122302023 42 nondestructive testing handbook

Robert L. Crane, Air Force Research Laboratory, WrightPatterson Air Force Base, Ohio

Tommaso Astarita, Università degli studi di Napoli“Federico II,” Naples, Italy (Part 5)

Harold Berger, Industrial Quality, Incorporated, Gaithersburg, Maryland (Part 4)

Gennaro Cardone, Università degli studi di Napoli“Federico II,” Naples, Italy (Part 5)

Giovanni M. Carlomagno, Università degli studi diNapoli “Federico II,” Naples, Italy (Part 5)

Thomas S. Jones, Industrial Quality, Incorporated,Gaithersburg, Maryland (Part 4)

Matthew D. Lansing, National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama(Parts 1 and 2)

Samuel S. Russell, National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama(Parts 1 and 2)

James L. Walker, National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama(Parts 1 and 2)

Gary L. Workman, University of Alabama, Huntsville,Alabama (Parts 1 and 2)

15C H A P T E R

Aerospace Applicationsof Infrared and

Thermal Testing

The following discussion of radiometry ofconvective heat transfer has implicationsfor developmental research in windtunnel technology.

Nondestructive testing with infraredthermography is mostly achieved byheating or cooling the body to be testedand by following its surface temperatureevolution as a function of time. Whileprocessing the temperature history, it isvery important to have a preciseknowledge of the net heat flux at thewall, that is, the imposed heat flux minusthe total losses. In most applications ofinfrared thermography, the thermal lossesare essentially due to radiation andconvection. The evaluation of theradiative heat flux is straightforward ifemissivity is known but the convectiveheat flux is generally more difficult tomeasure.

It has to be also pointed out thatsometimes nondestructive testing can beperformed by either heating or coolingthe tested body with a gas stream. For aquantitative evaluation of the results, alsoin this case a detailed knowledge of theheat transfer distribution over the testedbody is compulsory. This section reviewssome techniques useful to measureconvective heat fluxes with the aid ofinfrared thermography.

Usually, measuring convective heatfluxes requires both a sensor (with itscorresponding thermal model) and sometemperature measurements. In ordinarytechniques,51-55 where temperature ismeasured by thermocouples, thermistors,resistance temperature detectors orpyrometers, each transducer yields theheat flux at a single point or at a spaceaveraged point. Hence, in terms of spatialresolution, the sensor itself can beconsidered as zero dimensional. Thisconstraint makes experimentalmeasurements particularly troublesomewhenever temperature, or heat flux fieldsexhibit high spatial gradients.

Infrared scanning radiometryconstitutes a true two-dimensionaltemperature transducer because it allowsthe performance of accurate measurementof surface temperature maps even in thepresence of relatively high thermalgradients. Correspondingly, the heat fluxsensor may become two-dimensional aswell. In particular, infrared thermographycan be fruitfully employed to measure

convective heat fluxes in both steady andtransient techniques.56-58 Within thiscontext, an infrared scanning radiometercan be considered as a thin film sensor54

because it generally measures skintemperatures. In other contexts, infrareddetectors are thin film detectors insofar asthey are fabricated using vapordeposition. The thermal map obtained bymeans of currently available computerizedthermographic systems is formed througha large amount of pixels (20 000 to morethan 60 000 kilobytes) so that infraredscanning radiometry can be practicallyregarded as providing a two-dimensionalarray of thin films. However, unlikestandard thin films, which have aresponse time of the order ofmicrosecond, the typical response time ofinfrared scanning radiometry is of theorder of 0.1 to 0.01 s.

Infrared scanning radiometry as atemperature transducer in convective heattransfer measurement appears, fromseveral points of view, advantageous ifcompared to standard transducers. In fact,as already mentioned, infrared scanningradiometry is fully two-dimensional. Itpermits the evaluation of errors due totangential conduction and radiation andis nonintrusive. For example, the lastcharacteristic makes it possible to get ridof the conduction errors through thethermocouple’s or resistance temperaturedetector’s wires.

Heat Flux SensorsHeat·flux sensors generally consist ofplane slabs with a known thermalbehavior, whose temperature is to bemeasured at fixed points.51-55 Theequation for heat conduction in solidsapplied to the proper sensor model yieldsthe relationship by which measuredtemperature is correlated to the heattransfer rate.

