong lch s ch t ca cc khoa hc vt l, cc giaion nyl ra ci mmi cuc cch mng khoa hc u c. Mi trong schngicngng phi loi bmt l thuyt khoa hc i vo truynthng ng hmt l thuyt khc khng t ng thch v i n.Mi trong schng to ra mt s dch chuyn ti p theo vccvn c gi tr cho kho st khoa hc k l ng v vcc tiu

chun theo gi i khoa hc xcnh ci g c coi nhmtvn c thch p nhn hay nhmt vn -gii php chnhng. V mi trong schng lm bin i tr t ng t ngkhoa hc theo nhng cch m cui cng chng ta cn m t


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nhmt s bin i ca thgi i trong cng vic khoa hc c thc hin. Nhng thayi nh vy, cng v i cc tranh cihu nh lun luni cng v i chng, l ccc tr ngnhngh a ca cc cuc cch mng khoa hc.Ccc tr ng ny ni ln v i s sng t c bit tmt nghincu, th d, vcch mng Newtonian hay cch mng ho hc.Tuy vy, mt lun im cn bn ca tiu lun ny l, chngcng c th c tm li t nghin cu ca nhiu giaion khc

khng hin nhin cch mng nh th. i v i mt nhm chuynnghi p nhh n nhiu b nh h ng b i cc ph ng trnhMaxwell th chng cng cch mng nh cc ph ng trnh caEinstein, v chng cng b c ng li mt cch t ngng.Th ng xuyn, v mt cch thchng, s pht minh ra cc lthuyt m i khc gy ra cng phn ng tmt schuyn gia mchngng chm n l nh vc hiu bit chuyn su ca h. iv i nhng ng i ny l thuyt m i hm mt s thayi vccqui tc chi phi thc hnh tr c y ca khoa hc thng th ng.V th, chc hn n lm mt uy tn nhiu cng trnh khoa hcm h hon tt mt cch thnh cng. l v sao mt l

thuyt m i, cho d di ng dng ca n cc bit thno,him khi hoc chng bao gi ch l mt s tng thm vo ci c bit r i. S tiu ho ni hi vic xy dng li l thuyttr c v nh gi li s thc tr c, mt qu trnh v thc


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cht mang tnh cch mng him khi c hon tt b i duy nhtmt ng i v chng bao gi trong mt s m mt chiu. Khngngc nhin l cc s gia c kh khn v nh nini mtcch chnh xc qu trnh ko di ny m t vng ca hbuc h coi n nhmt s kin bit l p. Cc pht minh ra l thuyt m icng chng phi l cc s kin duy nht c tcng cch mngln cc chuyn gia m trong l nh vc ca hchng xy ra. Cccam k t chi phi khoa hc thng th ngnh r khng ch cc

loi thc thno c cha trong v tr , m, bngn , c nhng th khng c cha trong. Suy ra, tuyim ny s cn tho lun r ng h n, r ng mt s khm ph nh s pht hinra oxy hay X-quang khng n gin a thm mt th na vodn c ca thgi i ca nh khoa hc. Cui cng n cnhh ng, song khng tr c khi cngng chuyn nghi p nh gi li cc th tc th nghim truyn thng, thayiquan nim vcc thc thm n quen bit t lu, v trongqu trnh, chuyn mng l i l thuyt qua nc p nthgi i. S thc v l thuyt khoa hc l khng th tch r i mtcch dt khot, tr c l trong phm vi ca mt truyn thng

duy nht ca thc hnh khoa hc thng th ng. l v sao s khm ph bt ng khng n gin [ch] c tnh thc s trong nidung ca n v v sao cc tnh m i l c bn hoc ca s thchay ca l thuyt lm bin i thgi i ca nh khoa hc v


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cht cng nh lm n giu thm v l ng.Quan nim c m r ng ny vbn cht ca cc cuc cchmng khoa hc l quan nim c phc ho ra trong cc trangti p theo. Phi tha nhn sm r ng vi phm cch s dngth ng l. Tuy nhin, ti s ti p tc ni thm ch vcc khm ph nh cch mng, b i v nng l khnng v lin hcutrc ca chng v i cu trc ca, th d, cch mng Copernicanci lm cho quan nim m r ng c vquan tr ngn vy v i

ti. Tho lun tr c cho bit cc khi nim bsung ca khoahc thng th ng v ca cc cch mng khoa hc s c trnh by ra sao trong chn mc ti p ngay sauy. Phn cn li catiu lun th dn x p ba vn chnh cn li. Mc XI, bngtho lun truyn thng sch gio khoa, xem xt v sao tr c yli kh thy cc cuc cch mng khoa hc n vy. Mc XII mt s cnh tranh cch mng gia nhng ng i xut truynthng khoa hc thng th ng c v nhng ng i ng h truynthng m i. N nh thxem xt qu trnh, ci bng cch no,trong mt l thuyt v thm tra khoa hc, phi thay cho cc th tc xc nhn hay chng minh l sai c bc tranh thng

th ng ca chng ta vkhoa hc lm cho quen thuc. S cnhtranh ga cc mng ca cngng khoa hc l qu trnh lch s duy nht tng thc smang li k t quvs bc bmt lthuyt tr c y c ch p nhn hay vs ch p nhn mt l


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thuyt khc. Cui cng, Mc XIII shi lm sao s pht trinthng qua cc cuc cch mng c th t ng thch v i c tnhhnh nh duy nht ca tin bkhoa hc. Tuy vy, cho cu hi tiu lun ny skhng cung c p nhiu h n nhng phc thochnh ca mt cu tr l i, cu tr l i ph thuc vo ccctr ng ca cngng khoa hc mt vic i hi thm nhiu khai ph v nghin cu.Khng nghi ng g, mt sbn c mun bit r i liu s

nghin cu lch s c lc thc tcng hay khngn loichuyn bin quan nim c nhm t i y. Ton bkho ph ng tin ca nhng s phni [dichotomy] l sn cg i r ng n khng th lm vy mt cch thch h p. S hc, chngta ni qu th ng xuyn, l mt bmn m t thun tu. Cclun c g i trn, tuy vy, th ng mang tnh din gii vi khi chun tc. Li ln na, nhiu trong cc khi qut ho cati l vx hi hc hay v tm l hc x hi ca cc nh khoahc; thnhng ch t mt vi k t lun ca ti theo truyn thngthuc v logic hc hay nhn thc lun. Trongon vn trn tithm ch c v vi phm s phn bit ng th i r t cnh

h ng gia ng cnh khm ph v ng cnh bin h. C th c bt c th g nhiu h n s ln ln su thm c biu l bng s tr n ln ny ca cc l nh vc v mi quan tm khcnhau hay khng?


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Sau khi cai dn nhng s phn bit ny vmt tr tuv ccth khc ging chng, ti hu nh khng th thc h n c v nh h ng v sc mnh ca chng. nhiu nm ti coi lchng quan tmn bn cht ca tri thc, v ti vn cho r ng,vit li mt cch thch h p, chng c ci g quan tr ngnicho chng ta. Thm cc n lc ca tip dng chng, thmch grosso modo [i th], cho cc tnh hung thc t trongtri thc c thu nhn, c ch p nhn, v c tiu ho

lm cho chng c vcc k kh gii quyt. Thay v l nhng phn bit logic hay ph ng php lun s ng, nhng ci nh ths l c tr c phn tch v tri thc khoa hc, by gi c v chng l nhng phn khng th tch r i ca mt t p truynthng ca cc cu tr l i cho chnh cc cu hi m trn chng c trin khai. Tnh vng vo khng h lm chng mt hiulc. Nhng n khin chng thnh cc phn ca mt l thuyt, v bng cch lm th, bt chng phi chu cng s kho st k l ng c p dng cho cc l thuyt trong cc l nh vc khc. Nu chng phi c nhiu h n s tr u t ng ho thun tu nh lni dung ca chng, th ni dung phi c khm ph ra

bng cch quan st chng trong p dngi v i d liu mchng mun lm sng t. Lm thno lch s khoa hc c th khng l mt ngun ca cc hin t ng m cc l thuyt v trithc c th c yu cu mt cch thchngp dng vo?


