(1911) ancient types of man

8/14/2019 (1911) Ancient Types of Man

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Harper's Library of Living Thought


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Reconstruction of the Head of the Gibraltar Man.(One-third natural size.


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rANCIENT *

TYPES OF MAN

ARTHUR KEITHM.D., LL.D. Aberdeen

HARPER XBROTHERSLONDONXNEWYORK


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ANCIENTTYPES OF MAN

BYARTHUR KEITHM.D.. LL.D. Aberdeen

CONSERVATOR OF MUSEUM AND HUNTERIAN PROFESSOR,ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, ENGLAND :

AUTHOR OF "HUMAN EMBRYOLOGY AND MORPHOL"INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF ANTHROPOID AI'FS " ;

ETC.

HARPER & BROTHERSLONDON AND NEW YORK45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W.

1911


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Published December lgn


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I

INTRODUCTORYN this little book the author has tried to givethe chief conclusions he has reached after a

prolonged study of the remains of ancient man.The reader will find that the scale of time whichanswers so well for present-day affairs will scarcelyserve him when he comes to place ancient man inhis proper perspective in the past. Instead ofreckoning from a date which is dear to a largepart of the world, viz. the Birth of Christ, hemust begin at the present time and count steadilybackwards into the past. The Metallic period isthe first, one in which men have used copper, bronze,and irona period which we suppose to extendabout 4000 years back. The metallic period waspreceded by one in which Europeans used finelvworked stones as implements, and hence it isusually named the Neolithic Period. It is along period, probably six times as long as themetallic ; it may be fixed provisionally at 25,000years, but it was very probablv much longer thanthat.Beyond the Neolithic Period we enter theLate Paleolithic Periodone which extended

from the Neolithic Period to the end of the Ice

1264781


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INTRODUCTORYAge ; the length of this period is estimatedprovisionally at about 150,000 years. On enteringthe Late Paleolithic Period the stone implementsused by Europeans are seen to be of a moremassive and rather rougher type of workmanship.Animals were then living in Central and SouthEurope which have disappearedthe reindeerand the mammoth. The period just named fallswithin the latter part of the geologists' PleistocenePeriod.The Late Paleolithic Period was preceded by the

Early Paleolithic Period, one of very great butuncertain length. It lies within the glacial period,which was broken by at least three temperateintervals. The Early Paleolithic Period probablycovers the last two of these intervals. Its durationis variously estimated from 200,000 to 400,000years. At the beginning of this period the dominantrace of Europe was the Neanderthal type of man ;at its close Europeans were of the modern type.Beyond the Early Paleolithic Age is another

stone periodthe Eolithic, one in which man usedcrudely fashioned flints to serve his various needs.This period is assigned provisionally to the firstof the interglacial periods, and carries us backto the beginning of the Pleistocene Period. To theEolithic Period a duration of 100,000 to 150,000years is assigned.The Eolithic and Paleolithic Periods of the

Anthropologist correspond roughly to the Pleisto-


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INTRODUCTORYcene of the Geologist. The duration of thePleistocene is estimated here at from 450,000 to700,000 years, but it is right to state that a muchhigher figure is given by most authorities. Thereader will see that the estimates are little betterthan guesses, but it is only by making such roughcalculations that we may hope to obtain the factson which a more certain estimate may be built.Beyond the Pleistocene we enter the Pliocene

Period of the earth's History. Whether or notwe have found the remains of Pliocene man is aquestion still open to debate, but the reader willfind the problem discussed in the chapter whichdeals with the Fossil Man of Java.

All the illustrations are drawn from actualspecimens by a method employed by the author,who is indebted to Mr. William Finerty foraccurately reproducing the original drawings in amore finished form.

A. Keith.Royal College of Surgeons, England.

September, 191 1.