The most commonly used heat fluxsensors are the so·called one-dimensionalones, where the heat flux to be measuredis assumed to be normal to the sensingelement surface. That is, the temperaturegradient components parallel to the slabplane are neglected. In practice, the slabsurfaces can also be curved, but theircurvature may be ignored if the layeraffected by the input heat flux is much

519Aerospace Applications of Infrared and Thermal Testing

PART 5. Infrared Scanning Radiometry ofConvective Heat Transfer

smaller than the local radius of curvatureof the slab.

In the following, ideal one-dimensionalsensors are considered. Some of them willbe extended to the multidimensionalcase.57,58 The term ideal means thatthermophysical properties of the sensormaterial are assumed to be independentof temperature and that the influence ofthe actual temperature sensing element isnot considered. The most commonly usedone-dimensional sensor models are:Thin Film Sensor. A very thin resistancethermometer (film) classically measuresthe surface temperature of a thermallythicker slab to which it is bonded. Heatflux is inferred from the theory of heatconduction in a semiinfiniteone-dimensional wall. The surface filmmust be so thin that it has a negligibleheat capacity and thermal resistance ascompared to the slab’s. To use this sensorwith infrared thermography, the heatexchanging surface must be necessarilyviewed by infrared scanning radiometry.

Thick Film Sensor. The slab is used as acalorimeter; heat flux is obtained from thetime rate of change of the mean slabtemperature. This temperature is usuallymeasured by using the slab as a resistancethermometer.

Wall Calorimeter or Thin Skin Sensor. The slab is made thermally thin (so that its temperature can be assumed to beconstant across its thickness) and, as inthe previous sensor, is used as acalorimeter. Heat flux is typically inferredfrom the time rate of change of the slabtemperature usually measured by athermocouple. To use this sensor withinfrared thermography, either one of theslab’s surfaces generally can be viewed byinfrared scanning radiometry.

Gradient Sensor. In this sensor thetemperature difference across the slabthickness is measured. By considering asteady state heat transfer process, heatflux is computed by means of thetemperature gradient across the slab. Thetemperature difference is usuallymeasured by thermopiles made ofvery-thin-ribbon thermocouples or by twothin film resistance thermometers.

Heated Thin Foil Sensor. This techniqueconsists of steadily heating a thermallythin metallic foil or a printed circuitboard by the joule effect and bymeasuring the heat transfer coefficientfrom an overall energy balance. Also inthis case, due the thinness of the foil,either one of the slab’s surfaces can beviewed by infrared scanning radiometry.

Strictly speaking, there is another typeof one-dimensional sensor, the circulargardon gage, in which the heat flux

normal to the sensor surface is related to aradial temperature difference, in thedirection parallel to the plane of thegage.51 This sensor is practically of no usein infrared thermography.

Application of infrared scanningradiometry to both the thick film and thegradient sensors is not easily performed.

Theoretical treatment of the relevantsteady state techniques56-60 and transienttechniques61-63 lies outside the scope ofthe present discussion.

ApplicationsTwo different fluid flow configurations areanalyzed by means of infraredthermography: a jet of fluid impinging ona flat plate and a circular cylinder in awind tunnel. In the first configurationaverage heat transfer data will bediscussed whereas for the second one adetailed description of the convective heattransfer coefficient will be given. For bothexperiments, the convective heat transfercoefficient is measured by means of theheated thin foil technique.

Impinging JetsHeat transfer between impinging jets anda plate has been the subject matter ofseveral studies64-67 because of their wideuse for heating, cooling or drying surfacesin many industrial applications.

The target plate is a thin constantanfoil, 50 µm (0.002 in.) thick, heated bythe joule effect. The jet is obtained byflowing air, coming from a compressor,trough a truncated cone nozzle 80 mm(3.2 in.) long and with an exit section ofdiameter D = 10 mm (0.4 in.). Twodifferent nozzle plate configurations areconsidered: an open one with the nozzleexternally joined to a slender stagnationchamber and a closed one with the nozzlesubmerged into the stagnation chamberthat ends with a 300 × 300 mm (12 ×12 in.) flat plate that is parallel to thetarget plate having the same dimensions.In the second case the spent air isexhausted through the gap between thetwo parallel plates: one that is flushmounted at the exit section of the nozzle(top plate) and the other one that is thetarget plate. In particular, the top plateembodies a serpentine passage throughwhich a thermostatic liquid flows thatallows maintaining its surface temperatureequal to the air stagnation temperature.