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THOMAS S. KUHN



Ch ng 2

Con ng n Khoa hc Thng th ng

Trong tiu lun ny, khoa hc thng th ng normal sciencec ngh a l nghin cu da mt cch vng chc vo mt haynhiu thnh tu khoa hc qu kh, cc thnh tu m cngngkhoa hc c bit no cng nhn trong mt th i k nh tothnh nn tng cho s thc hnh h n na ca n. Ngy nay ccthnh tu nh vy c cc sch gio khoa khoa hc, s nghay cao c p, thut li chi tit, tuy him khi dng gc cachng. Cc sch gio khoa ny trnh by chi tit l thuyt cch p nhn, minh honhiu hay tt c ccng dng thnh cngca n, v so snh ccng dng ny v i cc quan st v th

nghim dn chng. Tr c khi cc sch gio khoa nh vy tr nn phbin banu thk m i chn (v chon thm chm i y cc khoa hc m i chn mui), nhiu trong scc kinhin ni ting thc hin mt chc nng t ng t. Physica ca


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Aristotle, Almagest ca Ptolemy, Principia v Opticks ca Newton, Electricity ca Franklin, Chemistry ca Lavoisier, vGeology ca Lyell cc sch kinhin ny v nhiu tc phmkhc trong mt th i gian c dng mt cch ngm nh xcnh cc vn v ph ng php chnhng ca mt l nhvc nghin cu cho cc thhk ti p nhau ca nhng ng ithc hnh. Chng c khnng lm vy b i v chng chia s haic tr ng ct yu. Thnh tu ca h l cha tng c mt

cch tho ngthu ht mt nhm bn lu nhng ng i ng h khi cc ph ng thc hot ng khoa hc cnh tranh.ngth i, nm cho php mi loi vn cho nhm cxc nh li ca nhng ng i thc hnh gii quyt.Cc thnh tu chia shaic tr ng ny t nay vsau ti snhcn nh khung mu-paradigm, mt thut ng c quan hmtthit v i khoa hc thng th ng. Bng chn thut ng , timun g i r ng mt s th d c ch p nhn ca thc hnhkhoa hc thc s - cc th dbao gm qui lut, l thuyt, ngdng, v s trang b dng c cng v i nhau - to ra cc m hnht xut hin cc truyn thng ck t c bit vnghin cu

khoa hc. y l cc truyn thng m cc s gia m td i ccmc nh thin vn hc Ptolemaic (hay Corpernican),ng hc Aristotlian (hay Newtonian), quang hc ht (hayquang hc sng), v v.v. Nghin cu cc khung mu, k c


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nhiu khung mu chuyn bit h n cc khung mu c numinh ho trn, l cng vic chun b chyu cho sinh vin lm thnh vin ca cngng khoa hc c bit m mun h nanh ta shnh nghv i. B i v anh tan v i nhng ng i hc nhng c s ca l nh vc ca h t cng cc m hnh c th, vic thc hnh k ti p ca anh ta shim khi gy ra btng cng khai v i nhng nguyn tc c bn. Nhng ng i mnghin cu ca hda trn cc khung mu dng chungu cam

k t v i cng cc quy tc v tiu chun hnh nghkhoa hc. S cam k t v s ng thun bngoi m n to ra l cciukin tin quyt cho khoa hc thng th ng, tc l, cho s hnhthnh v ti p tc ca mt truyn thng nghin cu c bit.B i v trong tiu lun ny khi nim vmt khung mu s th ng thay cho loi khi nim quen thuc, cn ni nhiuh n vcc l do a n vo. V sao thnh tu khoa hc c th, nh v tr (locus) ca cam k t chuyn nghi p, li l tr c[trn] cc khi nim khc nhau, cc qui lut, cc l thuyt, v ccquan im c th c tr u t ng ho t n? Theo ngh a nom khung mu chung l mt n v c bn cho nh nghin cu

s pht trin khoa hc, mt n v khng thhon ton qui ginvcc thnh phn nguyn t logic c thhot ng thay chon? Khi chng tai mt v i chng Mc V, cc cu tr l icho nhng cu hi ny v cc cu hi ging chng s to c s


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cho mt s hiu bit cvkhoa hc thng th ng ln vkhinim lin quan vkhung mu. Tho lun tr u t ng h n s ph thuc, tuy vy, vo mt s ph i by tr c ca cc th dv khoa hc thng th ng hay vcc khung mu ang hot ng.c bit, chai khi nim c lin quan ny s c lm r bnglu r ng c thc loi nghin cu khoa hc m khng c cckhung mu, hay ch t khngn ni r rng v tri buc nthnh cc khung mu c ni t i trn. Vic t c mt

khung mu v loi nghin cu b truyn h n m n cho php lmt du hiu vs tr ng thnh trong s pht trin ca bt c l nh vc khoa hc cho tr c no. Nu nh s hc ln vt tri thc khoa hc ca bt c nhm cchn no ca cc hin t ng lin quan theo ng c dng th igian, anh ta chc bt g p bin thnhnoy ca mt hnh mu c minh ho y t lch s ca vt l quang hc. Cc schgio khoa ngy nay ni cho sinh vin r ng nh sng l cc photon, tc l, cc thc thc hc l ng t biu lmt s tnhcht sng v mt s tnh cht ht. Nghin cu tin hnh mtcch ph h p, hayng h n theo m t c tr ng ton hc v

cng phu h n m t s pht biu bng l i ny c suy ra.M t c tr ng vnh sng, tuy vy, ch va m i c na th k . Tr c khi n c Planck, Einstein, v nhng ng i khctrong thk ny pht trin, cc sch gio khoa vt l dy r ng


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nh sng l chuyn ng sng ngang, mt khi nim c gc r trong mt khung mu xut x cui cng t cc tc phm quanghc ca Young v Fresnel vou thk m i chn. L thuytsng u tin cng chng c hu ht cc nh thc hnhkhoa hc quang hc o b. Sut thk m i tm Opticks ca Newton cung c p khung mu cho l nh vc ny, n dy r ngnh sng l cc ht vt cht. Lc cc nh vt l tm kim,v cc nh l thuyt sng banu khng thy, bng chng v

p sut do cc ht nh sng va chm vo cc vt th r n.1 Nhng s bin i ny vcc khung mu ca quang hc vt l lcc cuc cch mng khoa hc, v s chuyn i k ti p tmtkhung mu sang khung mu khc thng qua cch mng l hnhmu pht trin thng th ng ca khoa hc tr ng thnh. Tuyvy, n khng l hnh mu c tr ng ca giaion tr c cngtrnh ca Newton, v l s t ng phn m chng ta quan tm y. Khng c giaion no gia th i cxa xa v cui thk m i by biu lmt quanim c ch p nhn r ng ri duynht vbn tnh ca nh sng. Thay vo c mt scctr ng phi v cc tr ng phi ph cnh tranh nhau, hu ht tn

thnh mt bin thhay bin thkhc ca l thuyt Epicurean,Aristotlean, hay Platonic. Mt nhm coi nh sng l cc ht phtra t cc vt thvt cht; v i nhm khc n l mt s thayica mi tr ng gia vt thv mt; cn nhm khc th gii


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thch nh sng bng mt t ng tc ca mi tr ng v i mt ci pht ra tmt; v ngoi ra c nhng s k t h p v sa ikhc. Mi tr ng phi t ngng tm thy sc mnh t quan h ca ni v i siu hnh hc c bit no, v mi tr ng phinhn mnh, nh cc quan st mang tnh khung mu, cm c bitca cc hin t ng m l thuyt ring ca n c thgii thchnhiu nht. Cc quan st khc c x l bng nhng vic thot m chi tit ad hoc [c bit], hoc chng cn li nh cc vn

cha c gii quyt cho nghin cu ti p.2Vo nhng th i k khc nhau tt c cc tr ng phi ny cccng gp quan tr ng cho nhiu khi nim, hin t ng, v k thut m t Newton rt ra khung mu u tin c ch pnhn gn nh ngu cho quang hc vt l. Bt c nh ngh ano vnh khoa hc, nh ngh a loi tr ch t cc thnh vinsng to h n ca cc tr ng phi khc nhau ny, s loi tr c nhng ng i ni nghi p hin i ca hna. Nhng ng i l cc nh khoa hc. Thnhng bt c ai kho st mt tngquan vquang hc vt l tr c Newton chc c thk t lunr ng, tuy nhng ng i thc hnh ca l nh vc l cc nh

khoa hc, k t qu thc ca hot ng ca h l ci g th n khoa hc. Do c khnng coi khng khi lng tin no l d nhin, mi tc givquang hc vt l cm thy buc phi xydng l nh vc ca mnh mt ln na t nn tng. Bng cch lm


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vy, s la chn ca ng ta vquan st v th nghim h tr lt ngi t do, v khng c t p chun no ca cc ph ng php hay cc hin t ng m mi tc givquang hc cm thy buc phi p dng v gii thch. Trong cc hon cnh nh vy,i thoi ca cc sch c sinh ra th ng h ng cng nhiun cc thnh vin ca cc tr ng phi khc nh n t nhin.Hnh mu ny khng phi l xa l trong mt s l nh vc sng tongy nay, n cng chng khng t ng thch v i cc pht minh

v sng chquan tr ng. Tuy vy, n khng l hnh mu vs pht trin m quang hc vt l kim c sau Newton v cckhoa hc t nhin khc lm cho quen thuc hin nay.Lch s nghin cu in trong na u thk m i tm cho mtth d c thh n v c bit n nhiu h n vcch mt khoahc pht trin tr c khi n c c khung mu c tha nhn phqut. Trong giaion hu nh c nhiu quanim v bn tnh ca in nh scc nh thc nghim quan tr ng v in, nhng ng i nhHauksbee, Gray, Dasaguliers, Du Fay, Nollett, Watson, Franklin, v nhng ng i khc. Tt c r t nhiukhi nim ca hv in c ci g chung chng mt phn

bt ngun tmt phin bn hay phin bn khc ca trit hc c -ht h ng dn mi nghin cu khoa hc ca th i . Ngoira, tt c u l cc thnh phn ca cc l thuyt khoa hc tht,ca cc l thuyt c rt ra mt phn t th nghim v quan