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CONTENTSCHAPTER PAGE

I. An Ancient English Type fromEssex . i

II. The Tilbury Man . . .10III. The Dartford Type . . .22IV. The Galley Hill Man. The

Oldest Human Remains yetfound in England . . . 28

V. The Men of Brunn and Combe-Capelle . . . . 46

VI. The Grimaldi or Negroid Typein Kurope . . 59

VII. An Ancient Race of Tall Men :The Cro-Magnon . . . 64

VIII. The Round-Headed Type . . 74IX. Heidelberg Man . . 78X. Krapina Men . 94


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CONTENTSCHAPTER PAGE

XI. Neanderthal Man . . 101XII. Neanderthal Man in Belgium and

France . . . . 109XIII. Gibraltar Man . . .121XIV. Fossil Man of Java Pithecan-

thropus Erectus . . 131XV. Ancient Types of America . . 141


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSReconstruction of the Headof theGibraltar Man FrontispieceFIGUKE , PAGfc.

1. Diagrammatic Section of Coast Line, showing ex-posure of prehistoric surface, with position ofthe skeleton . ... 2

2. Profile of the Skull of the Essex Woman, with softparts indicated. (One-third natural size.) . . 5

3. Section of the strata at Tilbury . .114. Profile of the cranium of the Tilbury Man. One-

third natural size. . . 18

5. Diagrammatic section across the Thames Valley toshow the terraces and buried river bed . . 23

6. Profile of the Dartford cranium compared with the" river-bed" type found in LangwithCave. (One-third natural size.) . 25

7. Profile of the skull of the Galley Hill Man . . 368. Galley Hill skull full face. (One-third natural size. ) 389. The profile of the Briinn and Galley Hill skulls.

(One-third natural size. ) . . . . 4S10. Section of the strata in which the ancient human

remains were found at Combe-Capelle . 521 1 Profile of the skull of the Combe-Capelle Man com-

pared with the profile of the Galley Hill Man.(One third natural size. ) . 55


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSFIGURE PAGE12. The site of the discovery of the Cro-Magnon Race.

The foreground represents a section. A Lime-stone Cliff. BLedge overhanging the AncientShelter. CDebris fallen from the cliff in whichthe remains were found. DAlluvium. (AfterQuatrefages. ) . . ... 65

13. Profile of a Cro-Magnon skull with the outline ofthe Dartford cranium traced on it. (One-thirdnatural size. ) . . . 68

14. Face view of the Cro-Magnon Race. (One-thirdnatural size. ) . . . . . 70

15. A diagram of the strata of the pit in which theHeidelherg mandible was found. A cross marksthe spot. (After Schoetensack.) . . . 80

16. Profile drawing of the Heidelberg mandible (in out-line) contrasted with the lower jaw of a ModernEuropean (shaded). (Half natural size). . . 82

17. Profile of the Heidelberg mandible (outline) con-trasted with that of the mandible of a chimpan-zee (shaded). (Half natural size. ) . . 84

18. Heidelberg mandible with attempted reconstructionof the head. (One-third natural size. ) . . 89

19. Profiles of the Heidelberg (outline) and Spy (shaded)mandibles superimposed for comparison. (Halfnatural size.) . . . . . 91

20. Outline of Neanderthal form of skull (shaded) com-pared with the Galley Hill typs (outline). (One-third natural size.) . . . . 103

21. Thigh bone of Neanderthal (outline) and modernman (shaded) contrasted. (One-fifth natural size. ) 106

22. Section of the strata in which the skeleton wasfound at Ferrassie . . . .114


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSFIGURE PAGE23. Section of a talus or terrace at Gibraltar of similar

formation to the one in which the famous skullwas found. (H. D. Acland.) . . . 123

24. Profile of the Gibraltar cranium (shaded) comparedwith modern English skull (outline). (One-thirdnatural size.) . . . . . 126

25. Face view of the Gibraltar skull. (One-thirdnatural size. ) . . . . . 128

26. Profile of Gibraltar skull. (One-third natural size. ) 12927. Section of the bank of the Bengawan, showing the

position of the fossil-bearing stratum in whichthe remains of the fossil man were found . .132

28. The profile of the calvaria of the fossil man of Java(shaded) compared with the Gibraltar cranium(outline). (One-third natural size. . 135