Tests are carried out by varying thereynolds number (based on the nozzleexit diameter) and the impingementdistance Z (between nozzle exit and targetplate) for the two different exhaust areas(open or closed). Data, generally averagedover each circumference of given radius, is

520 Infrared and Thermal Testing

reduced in dimensionless form in terms ofthe nusselt number based on thediameter D).

For short impingement distances, thesmall gap between the nozzle exit sectionand the target plate does not allow the jetair, after impingement, to flow directly toambient; a part of this air tends to comeback towards the nozzle exit giving rise torecirculation patterns. Separation over thetarget plate occurs at about 1.2 D from thejet center where the vertical componentof the jet velocity is decelerated andtransformed into a horizontal one.67 Atsmall Z values, the flow separates in theopen case but it reattaches downstream atabout 2 D. Separation and reattachmentof the jet flow give rise, in terms of heattransfer, to a local minimum in thenusselt number distribution at about 1.2D and to a local maximum at about 2 D.On the contrary, in the closed case theflow is prevented from a strongreattachment and tends most likely to betransformed into recirculation patterns.

The recirculating air coming backtoward the nozzle exit causes forcedmixing and entails a general decrease ofthe local nusselt number for the closedcase and short impingement distances.Recirculation effects are stronger for theclosed configuration at shortimpingement distances (Z ≤ 10 D). AsZ·D–1 increases (above Z·D–1 = 10), theexhaust area between the two platesbecomes wider and allows the spent air tofreely flow into ambient without majordifferences between the twoconfigurations.

Circular CylinderThe employed longitudinal cylinder hasan outer diameter D = 40 mm (1.6 in.), anoverall streamwise length of 300 mm(12 in.) and its lateral surface is made outof a printed circuit board (bonded to afiberglass layer) so as to generate aconstant joule heat flux over it. Thecopper conducting tracks of the printedcircuit are 35 µm (1.4 × 10–3 in.) thick,3 mm (0.12 in.) wide, placed at 4 mm(0.16 in.) pitch and alignedperpendicularly to the cylinder axis. Twodifferent configurations of the cylinderleading edge (nose) are tested: a sharpedge nose and a hemispherical blunt one.

Tests are performed in an open circuitwind tunnel having a 300 × 400 mm(12 × 16 in.) rectangular test section thatis 1.1 m (43 in.) long. The free streamturbulence intensity of the tunnel is quitelow and lies in the range 0.08 to0.12 percent depending on the testingconditions. The access window for theinfrared camera to the test section of thewind tunnel is made of bidirectionalpolyethylene; calibration of the

radiometer takes into account itspresence.

To measure temperatures in the wholeheated zone and to account for thedirectional emissivity coefficient, threethermal images in the azimuthal directionare taken and patched up. In particular toreduce the measurement noise, eachimage is obtained by averaging 32thermograms in a time sequence. Becauseof the end conduction effects near theforebody, the portion of the cylinder forwhich the infrared camera gives reliabledata actually starts at x·D–1 = 0.2 (x beingthe coordinate along the cylinder axis)and data are reported up to x·D–1 = 5.68

This zone is precisely identified by puttingmarkers over the cylinder surface. Themarkers are useful also to patch up thevarious thermal images.

The flow field around a cylindricalbody is characterized by separation andreattachment of the flow, which can beinferred from the distribution of the heattransfer coefficients. The heat transfercoefficients are computed innondimensional form in terms of thenusselt number based on cylinderdiameter. It must be noted that thelocation of the maximum nusselt numberdoes not exactly coincide with that offlow reattachment.69 However, theposition of the maximum nusselt numbercan be considered to determine the lengthof the thermal separation bubble.68

Results of the present investigationconfirm the fundamental role played byfreestream turbulence in the formation ofthe leading edge separation bubble.70,71 Inthe sharp edged cylinder the separationbubble appears shorter on the windwardside than on the leeward side, and thereassumes also higher nusselt numbervalues. On the contrary, for the roundnosed cylinder two thermal reattachmentpoints are present on the leeward side. Alikely explanation for this is that theseparation bubble disappears on thewindward side giving rise to theformation of two vortices, which can beassumed to coincide with saddle points72

on either side of the nodal separationpoint on the leeward side.


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Bentz, D.P. and J.W. Martin.“Thermographic Imaging of SurfaceFinish Defects in Coatings on MetalSubstrates.” Materials Evaluation.Vol. 50, No. 2. Columbus, OH:American Society for NondestructiveTesting (February 1992): p 242-246,252.

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