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st v mt phn xcnh s la chn v din gii ca cc vnthm c a vo nghin cu. Thm tuy tt c cc thnghim u l v in v tuy hu ht cc nh thc nghim cc cc cng trnh ca nhau, cc l thuyt ca hkhng nhiuh n mt nt ging nhau trong gianh.3Mt nhm banu ca cc l thuyt, theo thng l thk m i by, coi s ht v sinhin ma st nh cc hin t ngin c bn. Nhm ny c khuynh h ng coi s y nhmt tc

ng th yu do loi bt li c hc no v hon li cng lucng tt cvic tho lun v nghin cu c h thng vhiung m i c Gray pht hin, s dn in. Cc th in -electrician (thut ng ca chnh h)* khc coi s ht v s yl nhng biu hin c bn ngang nhau ca in v thayi ccl thuyt v nghin cu ca hmt cch ph h p. (Thc s,nhm nyc bit nh - ngay c l thuyt ca Franklin chng bao gi hon ton gii thch s y ln nhau ca hai vt ctchin m). Song hcng c nhiu kh khn nh nhmu tin trong gii thchng th i cho bt c g tr cc hiu ngdn in n gin nht. Cc hiu ng, tuy vy, to im

xut pht cho mt nhm th ba na, nhm hay ni v in nh mt cht lng c thchy qua cc vt dn h n l nhmteffuvium-x kh xng ra t cc vt khng dn. Nhm ny,nl t, li g p kh khn ho gii l thuyt ca n v i mt shiu


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ng ht vy. Ch thng qua cng trnh ca Franklin v nhngng i k nghi p tr c ti p ca ng m i ny sinh mt l thuyt cth c coi l ci g nh cnng khiu gii thch gnnh ton bcc hiu ng ny v v thc thv to cho th hk ti p ca cc th in mt khung mu chung cho nghincu.Tr cc l nh vc, nh ton hc v thin vn hc, m cc khungmu vng chc u tin c nini t th i tin s v cc l nh

vc, nh sinh ho hc, ny sinh b i phn chia v ti k t h p cacc chuyn ngnh tr ng thnh r i, cc tnh tr ng va c phc ho trn lin hnh vmt lch s. Mc d n dnhnvic ti ti p tc dng s n gin hong tic gn mt th i klch s ko di v i mt ci tn duy nht v c chn h i tu (th d, Newton hay Franklin), ti g i r ng cc bt ng c bn t ng t c tr ng, th d, cho nghin cu vchuynng tr c Aristotle v t nh hc tr c Archimedes, nghin cuvnhit tr c Black, vho hc tr c Boyle v Boerhaave, vv a cht hc lch s tr c Hutton. Trong cc phn ca sinhhc nghin cu di truyn, chng hn cc khung mu c

tha nhn phqut vn l m i y; v vn cn mt cu hi b ngnhng phn no ca khoa hc x hi hc c cckhung mu nh vy chng. Lch s g i r ng con ng t imt s ng thun nghin cu l cc k kh khn.


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Tuy vy, lch s cng g i mt s l do cho nhng kh khng p phi trn con ng. Thiu mt khung mu hayng vinnoy cho khung mu, tt c cc s thc c lc thgn linv i s pht trin ca mt khoa hc cho tr c chc c v l thchng ngang nhau. K t qu l, s thu th p s thc banu l hotng gn nh hon ton ngu nhin h n l s thu th p s thcm s pht trin khoa hc ti p theo lm cho quen thuc. H nna, thiu mt l dotm kim dng c bit no ca thng

tin kh hiu h n, vic tm kim s thc banu th ng cgi i hn s phong ph ca d liu c sn r i. ng s thc c sinh nh vy cha cc s kin c th ti p cn c choquan st nhn quv th nghim cng v i mt sd liu btruyn h n t cc ngh c xc l p nh lm thuc, lm lch,v luyn kim. B i v cc ngh th cng l mt ngun c th ti pcn c ddng vcc s thc nhng ci khng c khm ph ra mt cch nhn qu, cng ngh th ng ng mt vaitr sng cn trong s ni ln ca cc khoa hc m i. Nhng mc d loi thu l m s thc ny l thit yu chongun gc ca nhiu khoa hc quan tr ng, bt c ai xem xt, th

d, cc tc phm bch khoa ca Pliny hay cc lch s t nhinBaconian ca thk m i by spht hin ra r ng n to ra mt bi ly. Ng i ta v i l do no l ng l i gi tc phm sinhra nh vy l khoa hc. Cc lch s Baconian vnhit, mu,


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gi, khai m, v v.v., c cht y thng tin, mt s t ai hiu. Nhng chng x p k nhau cc s thc m mun h n t ra bc l (th d, lm nng bng pha tr n) v i nhng ci khc (th d, s m ca phn th vt) svn cn qu phc t p trong mt th igian na c tch h p cht no v i l thuyt.4 Ngoi ra, v bt cm tno hn u l mt phn, s hc t nhinin hnhth ng bst trong cc t ng thut v cng chi tit ca nngnhng chi tit m cc nh khoa hc mun h n s tm thy cc

ngun lm sng tquan tr ng. Hu nh chng lch s no trongcc lch s v in, chng hn, li nin r ng r m rc, b htvo que thu tinh c ch xt, li ny ln. Hiu ng ny c v nh c hc, ch khng phi in.5 H n na, v ng i thu th p s thc tnh c him khi c th i gian hay cc cng c l ph phn, cc lch s t nhin th ngcnh nhau cc m tgingnh trn v i nhng ci khc, th d, lm nng bng lm lnh(hay bng antiperistasis), m by gi chng ta hon ton khngc khnng xc nhn.6 Ch r t thi thong, nh tr ng h p cat nh hc, ng hc, v quang hc hnh hc cxa, cc s thc c thu th p v i t s h ng dn nh vy t l thuyt c

xc l p tr c m i nir cho php s ni ln ca khungmu u tin.Tnh hnh ny l ci to ra cc tr ng phic tr ng ca ccgiaion banu ca s pht trin khoa hc. Khng lch s t


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n, nhiu ng i trong sh ngh n t ngng chai chtlng in. K t qu tr c ti p ca cc n lc ca h l bnhLeyden, mt cng c c thchng bao gi c tm ra b i mtng i khai ph t nhin tnh c hay ngu nhin, nhng thc ran c pht trin c l p b i t nht hai nh kho st voucc nm 1740.7Hu nh ngay t u cc nghin cu in ca mnh, Franklinc bit quan tmn gii thch ci lk v, nu iu xy ra,

c bit bc lca thit b c bit ny. Thnh cng ca ng lm vy to cc l lhu hiu nht lm cho l thuyt ca ngl mt khung mu, tuy l l thuyt vn cha c khnng giithch hu ht mi tr ng h p c bit vs y in.8 c ch p nhn nhmt khung mu, mt l thuyt phi c v tt h n cci th cnh tranh ca n, nhng n khng cn vthc ra chng bao gi gii thch mi s thc m n c th idin.Ci m l thuyt lng v in lm cho nhm ph tin von, l khung mu Franklinian mun h n lm cho cnhm th in. N g i b cng thc hin cc th nghim no v khng

nn thc hin cc th nghim no v chng h ng t i cc biuhin th c p hay qu phc t p ca in. Ch khung mu m i lmcho cng vic hu hiu h n nhiu, mt phn v s k t thc catranh lun gia cc tr ng phi chm dt s l p i l p li lin


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tc ca cc nguyn tc c bn v mt phn v s tin t ng r ngh i ng h ng khch lcc nh khoa hc m nhimcc loi cng vic chnh xc, b truyn, v mnh h n.9 Thotkhi ni lo u vbt c v mi hin t ngin, nhm cthng nht c th theoui cc hin t ng chn lc mt cchchi tit h n nhiu, thit k thit b c bit h n nhiu cho cngvic v dng n ngoan c ng h n v c h thng h n cc th in tng lm tr c . C s thu th p s thc v trnh by

r l thuyt tr thnh cc hot ng cnh h ng cao. Tnhhiu quv nng sut ca nghin cu in tng ln t ngng, cung c p bng chng cho mt phin bn x hi ca chmngn ph ng php lun sc so ca Francis Bacon: Chn l niln ddng t sai lm h n l t s ln ln.10Chng ta skho st bn tnh ca vic nghin cu cnhh ng cao ny, hay da vo khung mu, mc ti p, nhngutin phi lu ngn gn s ni ln ca mt khung mu nhh ng ra saon cu trc ca nhm thc hnh l nh vc y.Trong s pht trin ca mt khoa hc t nhin, khi mt c nhnhay nhmu tin to ra mt s tng h p c khnng thu ht

hu ht thh ti p theo ca nhng ng i thc hnh, th cctr ng phi c dn dn bin mt. Mt phn s bin mt cachng l do cc thnh vin ca chng chuyn sang khung mum i. Nhng lun lun c ai vn bm vo mt quanim hay


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quanim khc trong scc quanim c, v h n gin b ui ra khi gi i, gi i chuyn mn v thbqua cng trnh cah. Khung mu m i ng mt nh ngh a m i v kht khe h nv l nh vc. Nhng ng i khng mun hay khng th thch nghicng vic ca mnh v i n phi tin hnh trong s c l p haygn mnh v i nhm khc no.11 Vmt lch s, h th ng n gin li trong cc bmn trit hc t c bit bao nhiukhoa hc c bit c sinh ra. Nh cc ch bo ny m ch,

i khi chnh s ch p nhn mt khung mu l ci bin i mtnhm tr c y ch quan tmn nghin cu t nhin tr thnhmt nghhay, ch t, mt mn hc. Trong cc khoa hc (tuykhng trong cc l nh vc nh y hc, cng ngh, v lut, mraison dtre [l do tn ti] chnh ca chng l l mt nhu cu xhi bn ngoi), s hnh thnh ca cc t p ch chuyn ngnh, s thnh l p cc hi p hi chuyn gia, v s i hi c mt ch c bit trong ch ng trnh ging dy th ng c k t h p v i s ch p nhn u tin ca nhmi v i mt khung mu duy nht.Ch t l tr ng h p gia th i k, mt thk r i tr c y,khi hnh mu thchvchuyn mn ho khoa hc u tin

c pht trin v th i gian m i gn y khilca s chuyn mn ho c c uy tn ring ca chng.nh ngh a kht khe h n vnhm khoa hc c cc hu qukhc.Khi c nhn nh khoa hc c thcoi mt khung mu l d nhin,