29. A tracing of the profile of the La Tigra cranium(outline) compared with the profile of the skull ofthe Arkansas loess man (shaded). (One-thirdnatural size.) . . ... 145


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANCHAPTER I

AN ANCIENT ENGLISH TYPE FROMESSEX

AS I sit down to write the story of the variousforms which the body of man has assumed inancient times, I find it difficult to determinewhether I should begin at the beginning, or at theend. Were the story now complete, there wouldbe no difficulty ; it should be told from thebeginning. Some day, no doubt, it will be toldthus, but at present the known phases of man'searly history are so few, so fragmentary and soisolated, that a survey of the later and betterknown phases is needed to place the earlier stagesin their proper perspective. For that reason, Ipropose to reverse the usual order, and trace man'sphvsical history from the present into the far past.The individual selected as the first type is onediscovered in _iQio_ on the ^* f F^v nearWaJtorj^arjiXaze. some fifty miles north of theestuary of the Thames. The sea there washes


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANagainst a flat coast-line, cutting into and exposingon the beach remains of a buried or prehistoricfloor. contajmn_many_woj^]_Jlints. Over thisprehistoric floor is a stratum-_8_to_.ji]L.Jteet_indepthof clay. The prehistoric floor, now being

i PKESE.NTY FACEm*- of


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AN ENGLISH TYPE FROM ESSEXalso traces of the foundations of dwellings and ofhearths are found, from which we infer that thisfloor must be assigned to the end_of_lhe^eqlrthic,or commencement of the Bronze Age. In roundnumbers, about .4000 years ago. We infer, then,that the east_coast of Essex has been singlysinking, the prehistoric surface _being partly sub-merged by_the_sea, and parjly_buried beneath, adeep layer of rain-washed jclay, which has beendeposited over it, thus preserving for us the tracesof a bygone civilization. Beneat]i tlijs pre-historic floor Mr. Warren has found traces of anolder civilization.On a September afternoon of 1910 Mr. Hazzel-dine Warren and his companion, Mr. Miller Christy,were searching the beach for washed-out flints,when they found that the tide had exposed2 feetbelow the prehistoric floor and 12 feet below thesurface of the original coast-line- the Jeg__of__ahuman~skeleton. Setting to work, they quicklyexposed a romplete^unian skeleton, lying on itsleft side, with the Jace^ ta_lhe_east and tliejieadto thejiorth. It was in the " contracted posture,"the linrbs having been bound closely to the bodyby i^rass ropes, remnants of which were found.Inside the ribs was found a heapnearly a pintoTTrjiir^Meds of the blackberry and_dog-rose.That discovery throws fight on the,jiature_of_thediet and the season of the year when_death over-took this individual. Clearly, too, it was a burial,


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANnot the chance interment which overtakes thosewho find a last bed in the sea or the river. Norcould it have been a burial made in recent times,for until the other day the grave lay twelve feetbelow the surface. The grave was_at least as old .and_^rharjs__oldr, than the prehistoric floor.The skeleton was permeated by the fine clay andsand in which it lay, and so wonderfully pre-served that a very complete picture can be formedof the person in life. We have here a specimen of aLate Neolithi c Jijiton

It seems almost ridiculous to have to admit thatthere was at first some difficulty in determining thesex of the individual thus discovered. In lifeeven an infant can tell a man from a woman,but when there is only the skeleton, the most ex-pert anatomist sometimes feels a difficult}'. Asa rule the pelvis, because it is so closely connectedwith the functions of child-bearing, providesthe most certain grounds. In the present case,the evidence of the pelvis was equivocal ; itscharacters were more those of a man than of awoman, yet when its breadth was compared withthat of the chest, a marked female character wasrecognized : it was decidedly wider than the chest,whereas in man the cTiesTTs usually wider than thelower, or pelvic, part of the body. The muscularattachments to the base of the skull showed thedelicate tapering neck of the woman ; the skullitself was in all its features feminine. The bones


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AN ENGLISH TYPE FROM ESSEX

Fig. 2. Profile of the Skull of the Essex Woman, withsoft parts indicated. (One-third natural size.)


