Ling 122: English as a World LanguageLanguage Planning & Language Policy

Reading: Wiley (Course Reader)

English for the Children (Prop 227)DebateBe it resolved that immigrant parents in the US should encourage their children to learn the language of the land as fast as possible, and parents should speak English with them at home.

DefinitionsLanguage planning: deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of their language codesLanguage policy: official policies resulting from language planning and imposed in a deliberate attempt to influence language behavior by means of official codes

Types of Language PlanningCorpus planning: activities such as coining new terms, reforming spelling and adopting a new script; the creation of new forms, the modification of old ones, or the selection from alternative forms in a spoken or written code

Types of Language PlanningStatus Planning: the recognition by a national government of the importance or position of one language in relation to others.The allocation of languages or language varieties to given functionsMedium of instructionOfficial languageVehicle of mass communicationLanguage of international communicationEtc.

Types of Language PlanningAcquisition Planning: planning directed toward increasing the number of users speakers, writers, listeners, readers of a languageLiteracy educationSecond & foreign language education efforts

Language Planning as Problem SolvingOvert & covert goalsLinguistic goals Promotion of mass literacyElimination of sexist languageNeed for technical termsNon-linguistic goalsConsumer protectionScientific exchangeNational integrationPolitical controlEconomic developmentCreation of new elites or preservation of old onesPacification or cooption of minority groupsMass mobilization of national or political movements

Language Policy & Planning in the U.S.The founders of the U.S. chose not to designate English as the official languageDominance of English was self-evidentRespect for linguistic diversity & minority rightsSupport for minorities who supported the revolutionEnglish has functioned as if it were the official language

History of the Status of English in the U.S.British Colonial Period to 1789English dominant among European languagesOther immigrant languages tolerated differentially English-only practices & English illiteracy statues imposed on slavesNative Americans viewed as separate & subordinate nationsMissionaries attempted to promote English1775 Continental Congress allocated funds for Indian education - pacification

History of the Status of English in the U.S.1789 1880Territorial expansion & annexation of language-minority peoplesGreat tolerance for use of European immigrant languagesCompulsory illiteracy laws for African Americans until 1865Pacification of Native Americans through educationSome Native Americans (Cherokee) ran own schools & achieved high levels of NL literacy & biliteracy

History of the Status of English in the U.S.1880 1930sHeight of US imperialism (Hawaii, Philippines, Puerto Rico)Attempts at language restrictionHeight of immigration through 1920sWWI: restrictions on use of German & other European languages in schoolsMeyer v. Nebraska: SC ruled against an English-only restriction on the use of foreign languages in Nebraska schools, but affirmed the states right to mandate that English be the common & official language of instruction

History of the Status of English in the U.S.World War II presentCivil rights movement influenced language policy provisions made for other languages in voting, education1974 Lau v. Nichols Supreme Court acknowledged that school had to provide proactive means of educationLau remediesESEA Title VII Bilingual Education Act

Bilingual Education TypesTransitionalPurpose: to transition to an all-English curriculumMaintenancePurpose: to maintain & develop the first languageEnrichmentPurpose: to develop an appreciation for & fluency in the heritage languageTwo-way immersionPurpose: to develop 2nd language proficiency among mainstream students & to maintain & develop first language proficiency among minority students

ESEA Title VII The Bilingual Education ActGrants to school districts for implementation of transitional bilingual programs (basic grants)Grants to IHEs for training teachersGrants to materials development centers to produce bilingual teaching materialsGrants to Bilingual Education Service Centers to provide technical assistance

Problems with ESEA Title VIIConflicting goalsTransitional v. maintenanceInconsistent implementationIn use of each languageIn qualification of teachers Conflicting research resultsPolitical issuesDistribution of resourcesNotions of the role of government (local, state, federal) in education

The English-Only Movement & U.S. EnglishSince 1980s reaction against linguistic accommodations1981: S.I. Hayakawa introduced constitutional amendment to make English the official language of the U.S.U.S. English formed to raise funds to promote English-Only amendments at both state and national levels

The English-Plus MovementFounded in 1987To counteract the English-Only movementPurpose: to preserve and promote linguistic & cultural diversityOther critics of English-OnlyTESOLLSAAAALNEATeachers Unions

Criticisms of English-OnlyEnglish-Only Movement & U.S. EnglishIgnore the civil rights traditions in the USFail to promote the integration of language-minority childrenNeglect the need for American business to communicate with foreign marketsRestrict governments ability to reach all citizensAttempt to disenfranchise minority citizensPromote divisiveness and hostility toward those whose 1st language is not English

California Propositions1986: Proposition 63 declared English as sole official language of CaliforniaPropsition 187 attempted to limit benefits for undocumented immigrantsProposition 209 sought to end affirmative action programs for underrepresented minorities1998: English for the Children (Prop 227)

English for the Children (Prop 227)RationaleEnglish is the language of opportunity dominates science, business, technologyImmigrant parents want their children to learn EnglishSchools have a moral obligation to teach EnglishFor the previous two decades, CA school have performed poorly in educating immigrant children, - high drop-out ratesYoung children acquire 2nd languages easily

English for the Children (Prop 227)Since 227, several issues have posed major challenges for schools & parents:It imposes English-Only instruction which is normally 180 days of specially designed instruction in EnglishIt doesnt allow bilingual education, unless language-minority parents request a waiver from English-only instruction and request bilingual educationBut still no guarantee they will receive it

Some Current Language Policy Issues in the U.S.To what extent can / should room be made for the existence of other languages?How are language minorities advantaged or disadvantaged by policies involving language rights, accommodations, or restrictions?What are the advantages / disadvantages of intergenerational language shift to English? How is the monolingual language majority affected by these language policies?What kinds of language policies would assist the English-speaking majority?