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anh ta khng cn cn, trong cc cng vic chnh ca mnh, th xy dng l nh vc ca mnh mt ln na, xut pht t ccnguyn lu tin v bin hcho vic dng tng khi nim c a vo. Vic c th c cho cc tc gi ca ccsch gio khoa. Cho tr c mt sch gio khoa, tuy vy, nhkhoa hc sng to c thbt u nghin cu ca mnh n i nngng li v nh th t p trung ch ring vo cc kha cnh tinhtnht v b truyn nht ca cc hin t ng t nhin lin quan

t i nhm anh ta. V khi anh ta lm th, cc thng co nghincu ca anh ta sbt u thayi theo cc cch m s tin hoca chng ch c nghin cu qu t nhng cc sn phm cuicng hin i ca chng l hin nhin v i mi ng i v ngtngt v i nhiu ng i. Cc nghin cu ca anh ta skhng cn c biu hin trong cc sch, nhCc th nghim .. v inca Franklin hay Ngun gc cc Loi ca Darwin, nhm t i btc ai ng i c thquan tmn ni dung ch ca l nh vc.Thay vo chng th ng xut hin nh cc bi bo ngn ch nhm t i ccng nghi p trong ngh, nhng ng i m hiu bitca hvkhung mu chung c th c gi s v nhng ng i

t ra l nhng ng i duy nht c khnngc cc bi bo nhmt i h. Ngy nay trong cc khoa hc, cc sch th ng hoc l sch giokhoa hay nhng suy ngm nhn li qu kh vmt kha cnh


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hay kha cnh khc ca i sng khoa hc. Nh khoa hc vitmt cun sch r t c th thy uy tn chuyn mn ca mnh b stkm h n l c nng cao. Ch trong cc giaion s m h n,tr c-khung mu, ca s pht trin ca cc khoa hc khc nhauth sch ni chung m i c cng quan hv i thnh tu chuynmn, quan hvn cn gi c cc l nh vc sng to khc. Vch cc l nh vc vn gi c sch, c hay khng c bi bo,v i t cch mt ph ng tin truyn b cho truyn thng nghin

cu, th cc ngnh chuyn mn vn c tho ra lng lo nmc dn th ng c thhi vng theo c s tin bbngccc bo co gc ca nhng ng i hnh ngh. C trong ton hcln thin vn hc, cc bo co nghin cu th i cxa khng cn dhiu i v i bn c c trnhgio dc ph thng r i. Trongng hc, nghin cu tr nn b truynt ng t cui Th i Trung c, v n ly li c tnh dhiuni chung ch ngn u thk m i by khi mt khung mum i thay thkhung mu h ng dn nghin cu th i trung c. Nghin cu in bt u i hi vic dch cho ng i dn th ngtr c cui thk m i tm, v hu ht cc l nh vc khc ca

khoa hc vt l khng cn c th ti p cn c ni chungtrong thk m i chn. Trong cng hai thk cc b c qu t ng t c th c c l p cc phn khc nhau ca cc khoahc sinh hc. Trong cc phn ca cc khoa hc x hi chng c


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th ang xy ra ngy nay. Mc d tr thnh thi quen, vchc chn ng,phn nn vhsu ngy cng r ng ngncch nh khoa hc chuyn nghi p khi ccng nghi p ccl nh vc khc, ch qu t t i mi quan hct yu gia h su v c chni ti cho tin bkhoa hc.Sut t th i c tin s, l nh vc nghin cu ny sau l nh vckhc v t qua s chia r gia ci s gia c thgi tin lch s ca n nhmt khoa hc v lch s ch thc ca n. Cc b c

quny t i tr ng thnh him khit ngt hay dt khotnvy nh tho lun nht thit s l c ca ti c thng. Songchng cng khng t t vmt lch s, m bao trm ton b s pht trin ca cc l nh vc trong chng xut hin. Cc tcgiv in hc trong bn th p ninu ca thk m i tmc c nhiu thng tin vcc hin t ngin h n cc tin bithk m i su ca h r t nhiu. Trong na thk sau 1740, ct loi hin t ngin m i c a thm vo danh sch cah. Tuy nhin, vcc kha cnh quan tr ng, cc tc phm v in ca Cavendish, Coulomb, v Volta trong phn ba cui cathk m i tm c vcn xa cc tc phm ca Gray, Du Fay, v

thm ch Franklin h n so v i cc tc phm ca cc nh phtminhin u thk m i tm xa h n cc tc phm ca thk m i su.12 Lc no gia 1740 v 1780, cc th in lnu tin c khnng coi nn tng ca l nh vc ca h l d


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nhin. T th i im h theoui cc vn c thv khhiu h n, v r i ngy cng tng dn hbo co cc k t qu camnh trong cc bi bo nhm t i cc th in khc h n l trongcc sch nhm t i gi i c hc ni chung. Nhmt nhm h t ci m cc nh thin vn t c trong th i cv ccnh nghin cu chuyn ng t c trong th i Trung C,quang hc vt l vo cui thk m i by, va cht hc lchs u thk m i chn. Tc l, h t c mt khung

mu t ra c khnng h ng dn vic nghin cu ca ton b nhm. Tr v i l i thca s nhn thc mun, khtm ra tiuchun khc ch ra mt l nh vc l mt khoa hc mt cch r nh vy.

--------------1 Joseph Priestley, The History and Present State of DiscoveriesRelating to Vision, Light, and Colours (London, 1772), pp. 385-90.2 Vasco Ronchi, Histoire de la lumire, do Jean Taton dch

(Paris, 1956), cc ch ng i-vi.3 Duane Roller and Duane H. D. Roller, The Development of theConcept of Electric Charge: Electricity from the Greeks toCoulomb (Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science,


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Case 8; Cambridge, Mass., 1954); v I. B. Cohen, Franklin and Newton: An Inquiry into Speculative Newtonian ExperimentalScience and Franklins Works in Electricity as an ExampleThereof (Philadelphia, 1956), chps. vii-xii. Vmt schi titgii tch trongon vn ti p theo trong vn bn, ti mang nmt bi bo vn cha cng bca sinh vin ca ti John L.Heilbron. Trong khi ch n c cng b, mt t ng thut h idi h n v chnh xc h n v s ni ln ca khung mu ca

Franklin c bao hm trong T. S. Kuhn, The Function of Dogma in Scientific Research, trong A. C. Crombie (ed.),Symposium on the History of Science, University of Oxford,July 9-15, 1961, s c Heinemann Educational Books, Ltd.xut bn.* Nay l ra phi gi l cc nhin hc, sauy n vn cdch l th in.4 So phc ho cho mt lch s t nhin vnhit trong NovumOrganum ca Bacon, vol. VIII ca The Works of Francis Bacon,ed. J. Spedding, R. L. Ellis, and D. D. Heath (New York, 1869), pp. 179-203.

5 Roller and Roller, op. cit., pp. 14, 22, 28, 43. Ch sau khi cngvic c ghi chp li trong trch dn cui ca cc trch dn nyth cc hiu ngy m i nhn c s tha nhn nh r rngthuc v in.


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6 Bacon, op. cit., pp. 235, 337, ni, N c h i m d ng h nn c kh lnh. Vmt t ng thut mt phn ca lch s s mh n vquan st lk ny, xem Marshall Clagett, GiaovanniMarliani and Late Mediveal Physics (New York, 1941), ch. iv.7 Roller and Roller, op. cit., pp. 51-54.8 Tr ng h p r c r i l s y ln nhau ca cc vt nhim inm, vn xem Cohen, op. cit., pp. 491-94, 531-43.9 Phi lu r ng s ch p nhn l thuyt ca Franklin khng

chm dt hon ton mi tranh ci. Nm 1759 Robert Symmer xut phin bn hai cht lng ca l thuyt , v trong nhiunm sau cc th in b chia r vvic liu in l mt chtlng duy nht hay hai. Nhng tranh lun vch ny ch xcnhn ci c ni trn vcch theo mt thnh tu ctha nhn phqut lin k t nghnghi p li. Cc th in, tuy h vn chia r v im ny, mau chng k t lun r ng khng kimchng th nghim no c thphn bit c hai phin bn ca lthuyt v v thchng l t ng ng nhau. Sau vic , chaitr ng phi c thv khai thc mi l i ch m l thuytFranklinian cung c p (ibid., pp. 543-46, 548-54).

10 Bacon, op. cit., p. 210. [Truth emerges more readily fromerror than from confusion] 11 Lch s v in cho mt th d tuyt v i ci c th c sao li t s nghi p ca Priestley,Kelvin, v nhng ng i khc. Franklin thut li r ng Nollet, l


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ng i cnh h ng nht ca cc th in Lc a vo gia th k , sng thy mnh l ng i cui cng ca Phi ng, tr ng B.- Hc tr vt tr c ti p ca ng (Max Farrand [ed.],Benjamin Franklins Memoirs [Berkeley, Calif., 1949], pp. 384-86). L th h n, tuy vy, l s ko di ca ton bcc tr ng phi trong s c l p ngy cng tng khi gi i khoa hc. Xem,th d, tr ng h p ca thut chim tinh, mt th i l phn khngtch r i ca thin vn hc. Hay xt s ti p tc cui thk

m i tm vu thk m i chn ca mt truyn thng cknh tr ng tr c y vho hc lng mn.y l truynthng c Charles C. Gillispie tho lun trong TheEncyclopdie and the Jacobin Philosophy of Science: A Study inIdeals and Consequences, Critical Problems in the History of Sciences, ed. Marshall Clagett (Madison, Wis., 1959), pp. 255-89; v The Formation of Lamarcks Evolutionary Theory,Archives internationales dhistoire des sciences, XXXVII(1956), 323-38.12 Nhng s pht trin hu-Franklinian bao gm mt s tng lnr t nhiu v nhy ca cc my din tch, cc k thut tin

cy u tin v c phbin r ng ri o in tch, s tinho ca khi nim in dung v quan hca ni v i quannim c xcnh li v in th, v s l ng ho lc t nhin. V tt c cc th ny xem Roller and Roller, op. cit., pp.