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANwere delicately moulded, the face was of thenarrow oval type so much admired in moderntimes ; the nose was narrow and finely moulded.The hands__and feet_vvere small, the bones of thelimbs slender and rather short, as comparedto the length of the body. The skeleton is clearlythat of a woman, with the lower part of the bodyrather contracted and straightnot an uncommontype.Although 5 ft. 4 in. in height, rather above themodern average, her slenderness must have made

her appear tall. At the time of death she wasabout tw^n_ty^jvej^a2^_of_age, for there was evi-dence that the growth lines of her long bones hadrecently closed, and all the sutures of the skullwere open and the bones thin. TIeTTiead waswellmoulded and poised and comparatively small. Thecavity for the brain measured 1260 cubic centi-metres, which, although quite as large as manymodern women of her build, is_ye t 40 cc . below themodern female average.With her relatively small, well-poised head

and regular features, this woman, were she toappear in a modern assembly, would still passas a good representative of her sex and race. Fourthousand years seem to have worked compara-tively little change in the best type of Britishwoman. In head-form she might represent thestudents now attending the Women's School of.Medicine, London. Mr. F. G. Parsons measured


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AN ENGLISH TYPE FROM ESSEXfifty of these and found the average length ofhead to be 175 mm . one mm. less than in theancient Essex woman ; the greatest width ofhead was the same in both, viz. 137 mm. ; theheight of the head above the ear-holes was almostthe same, viz. 117 mm. in the modern womenstudents of medicine and 116 mm. in the Neolithicwoman. Thus, not only the absolute dimensions,but the relative proportions are almost the same,the width of the head being about 78^ per centof the length in both. They occupy a positionmtei'mecjiate to the long and narrow heads(dolichocephalic), which we >hall meet with invery ancient times in Britain, and the extremelyshort and wide (brachycephalic) heads found inCentral Europe now.

If time lias altered but little the general type ofEnglish woman since Neolithic times, it hasaffected some of her features. Irrthe Essex woman,not one_j)f_Je_ tiiirJy1two_teeththe zoologistnames'them permanent teethwas lost by diseaseor accident. The teeth were regularly placedand the j>alate was wel l formed, whereas to-dayin more than fifty per cent of women, the palateis apt to be contracted in width and the teethirregularly placed. We blame our food and ourmodern conditions of life for these defects, butwhile we blame them, we do not quite understandhow they produce these effects on the palate,and nose, and teeth. We can see very plainly


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANthat the act of mastication has altered. In thegreat majority of modern British people, the lowerincisor teeth pass up behind the crowns of theupper, when the jaw is closed in chewing ; in theEssex woman, as in the majority of Neolithicpeople and as in modern native races, the_ incisorteeth meet edge to edge. Our modern teeth areused merely for crushing food, very little side toside grinding movement taking place ; indeed,as the lower incisors pass behind the upper theybecome locked, and little side to side movement ispossible. The edge to edge bite in Neolithicman allowed the most free side to side grindingmovement. This movement, combined with theroughness or grittiness of the food led to the crownsof the teeth being worn down in a maimer notseen in modern British teeth. In Neolithic manthe hard surface enamel was worn off the crowns,thus exposing the dentine which forms the mainbody of the tooth. The sensitive pulp was rarelyexposed in the teeth of Neolithic man, because thedentine reacted to the grinding movement andfilled the pulp cavity. Although only abouttwenty-five years of age, the teeth of the Essexwoman show the dentine already fredy_exposedon their grinding "surfaces. The well-developedjawsTand various markings on the skull, point tolarge-sized muscles of mastication. The seeds ofwild fruits indicate the nature of the diet ; weknow, too, that the Neolithic people had their

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AN ENGLISH TYPE FROM ESSEXcon^atches, their querns for grinding, their flocksand their looms. In every sense of the term theywere a civilized people. Their fare, if rough, wasevidently suited to a healthy development of theteeth, mouth, throat, and nose. The retrogradechanges in the teeth, palate, and nose are the mostremarkable, and, from a medical point of view,the most important evolutionary changes seenin the body of man in recent times.One other feature of the Essex woman deserves

a brief mention. The bones of her right armshow a high degreejoj^pejciajization ; she was notonly right-handed, but the contour of the shoulderjoint, the muscular impressions of the humerus,and the shape of the forearm bones showclearly that she was_engaged _in some occupationwhich required the constant repetition of_a_sej piright - arm movements. Whether these wereconnected with the loom or the _quern it is im-possible to say ; whether a lady of high degree, ormerely a handmaiden, she had her daily round ofspecialized toil.


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CHAPTER IITHE TILBURY MAN

LEAVING the east coast of Essex, I propose_^t to conduct the reader to the valley of the

Thames, and introduce a man who lived theremany thousands of years before the Essex womanwas born. This individual came to light underthe following circumstances. About half-waybetween London and the sea there is a stretch offlat marshy land on the north bank of the Thames,where now the Tilbury Docks are situated. In1883, when they were excavated, a great bed ofstratified sand was reached at a depth of 31 feetbelow the marsh surface. In the upper layer ofthe sand-stratum were found pieces of decayed andblackened wood and other objects which showedthat at a remote period the sand bed had formedthe exposed shore or bank of the Thames. About3 feet below this ancient surface, and 34 feetbelow the present marsh level, was found thefragmentary skeleton of a man. From the factthat the whole skeleton was represented, and thatit was found below an old surface, we may pre-sume, as in the last case, that there had been a


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THE TILBURY MANburial, but no observation was made on theposition of parts nor were any traces of man'shandiwork found. Whether his implements wereof the rough and very ancient Paleolithic form, or

HIGH WATER C-77f [


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANIt is impossible to frame in years any accurate

estimate of the period that has elapsed since theTilbury man was alive, but at least a period of30,000 years seems jiecessary fcTaccount for thegreat changes which have occurred in the lowerThames Valley since he was buried in a stratumwhich now lies 34 feet below the surface of theland. We have seen that a prehistoric stratum onthe east coast of Essex, which is estimated to be4000 years old, has been submerged and buriedbeneath a layer of clay varying from 8 to 10 feetin thickness. If the Thames Valley had hern sub-merged at the same rate2 feet in a thousandyearsthen the Tilbury prehistoric stratumwould have an antiquity of only 15,000 years.There are reasons for supposing the submergencein the Thames Valley, with a correspondingformation of land over the sinking surface, to haveoccurred at a much slower rate. No evidence hasbeen found of any appreciable change in the levelor contour of the banks of the lower Thamesduring the last 2000 years. Since the Roman in-vasion of England there seems to have been littleor no subsidence in this region, yet it is possiblethat changes have taken place more rapidly inremote periods ; but there is no positive evidencethat bears out this supposition. The nature of thestrata which have been found over the prehistoricsurface at Tilbury indicates that the land changeshave taken place very gradually. Immediately


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THE TILBURY MANover the buried surface haye_been formed 15 fe_etof alternate layers of peat and mud, strata whichindicate a low rate of subsidence (Fig. 3.) Overthe rniiH-ppat layers are strata of mud and clay 16feet in thickness. A subsidence of 31 feet, with theformation of strata of peat, mud, and clay, impliesan enormous change in physical characters of thelower valley of the Thames. When fuller andmore accurate evidence as to the rate of depressionhas been accumulated, it will probably be foundthat on an average a _subsirlence of_ a foot for everyK)W_jaxsJs--a^Iuglij^At least it will be apparent, when we come toexamine the characters of the skeleton discoveredat Tilbury beneath 31 feet of strata, that whetherthe period be 15,000 or 30,000 of years, the physi-cal characters of the Thames Valley have changedinfinitely more than those of its inhabitants.