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66-81; W.C. Walker, The Detection of Electric Charges in the EighteenthCentury, Annals of Science, I (1936), 66-100; v EdmundHoppe, Geschichte der Elektrizitt (Leipzig, 1884), Part I, ch.iii-iv.


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THOMAS S. KUHN



Ch ng 3

Bn cht ca Khoa hc Thng th ng

Th th ci g l bn tnh ca vic nghin cu chuyn nghi p v b truyn h n m s ch p nhn mt khung mu duy nht camt nhm cho php? Nu khung mu trnh by cng vic c lm mt ln cho mi mi, th nli cc vn thm nocho nhm c thng nht gii quyt? Cc cu hi sc v thm ch c p bch h n nu by gi ta lu mt kha cnh trong cc thut ng c dngn nay c thgy lm lc. Trongcch dng c xc l p ca n, mt khung mu l mt mhnh hay hnh mu c ch p nhn, v kha cnh ca ngh aca n cho php ti, do thiu t hay h n, chim ot t

paradigm-khung mu y. Nhng s r ngay r ng ngh a v m hnh hay hnh mu ci cho php s chim ot khnghon ton l ci th ng dng trongnh ngh a khung mu.Trong ng php, th d, amo, amas, amat l mt paradigm b i


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v n ph by hnh mu dngchia mt s l ng l n ccngtLatin khc, th d, to ra laudo, laudas, laudat. Trongngdng chun ny, paradigm hot ng bng cho php l p li ccth dm bt c ci no trong s vnguyn tc c th cdngthay n. Trong khoa hc, mt khc, mt khung muhim khi l mt i t ngsao chp li. Thay vo, gingmt quyt nh php l c ch p nhn trong thng lut, n lmt i t ng cho vic trnh by r thm vnh r thm d i

cciu kin m i hay nghim ngt h n.thy lm sao vic ny c thnh th, chng ta phi nhn ramt khung mu c th r t b hn ch ra sao cvphm vi vtnh chnh xc th i im n xut hin u tin. Cc khungmu nhn c a v ca chng b i v chng thnh cng h ncci th cnh tranh ca mnh trong gii quyt cc vn mnhm nhng ng i thc hnh nhn ra l gay gt. l thnhcng h n, tuy vy, khng phi l hoc thnh cng hon ton v imt vn n nht hay thnh cng ni bt v i bt c s l nno. Thnh cng ca mt khung mu - bt lun l phn tch caAristotle vchuyn ng, tnh ton ca Ptolemy vv tr hnh

tinh,ng dng ca Lavoisier vcn bng, hay ton hc ho caMaxwell v tr ngin t - kh i u chyu l mt ha hnv thnh cng c th c khm ph ra trong cc th d c lachn v vn cha hon thnh. Khoa hc thng th ng ct s


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hin thc ho ha hn , mt s hin thc hot c bngm r ng tri thc vcc s thc m khung mu ph by ra nh c bit tit l, bng lm tng mc ph h p gia cc s thc v cc d on ca khung mu, v bng trnh by r thm v bn thn khung mu.t ng i, nhng ng i khng thc s thc hnh mt khoa hctr ng thnh, nhn ra cn phi lm bao nhiu cng vic thu dnvmt khung mu loi ny hoc cng vic nh vy c th t ra

h p dn n thno trong thc hin. V nhngim ny cn c hiu. Cc hot ng nht nhnh l vic thu ht hu ht ccnh khoa hc sut s nghi p ca h. Chng to thnh ci ti gi y l khoa hc thng th ng. Xem xt t m, d v lch s hay trong phng th nghim hin i, vic lm kh khn cv l mt n lc buc t nhin vo ci h p hnh thnhtr c v t ngi cng do khung mu cung c p. Khng phnno trong mc tiu ca khoa hc thng th ng lgy ra ccloi hin t ng m i; thc ra cc hin t ng khng h p v i h pth ng chng h c nhn thy. Cc nh khoa hc th ng cngchng h ng t i sng ch ra cc l thuyt m i, v h th ng

khng khoan dung cc l thuyt do nhng ng i khca ra.1Thay vo, nghin cu ca khoa hc thng th ng h ng t itrnh by r cc hin t ng v cc l thuyt m khung mu cung c p r i.


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C l y l cc thiu st. Cc l nh vc c khoa hc thngth ng kho st, tt nhin, l r t nh; vic lm kh khn ang c tho lun y c tm nhn b hn ch tr m tr ng. Nhngcc hn ch, sinh ra t s tin t ng vo mt khung mu, li hora thit yu cho s pht trin ca khoa hc. Bng t p trung ch vo mt di h p cc vn t ngi huyn b, khung mu buccc nh khoa hc kho st phn no ca t nhin mt cchchi tit v su m khci th khng th t ng t ng c. V

khoa hc thng th ng c mt c chni ti gn lin m bos lm du cc hn ch rng buc vic nghin cu mi khikhung mu, m t hxut pht, khng cn hot ng mtcch hu hiu. Ti im cc nh khoa hc bt u ng x khc nhau, v bn cht ca cc vn nghin cu ca h thayi. Gia chng, tuy vy, trong th i k khung mu thnh cng,gi i khoa hc gii quyt cc vn m cc thnh vin ca nhu nh khng th t ng t ng ra v chng bao gi gnhvc m khng c s cam k t v i khung mu. V t nht mt phnca thnh tu lun t ra c tnh di lu.biu l ra mt cch r rng nghin cu thng th ng hoc

da trn khung mu c ngh a l g, by gi hyti th phnloi v minh ho cc vn m khoa hc thng th ng chyu bao gm.thun tin ti hon hot ng l thuyt m bt uv i vic thu th p s thc, tc l, v i cc th nghim v quan st


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c m t trong cc t p ch k thut qua cc nh khoa hcthng bo v i ccng nghi p ca hvcc k t qu ca s nghin cu ti p tc ca mnh. Cc nh khoa hc th ng bo covcc kha cnh no ca t nhin? Ci g quyt nh s lachn ca h? V, v hu ht quan st khoa hc cn nhiu th igian, thit b, v tin, ci g thcy nh khoa hc theoui lachn i v i mt k t lun?Ti ngh , ch c ba tiuim bnh th ng cho vic kho st

khoa hc cn c vo s thc. Th nht l l p cc s thc mkhung mu cho thy c bit tit lvbn tnh ca cc s vt. Bng p dng chng trong gii quyt cc vn , khungmu lm cho b xcnh chng cv i s chnh xc h n vtrong s a dng h n ca cc tnh hung. Lc ny hay lc khc,nhng s xcnh cn c vo s thc quan tr ng ny c bao gm: trong thin vn hc - v tr vl n ca sao, cc chuk che khut ca cc saoi v cc hnh tinh; trong vt l hc tr ng lc ring v tnh c thnn ca cc vt liu, cc b csng v c ngph, dn in v ccin th ti p xc; vtrong ho hc - cu to v tr ng l ng k t h p, ccim si v

axt ca cc dung dch, cc cng thc cu trc v tnh hotng quang hc. Cc n lc lm tngchnh xc v phmvi m v i chng cc s thc ging thny c bit, chim mtt l ng k ca cc ti liu vkhoa hc th nghim v quan st.


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Khng bit bao nhiu ln my mc ring bit phc t p cthit k cho cc mc ch nh vy, v vic sng ch, xy dng,v trin khai my mc i hi ti nng loi mt, nhiu th igian, v h tr ti chnhng k . Cc myng b (synchrotron)v cc knh vin vng v tuyn ch l cc th dm i y nht v di m cc nh nghin cu phi i nu mt khung mu m bo cho h r ng cc s thc m h tm kim l quan tr ng. T Tycho Brahen E. O. Lawrence, mt snh khoa hc c

c uy tn l n, khng t bt c tnh m i lno ca cc khm ph ca h, m t chnh xc,tin cy, v phm vi ca cc ph ng php m h pht trin cho vic xcnh li mt lois thc c bin n tr c y.Mt l p th hai thng th ng nhng nhh n ca cc xcnhcn c vo s thc h ng t i cc s thc m, tuy th ng khngc nhiu quan tm ni ti, c thso snh tr c ti p v i cc d on t l thuyt mu. Nh chng ta s thy ngay, khi ti chuynt cc vn th nghim sang cc vn l thuyt ca khoa hcthng th ng, him c nhiu l nh vc trong mt l thuytkhoa hc, c bit nu n c trnh by chyu dng ton

hc, c th c so snh tr c ti p v i t nhin. Khng nhiuh n ba l nh vc nh vy thm ch cn c th ti p cn c nl thuyt t ngi tng qut ca Einstein.2 H n na, ngay c trong cc l nh vc n i ng dng l c th, n th ngi hi cc