It is a fortunate circumstance that the dis-covers of the Tilbury remains was made at a timewhen the questions relating to man's antiquitywere being discussed and the importance of suchfinds as historical documents realized. The re-mains were examined by the veteran zoologist,Sir Richard Owen, then approaching his eightiethyear, who published a description of them. Theyare now preserved in the British Natural HistoryMuseum, South Kensington, where visitors mayexamine to-day the broken skull cap, the lowerjaw, the fragmentary bones of the limbs and

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANbody and turn aside from them, I fear, littlerealizing their significance. Their importance liesin this, that these broken human bones, whencarefully examined and compared with modernspecimens, as I have had lately the privilege ofdoing, show us that a type of man, similar instature and formation.. still exists in Britain. Helias remained unchanged during the thousandsof years that have elapsed since the Tilburyman walked on a surface which lies 30 feetand more below that on which the Romansoldiers marched. In Owen's time those scientistswho had come, under Darwin's influence, tobelieve in the evolution of man, expected to findin an individual so ancient as the Tilbury mansome distinct trace of his Simian origin. That wasbecause there was then in human thought anerroneous idea_of_t_he antiquity of man's orujjri ;his antiquity was then measured by a few thousandyears.So far as the physical appearance of the Tilburyman is concerned, he might be one of us ; hebelongs in all his features to the modern type. Itwould mean little to the reader were I to com-pare him to the average Briton of to-day. WeBritish, like every nation under the sun, are adiverse people, showing great variation in ourstature and proportion of limbs, in our form ofhead and face, and in our general mental dis-position. It seems better, for the purpose of com-

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THE TILBURY MANparison, to take an individualand the one Iselect is a notorious Englishman of the eighteenthcentury, who, after a life of crime, was hanged,and had his skeleton handed down to posterity inthe celebrated Museum of the Royal College ofSurgeons, England, to the great benefit of manygenerations of medical students. This JonathanWilde has a thigh bone 447 mm. long and a statureof 1632 mm. (5 ft. 4'2 in.) nearly 4 inches belowthe average stature. The length of tjhjg_Tjlburyman's thigh bone is ^almost flip same as that ofJonathan Wilde, his leg bone, or tibia , is slightlylonger, so we may infer that his stature was alsoappro>ojT2aielvL_the_saiue. The bones of the upperlimb of the Tilbury man are fragmentary, so thattheir precise length cannot be determined ; butin thickness and apparently in length they agreecloselv with those of his ill-starred countryman.There is one feature, however, in which they differ,and that is in the shape of the tibia, or shin-bone.In the Tilbury man the shaft of the tibia is flattenedfromside to side, almost like a razor, so that thewidth is only 55 per cent of the front to backdiameter ; inJonathan Wilde, as in nearly all modernEuropeans, it is prismatic in section, the widthbeing 62 per cent of its front to back thickness.In spite of much research, it must be owned that wedo not rightly understand the meaning of flatteningof the tibia ; its disappearance in modern racesis somehow connected with posture and gait. All

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANwe do know for certain is that it is not an ape-likefeature, and that it was a character found in allraces of the Neolithic or later stone period of cul-ture, not only in England, but in Europe generally.It occurred also in the prehistoric tribes of theUnited States. It may be added that of the twoindividuals compared here, Jonathan Wilde'sbones are rather the thicker, and stouter, showingmarks of a fuller muscular development.

In shape and size of head, too, there is a closeagreement between the ancient and modern in-dividuals compared here, so close that we cannotdoubt they are of the same race. In both, thehead .is of mj3dj^rajg_size ; they would have takena] 6-j- fitting: in hats. The greatest length of thehead in the Tilbury man is 186 mm ., its greatestwidth 141mm ., its height, estimated from the prob-able position of the ear passage, about 115 mm. ; thecorresponding measurements in Jonathan Wildeare 185, 134, 112 mm., the latter having a rathernarrower and lower head. The capacity of thecranial chamber in Jonathan Wilde is 1425 cubiccentimetres, in the Tilbury man it was probablyconsiderably moreabout i.SQQ_cc., somewhatabove the average capacity of the Englishman ofto-day. If we take into count, as we ought to inestimating the size of the brain, the stature andbulk of body, then we must admit that the sizeof brain in the Tilbury man is relatively greaterthan in the average man of to-day. If we seek to