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s x p x l thuyt v cng cgy hn chkht khe cho s phh p c mong i. Ci thin s ph h p hay tm ra cc l nhvc m i trong s ph h p c th c minh ho cht no lmt thch thc lin tc i v i k nng v sc t ng t ng canh th nghim v nh quan st. Cc knh thin vn c bit chng td on Copernican v th sai hng nm; my caAtwood, c sng ch u tin gn mt thk sau Pincipia, cho minh chng dt khotnh lut th hai ca Newton; thit b

ca Foucaultchng t r ng tc nh sng trong khng khl n h n trong n c; hay cc b m l p lnh [scintillationcounter] khng l c thit k chng ts tn ti caneutrino cc chic myc bit ny v nhiu ci khc gingchng minh hon lc v ti kho lo v cng cn a t nhin v l thuyt ngy cng ph h p nhau h n.3 N lc chng ts ph h p l loi th hai ca cng vic th nghimthng th ng, v n thm ch ph thuc hin nhin h n loi utin vo khung mu. S tn ti ca khung mu t cc vn gii quyt; th ng l thuyt mu c bao hm tr c ti p trongthit k ca my mc c khnng gii quyt vn . Khng c

Principia, chng hn, th cco l ng c tin hnh v i myAtwood chng hc ngh a g.L p th ba ca cc th nghim v quan st, ti ngh , vt cn cchot ng thu th p s thc ca khoa hc thng th ng. N gm


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cng vic thc nghim c tin hnhtrnh by r h n lthuyt mu, gii quyt mt sm hcn li v cho php giiquyt cc vn m tr c kia n ch m i lu n. L p ny t ra l quan tr ng nht trong ba l p, v sm tn cn n s chia nhh n. Trong cc khoa hc mang tnh ton hc nhiuh n, mt s th nghim nhm trnh by r h n c h ngt i vic xc nh cc hng svt l. Cng trnh ca Newton, thd, cho bit r ng lc gia hai n v khi l ng cch nhau mt

n v di s l nh nhau cho mi loi vt cht mi v trtrong v tr . Nhng cc vn ca ring ng c th c giiquyt m thm ch khng c s c l ngl n ca sc htny, hng sh p dn phqut; v chng c ng i khc nongh ra thit b c khnng xcnh n sut mt thk sau khiPrincipia xut hin. S xcnh ni ting ca Cavendish vonm 1790 cng chng phi l cui cng. B i v v tr trung tmca n trong l thuyt vt l, cc gi tr c ci thin ca hng s h p dn l mt i t ng ca cc cgng l p i l p li sutt b i mt snh thc nghim xut sc.4 Cc th dkhccng loi vcng vic ti p tc c thgm vic xcnh n v

thin vn, sAvogadro, hsJoule,in tch, v v.v. t trong s cc n lc t m ny c th c ngh ra v chng ci noc th c thc hin m khng c mt l thuyt mu xcnh r vn v m bo s tn ti ca mt l i gii n nh.


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Cc n lc trnh by r mt khung mu, tuy vy, khng gi ihn vic xcnh cc hng sphqut. Chng c th, th d,cng nhm t i cc qui lut nh l ng:nh lut Boyle lin k tp sut kh v i th tch,nh lut Coulomb vs htin, vcng thc Joule lin hnhit c gy ra v i tr khngin vdngin, tt c u thuc loi ny. C lkhng hin nhinr ng mt khung mu liu kin tin quyt cho vic pht hinra cc qui lut nh thny. Ta th ng nghe r ng chng c

tm thy bng xem xt cco l ng c thc hin v chnhchng m khng c cam k t l thuyt. Song lch s khng cungc p s ng hno cho mt ph ng php Baconian qungnvy. Cc th nghim ca Boyle khng thhnh dung ra c(v nu ginh c ngh ra n snhn c mt s din giikhc hay khng h c din gii) chon khi khng kh cnhn ra nhmt cht lngn hi m tt c cc khi nim tinhvi ca thu t nh hc c th c p dng.5 Thnh cng caCoulomb ph thuc vo vic xy dng thit b c bit ca ng o lc gia ccim in tch. (Nhng ng i tr c kiath o lc in dng cn a bnh th ng, v.v., khng h tm

thy s u n no). Nhng thit k , n l t, li ph thucvo s tha nhn tr c na r ng mi ht cht lngin tcngln mi ht khc mt khong cch. Chnh lc gia cc ht nh vy- ci duy nht c th c gi thit an ton nhmt hm n


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gin ca khong cch l ci Coloumb tm kim.6 Cc thnghim ca Joule cng c th c dngminh ho cc quilut nh l ng ni ln ra sao qua trnh by r khung mu. Thcra, quan hgia khung mu nh tnh v cc qui lut nh l ngl tng qut v mt thit n mc, k tGalileo, cc qui lutnh vy th ng c phngonngn v i s gip cakhung mu hng nm tr c khi my mc c th c thit k cho vic xcnh chng bng th nghim.7

Cui cng, c loi th nghim th ba nhm t i trnh by r mtkhung mu. H n cc loi khc loi ny c thging v i s thmd, v nc bit phbin cc giaion v cc khoa hc c p nhiu h n n cc kha cnhnh tnh h n lnh l ng cas u n ca t nhin. Th ng mt khung mu c phttrin cho mt t p cc hin t ng li m h trongng dng can vo cc hin t ng lin quan mt thit khc. Khi cc thnghim nht thit phi chn gia cc cch la chn khd vpdng khung mu cho l nh vc quan tm m i. Th d, ccngdng mu ca l thuyt nhit lm nng v lm lnh bng phatr n v bng thayi tr ng thi. Nhng nhit c th c gii

phng hay h p th theo nhiu cch khc th d, bng h p chtho hc, bng ma st, v bng nn hay ht kh vi v i mitrong cc hin t ng khc ny l thuyt c th c p dngtheo nhiu cch. Nu ginh chn khng c mt nhit dung, th


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d, lm nng bng nn c th c gii thch nh s pha tr nkh v chn khng. Hay n c thdo mt s thayi v t nhitca cc kh v i thayi p sut. V ngoi ra c nhiu gii thchkhc. Nhiu th nghim c thc hin trau chut cc kh nng khc nhau ny vphn bit chng; tt c cc th nghimnyu ny sinh t l thuyt nhit nh khung mu, v tt c ukhai thc n trong thit k cc th nghim v trong din gii cck t qu.8 Mt khi hin t ng lm nng bng nn c xc l p,

tt c cc th nghim thm na trong l nh vc l ph thuckhung mu theo cng cch. Cho tr c hin t ng, lm sao cthchn khc mt th nghim lm sng tn?By gi quay sang cc vn l thuyt ca khoa hc thngth ng, chng chia thnh cc l p r t gn ging nh cc l p thnghim v quan st. Mt phn ca cng vic l thuyt thngth ng, tuy l phn nh, n gin ct dng l thuyt hin hnhd on thng tin vs thc c gi tr ni ti. Vic ch tocc lch thin vn, tnh ccc tr ng thu knh, v to ra cc ng cong truyn sng v tuyn l nhng v dvcc vn thuc loi ny. Cc nh khoa hc, tuy vy, th ng coi chng nh

cng vic lm thu c giao cho cc k s hay cc k thutvin. Khng lc no r t nhiu trong schng xut hin trn cct p ch khoa hc quan tr ng. Nhng cc t p ch ny cha r tnhiu tho lun l thuyt vcc vn m,i v i ng i khng


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phi nh khoa hc, hn c vhu nh y ht. y l cc thao tcca l thuyt c thc hin, khng b i v cc d on trongchng c to ra l c gi tr ni ti, m b i v chng c th c i chiu tr c ti p v i th nghim. Mc ch ca chng lph by mt ng dng m i ca khung mu haytng chnh xc ca mt ng dng c tin hnh r i. Nhu cu vcng vic loi ny ny sinh t cc kh khn r t l nth ng g p khi pht trin ccim ti p xc gia mt l thuyt

v t nhin. Cc kh khn ny c th c minh hongn gn bng xem xt lch s ng hc sau Newton. Vou thk m i tm nhng ng i thy mt khung mu trong Principia coitnh tng qut ca cc k t lun ca n l d nhin, v hc mil dolm vy. Khng tc phm no c bit trong lch s khoa hc ng th i cho php mt s tng ln l n n vy c vphm vi vchnh xc ca nghin cu. i v i khong tr i Newton dn ra ccnh lut Kepler vchuyn ng hnhtinh v cng gii thch cc kha cnh no c quan sttheo mt tr ng khng tun theo chng.i v i trit ng dn ra cc k t qu ca cc quan st no vcon lc v thu

triu. V i s gip ca cc gi thit thm nhng ad hoc [c bit], ng cng c thdn ranh lut Boyle v mt cngthc quan tr ng cho tc m thanh trong khng kh. Cn c vtr ng thi khoa hc lc , thnh cng ca cc vic minh chng


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l cc k gyn t ng. Thnhng cn c vo tnh tng qut cl ca ccnh lut Newton, sccng dng khng nhiu,v Newton hu nh khng pht trin ng dng no khc. H nna, so v i ci m bt c sinh vin cao hc no vvt l c th t c v i cng ccnh lut ngy nay, ving dng ca Newton thm ch khng c trnh by chnh xc. Cui cng,Principia c d kin cho ccng dng chyu cho ccvn c hc thin vn. Thch nghi n lm sao cho ccng

dng trit, c bit cho ccng dng vchuyn ng v irng buc, chng h r cht no. Cc vn trit, trongmi tr ng h p, c bt u r i v i thnh cng l n b i mtt p cc k thut hon ton khc banu c Galileo vHuyghens pht trin v c m r ng ra trn Lc a trong th k m i tm b i anh em nh Bernoulli, dAlembert, v nhiung i khc. C lcc k thut ca hv ca Principia c th c chng t l cc tr ng h p c bit ca mt cch trnh bytng qut h n, nhng trong mt th i gian khng ai hiu r honton phi lm thno.9Hy gi i hn s ch mt lc vo vn v tnh chnh xc.

Chng ta minh ho r i kha cnh kinh nghim ca n. cnn thit b c bit nhmy mc ca Cavendish, myAtwood, hay cc knh thin vn c ci thin -cung c p s liu c bit m ccng dng c thca khung mu Newton


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i hi. Nhng kh khn t ng t trong nhn c s ph h p tn ti pha l thuyt. p dng ccnh lut ca mnhcho cc con lc, th d, Newton buc phi coi qu lc nh mt im khi l ngcho mt nh ngh a duy nht v dicon lc. Hu ht ccnh l ca ng, t ngoi lmang tnh gi thuyt v s b, cng bquanh h ng ca sc cn khng kh.y l cc php x p x vt lngn. Tuy nhin, v i t cchcc php x p x chng hn chs ph h p c mong i

gia cc d on ca Newton v cc th nghim thc s. Cngnhng kh khn xut hin thm ch r h n trongng dng lthuyt Newton vo bu tr i. Nhng quan st bng knh thinvn n gin cho thy r ng cc hnh tinh khng hon ton tuntheo ccnh lut Kepler, v l thuyt Newton cho thy chngkhng phi. dn ra ccnh lut ny, Newton buc phi bqua mi sc ht h p dn tr sc ht gia c nhn cc hnhtinh v mt tr i. V cc hnh tinh c ht ln nhau, ch c th mong i s ph h p gn ng gia l thuyt c p dng v iquan st bng knh thin vn.10S ph h p t c, tt nhin, nhiu h n s thomni

v i nhng ng i nhn c n. Tr mt svn trit,khng l thuyt khc no c th lm gn tt n th. Khng aitrong snhng ng i nghi ng tnh h p lca cng trnh ca Newton lm vy b i v s ph h p hn chca n v i th


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nghim v quan st. Tuy nhin, cc hn chny vs ph h pli nhiu vn l thuyt quyn r cho nhng ng i k tc Newton. cn n nhng k thut l thuyt, th d, x lchuyn ng ca nhiu h n hai vt thht nhaung th i v kho st tnhn nh ca cc qu o b xong. Cc nh tonhc gii nht chu u bn r n v i vn ging th trong th k m i tm vu thk m i chn. Euler, Lagrange, Laplace,v Gauss tt c thc hin mt s trong hu ht cc cng trnh

li lc nht ca hvcc vn nhm t i ci thin s ph h pgia khung mu Newton v quan st bu tr i. Nhiu trong s cc nhn vt ny lm vic ng th i pht trin ton hccn thit cho ccng dng m cNewton ln tr ng phi Lca ng th i ca c hc thm ch chng th. H to ra, thd, cc ti liu r t r ng l n v mt sk thut ton hc r t hngmnh cho thu ng hc v cc vn vcc dy daong.Cc vn ng dng ny gii thch cho ci c l l cng trnhkhoa hc li lc v chi phi nht ca thk m i tm. C th pht hin ra cc th dkhc bng xem xt giaion hu khungmu trong s pht trin ca nhit ng hc, l thuyt sng v

nh sng, l thuyt in t, hay bt c ngnh khoa hc no khcm ccnh lut c bn ca chng l hon tonnh l ng. tnht trong cc khoa hc c tnh ton hc h n, hu ht cng trnhl thuyt l thuc loi ny.


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Nhng khng phi tt c u l loi ny. Ngay c trong cc khoahc ton hc cng c cc vn l thuyt ca vic trnh by rkhung mu; v trong cc th i k khi s pht trin khoa hc ch yu lnh tnh, cc vn ny t hn. Mt svn , trongc cc khoa hc nh l ng h n vnh tnh h n, mc tiu ngin lm r bng trnh by li. Principia, th d, khnglun t ra l mt tc phm dp dng, mt phn b i v n gi li mt svng vkhng trnh khi trong mt cng trnh to

bo u tin v mt phn b i v r t nhiu ngh a ca n ch n tng trong ccng dng ca n.i v i nhiu ng dng tri t, trong mi tr ng h p, mt t p d ng nh khng cquan hca cc k thut Lc a c vhng mnh h n r t nhiu.V th, tEuler v Lagrange trong thk m i tm chonHamilton, Jacobi, v Hertz trong thk m i chn, nhiu nh vtl ton li lc nht ca chu u ht ln nyn ln khc c gng trnh by li l thuyt c hc mt dng t ng ngnhng thomn h n vmt logic v thm m . Tc l, h mun tr ng by cc bi hc r rng vn tng ca Principia vca c hc Lc a trong mt phin bn cht chh n vmt

logic, mt phin bn ngay l p tc ngu h n v t l p l h ntrong vic p dng n cho cc vn m i c trau chut cac hc.11Cc trnh by li t ng t ca mt khung mu xy ra l p i


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l p li trong mi khoa hc, nhng phn l n to ra nhng thayi ng k h n trong khung mu so v i cc trnh by li caPrincipia c nhc n trn. Nhng thayi nh vy l k tqu t cc cng trnh kinh nghim c m t tr c y nh nhm t i trnh by r khung mu. Qu thc, i phn loi cccng trnh loi nh kinh nghim l vic tu tin. H n bt c loi nghin cu thng th ng khc no, cc vn v trnh byr khung mu ng th i mang tnh l thuyt v thc nghim; cc

th d a ra tr c sphc v tt ngang nhau y. Tr c khing c thxy dng thit b ca mnh vo l ng v i n,Coulomb phi p dng l thuyt in xcnh thit b cang phi c xy dng ra sao. K t qu ca cco l ng cang l mt s lm tinh l thuyt . Hoc li na, nhng ng ithit k cc th nghim phn bit cc l thuyt khc nhau v lm nng bng nn ni chung cng l nhng ng i dng lncc phin bn cn so snh. H lm vic cv i s thc vv i l thuyt, v cng vic ca hkhng n gin to ra thngtin m i m to ra mt khung mu chnh xc h n, nhn c bng loi bnhng m p m m phin bn gc vn gi li v

da trn h xut pht. Trong nhiu khoa hc, hu ht cngvic thng th ng l thuc loi ny.Ti ngh , ba l p vn ny xcnh cc s thc quan tr ng,lm kh p cc s thc v i l thuyt, v trnh by r l thuyt vt


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cn cc ti liu ca khoa hc thng th ng, c thc nghim lnl thuyt. Tt nhin, chng khng vt cn hon ton ton b tiliu chuyn mn khoa hc. Cng c cc vn l th ng, v r tc ths gii quyt chng l ci lm cho cng vic mo himkhoa hc nhmt tng th li c bit xngngn vy. Nhng cc vn c bit, l th ng khng phi yu cu.Chng ni ln ch trong cc d p c bit do s tin bcanghin cu khoa hc thng th ng chun b. V th, chc chn

tuyt i a scc vn c ngay c cc nh khoa hc giinht m ng th ng r i vo mt trong ba loi (l p) c phc tho trn. Cng vic d i khung mu khng th ctin hnh theo cch khc, v r i bkhung mu l ngng thchnh khoa hc do n xcnh. Chng ta smau chng pht hinra r ng nhng s t bnh vy c xy ra. Chng l ccimta m quanh cc cuc cch mng khoa hc r ngot. Nhngtr c khi bt u nghin cu cc cuc cch mng nh vy,chng ta cn mt ci nhn bao qut h n v theoui nghkhoahc thng th ng dn ng cho cch mng.

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1 Bernard Barber, Resistance by Scientists to ScientificDiscovery, Science, CXXXIV (1961), 596-602.

2 im kim tra lu i duy nht vn c c tha nhn nichung lchnh xc ca im gn mt tr i (cn nht) ca saoThu. S dch chuyn trong phnh sng t cc sao xa cth c suy ra t cc cn nhc s ng h n tnh t ngi tngqut, v cng vy c thcho s bcong nh sng quanh mttr i, mt im by gi ang tranh ci. Trong mi tr ng h p,cc o c ca hin t ng sau vn khng r r t. Mt im kimtra na c th c xc l p va m i y: s dch chuyn h pdn ca bc xMossbauer. C lmau chng sc cc th khctrong l nh vc by gi ang tch cc nhng im lm t lu. V mt bo co ngn gn vvn , xem L. I. Schiff, A Report on

the NASA Conference on Experimental Tests of Theories of Relativity, Physics Today, XIV (1961), 42-48.3 Vhai knh thin vn th sai, xem Abraham Wolf, A History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the Eighteen Century(2nd ed.; London , 1952), pp. 103-5. Vmy Atwood, xem N.R. Hanson, Patterns of Discovery (Cambridge, 1958), pp. 100-102, 207-8. Vhai ci myc bit, xem M. L. Foucault,Mthode gnrale pour mesurer la vitesse de la lumire danslair et les milieux transparants. Vitesses relatives de la lumire


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dans lair et dans leau , Comptes rendus de lAcadmiedes sciences, XXX (1850), 551- 60; v C. L. Cowan, Jr., et al.,Detection of the Free Neutrino: A Confirmation, Science,CXXIV (1956), 103-4.4 J. H. P[oynting] xem xt li khong hai to l ng hng s h p dn gia 1741 v 1901 trong Graviation Constant andMean Density of the Earth, Encuclopaedia Britanica (11th ed.;Cambridge, 1910-11), XII, 385-89.

5 Vvic cy hon ton cc khi nim thu t nh hc(hydrostatic) sang kh lc hc (pneumatics), xem The PhysicalTreatises of Pascal, trans. I. H. B. Spiers and A. G. H. Spiers,v i dn nh p v ch gii ca F. Barry (New York, 1937). VicTorricelli banu a ra tnh t ng ng (Chng ta sngchm d i y ca mt i d ng ca nguyn tkh) xut hin p. 164. S pht trin nhanh chng ca n c hai schchuyn kho tr ng by.6 Duane Roller and Duane H. D. Roller, The Development of theConcept of Electric Charge: Electricity from the Greeks toCoulomb (Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science,

Case 8; Cambridge, Mass., 1954), pp. 66-80.7 Th d, xem T. S. Kuhn, The Function of Measurement inModern Physical Science, Isis, LII (1961), 161-93.8 T. S. Kuhn, The Caloric Theory of Adibatic Compression,


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THOMAS S. KUHN



Ch ng 4

Khoa hc Thng th ng nh Gii Cu

C l c tnh ni bt nht ca cc vn nghin cu thngth ng m chng ta va bt g p l chng h ng t ra saonvic to ra cc tnh m i l chnh, vmt quan nim hay hint ng.i khi, nh trongo l ng b c sng, tt cmi th tr chi tit huyn b nht ca k t qu c bit t tr c, v

r ngin hnh ca s d tnh ch h i r ng h n. Cc phpo caCoulomb, c l, khng cn phi kh p v i qui lut bnh ph ngnghcho; nhng ng i nghin cu v lm nng bng nnth ng sn sng [ch p nhn] bt c k t quno trong nhiuk t qu. Thnhng ngay c trong cc tr ng h p ging thnydi ca cc k t qud kin, v nh thc th tiu ho c,lun lun nhso v i di m tr t ng t ng c thhnh dung.V d n m k t qu ca n khng r i vo di h p h n th ng ch l mt tht bi vnghin cu, mt tht bi khng


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gy mt uy tn cho t nhin m cho nh khoa hc.Th d, trong thk m i tm ng i ta t ch n cc thnghim o sc htin v i cc dng cnh cn a. B i vchng to ra cc k t qu chng nht qun cng khng ngin, chng khng th c dnglm r khung mu m t chng c dn ra. V th, chng vn ch l cc s thc,khng c quan hv khng th lin h c v i s tin b lintc ca nghin cu in. Ch khi nhn li, khi c mt khung

mu ti p sau, chng ta m i c th thy ccc tnh no ca cchin t ngin m chng biu l. Coulomb v nhng ng i ng th i ca ng, tt nhin, cng c khung mu mun h nny hay mt khung mu, khi p dng cho vn ht, mang licng nhng mong i. l v sao Coulomb c khnngthit k thit b cho mt k t qu c th tiu ho c bng lm rkhung mu. Nhng n cng l l do v sao k t qu khng lmai ngc nhin v v sao nhiu ng i ng th i v i Coulombc khnng tinon n tr c. Ngay cd n m mc ch can l lm r khung mu khng h ng t i sm i lbt ng . Nhng nu mc tiu ca khoa hc thng th ng khng phi l

cc sm i l tr ngi chyu - nu s tht bi n gn h nk t qud kin th ng l tht bi do nh khoa hc th v saocc vn ny vn c tin hnh? Mt phn ca cu tr l i c trnh by r i. i v i cc nh khoa hc, ch t, cc k t qu


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thu c trong nghin cu thng th ng l quan tr ng b i vchng thm vo phm vi vchnh xc m v i n khung muc th c p dng. Tuy vy, cu tr l i khng thgii thchcho nhit tnh v s hin dng m cc nh khoa hc biu hincho cc vn nghin cu thng th ng. Chng aii dnh hngnm, th d, pht trin mt phk tt h n hayto ra mtl i gii c ci thin cho vn vcc dy daong n gin b i v tm quan tr ng ca thng tin snhn c. S liu thu

c bng tnh lch thin vn hay bng cc phpo thm v imt thit b hin c th ng quan tr ng khng km, nhng cchot ng ny th ng b cc nh khoa hc t chi b i v chngchyu l s l p li cc th tc c tin hnh tr c r i. S t chi cung c p mt manh mi cho tnh quyn r ca vn nghin cu thng th ng. Mc d k t qu ca n c th c d kin, th ng r t chi tit n mc bn thn ci cn li bit lkhngng quan tm, [nhng] cch t k t quvn r t ngng . a mt vn nghin cu thng th ngn mt k t lunl t c ci d kin theo mt cch m i, v ni hi vicgii mi loi cuphc t p vcng c, quan nim, v ton

hc. Nhng ng i thnh cng chng tmnh l mt chuyn giagii-cu, v s thch thc ca cul mt phn quan tr ngca ci th ng li ko anh ta.Thut ng cu v gii-cu nu bt nhiu trong cc ch


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ngy cng tr thnh ni bt cc trang tr c. Cc cu,hon ton theo ngh a thng th ng c s dng y, l loic bit ca cc vn c th c dngkim tra ti kholo hay k nng vgii quyt. Cc minh ho t in l tr ch ix p hnh v tr ch i ch, v chnh ccc tr ng mcc tr ch i ny chia sv i cc vn khoa hc thng th ng lci by gi chng ta cn c l p ra. Mt trong s va cnhc t i. Khng phi l tiu chun tinh tu trong mt cu

r ng k t qu ca n l l th hay quan tr ng vbn cht. Ng cli, cc vn thc s c p bch, th d, cchiu tr mt bnhung th hayn ca mt nn ho bnh di lu, th ng khngh l cc cu, chyu b i v chng c thkhng c l i giino. Hy xem xt tr ch i x p hnh m cc ming c chnngu nhin tmt trong hai h p hnh khc nhau. V vn th ng chc thch(tuy n c thkhng) ngay cnhngng i c ti kho lo nht, n khng th c dng nhmtkim tra vk nng gii quyt. Theo bt c ngh a bnh th ngno n khng h l mt cucht no. Mc d gi tr ni tikhng l tiu chun cho mt cu, s tn ti chc chn ca

mt l i gii l [tiu chun].Tuy vy, ta thy r ng mt trong cc thm mt cngngkhoa hc nhn c v i mt khung mu l mt tiu chun chn cc vn c thchc chn c l i gii khi khung mu


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c coi l d nhin. Trong phm vi l n y l cc vn duynht m cngng s tha nhn l khoa hc hoc khuyn khchcc thnh vin ca n thc hin. Cc vn khc, gm nhiuvn tr c y l thng th ng, b t chi nh siu hnh, nh lin quann mn khc, hayi khi nh qu kh gii quyt b th i gian lm. Vvn , mt khung mu c th thm chc l p cng ng khi cc vn x hi quan tr ng cc vn khng thqui gin vdng cu, b i v chng khng th c

pht biu bng cc cng ckhi nim v ph ng tin m khungmu cung c p. Cc vn nh vy c th l mt s r i tr, mt bi hc c minh homt cch xut sc b i nhiu mt ca ch ngh a Bacon thk m i by v b i mt skhoa hc x hi ng th i. Mt trong cc l do v sao khoa hc thng th ng cv tin bnhanh n vy l nhng ng i thc hnh n t p trungvo cc vn m ch s thiu kho lo ca hc thngn cnhgii quyt.Tuy vy, nu cc vn ca khoa hc thng th ng l cc cutheo ngh a ny, chng ta khng cn cn phi hi v sao ccnh khoa hc li tn cng chng v i nhit tnh v hin dng nh

vy. Mt ng i c thb li cun n v i khoa hc v mi loi ldo. Trong schng c, mong mun c l hu ch, s kchthch khm ph l nh vc m i, hi vng tm ra tr t t, v khtvng kim tra tri thc c xc l p. Ccng c ny v


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th d, khng ch l to ra mt bc tranh. Hoc mt a tr hay mt nghs ng th i c th to ra mt bc tranh bng r icc ming c chn, nhmt hnh th tr u t ng, trn mtnn khng r nt no. Bc tranh c to ra nh vy c th hay h n nhiu, v chc chn c o h n bc tranh m t cu c to ra. Tuy nhin, mt bc tranh nh vy khng lmt l i gii. t mt l i gii tt c cc ming phi cdng, mt tr n ca ming phi c p xung, v chng phi

kht vo nhau m khng phi p chon khi khng cn lhngno. l mt squi tc chi phi cc l i gii ghp hnh. Cthddng pht hin ra cc hn ch t ng t i v i cc l i giich p nhn c ca tr ch i ch, cc cu, cc thc , vv.v. Nu chng ta c thch p nhn mt cch s dng c m r ngng k ca t qui tc - mt cch dngi khi s nh ngn v i quanim c xc l p hay v i nh kin th ccvn c th truy c p t i trong phm vi mt truyn thng nghincu ph by ci g r t ging t p ny ca ccc tr ng cu. Ng i xy dng mt thit b xcnh cc b c sng

quang hc khng c thomn v i mt ci thit b ch nthun gn cc sc bit cho cc vch phc bit. Anh ta khngch l mt ng i thm him hay nho l ng. Ng c li, bngcch phn tch my mc ca mnh theo l thuyt quang hc c

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12. cau truc cua cac cuoc cach mang khoa hoc

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