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THE TILBURY MANexpress the shape of head by stating the propor-tion of breadth to that of length, then the cephali cor breadth index of the Tilbury man is 7=j - 8 t_that ~75of Jonathan Wilde, 72-4the head of the latterbeing distinctly narrower or more dolichocephalic.How closely the Tilbury man agrees in size andshape of head with modern Englishmen may beseen from recent researches of Mr. F. G. Parsons.In a collection of crania belonging to men wholived near RothwelLNortha mptonshire . about thetime of the Reformation, Mr. Parson s found theaverage dimensjons_to_ be_jnudi . tiie_sjrne_as_jnthe Tilbury man. In the Rothwell men theaverage length of the skull is the same as in theTilbury, viz. 186 mm. ; the average breadth wasalmost the same, 142 mm., so that the cephalicindex is also the same. Historians have led usto believe that in comparatively recent centuriesinvasions of Jutes, of Saxons, and of Danes com-pletely replaced the ancient Britons. Here, then,is an important fact that very many thousandsof vears before written history begins, and farbevond our most enduring traditions, thereexisted in the valley of the Thames, when the riverflowed in a channel more than 30 feet below itspresent level, a man who, in stature and in headform, is plentifully represented amongst English-men of to-day.Although all the parts of the face between the

forehead and the mouth of the Tilbury man havec 17


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THE TILBURY MANantiquity. The chin is pronounced ; the marking son it for the muscles of the tongue and mout h,muscles closeh>i_concerned in speeuli, show thatthese parts were used in the same manner as to-day. We cannot say what his language may havebeen, but we can be certain he_spoke. We know,too, he was not a voung man ; the degree to whichthe bones of the skull have fused together showsthat hejiad long passed the meridian of life. Hisskeleton shows no_traces of disease, or of rheumaticchanges. One point rather surprises us ; innearly all the specimens of very ancient man thathave been discovered, the teeth, although wornwith age to the sockets, are rarely lost, or showsigns of disease. Here, however, all the back teethhave been lost during life. The three front teethpreservedan incisor, a canine, and a premolarare all much worn and their pulp cavities filled upby a reaction caused by hard use. As regards sizeand shape tliey__do_not differ from modern teeth,nor do the dimensions of the palate suggest adevelopment of jaws or of dentition in any waydifferent from Britons of the Neolithic Period.To what race of mankind did the Tilbury man

belong ? He is abundantly represented in thepopulation of modern England. To what race,when we see this type of man in the flesh to-daydo we assign him ? He and his successors areancient British, if you will, but it is better tofollow the example of the sharp-sighted Huxley

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANand speak of a type rather than of a race. In1862, twenty-one years befc^tjieîllouj^^manwas discovered, Huxley had recognized andde^cribed_a form of prehistoric , skul l found inEngland under the name of the ' ' river-bed "type . The Tilbury cranium is of the river-bedtype. The actual specimens described by Huxleyare still in the Museum of the Royal College ofSurgeons, England ; one_i^_fTOnx_aji_j2l^b^_o|the River_Trent, near Muskham ; another J sfrom a Dolmen in Ânglesey. Lately another ofthis type was discovered by the Rev. E. H.Mullins in the floor of a cave in Derbyshire, withbones of the reindeer, and other animals longextinct in England. Indeed, this specimen of theriver-bed type from the Langwith cave deservesfuller mention, for that able scientist, Mr. MartinA. C. Hinton, regards the fauna found with thisskull as of the Pleistocene l Period, and thereforemuch olderjhan the Tilbury specimen. Anotherof the same type, also in the Museum of the RoyalCollege of Surgeons, was found beneath a layejôfpeat and 15 feet of blueclay when a railway cattingwas made in Gloucester. The skull found beneaththe limestone deposit of Cough's cave at Cheddar,Somerset, is also of the river-bed type. All ofthese are usually assignee! to the Neolithic Period,

1 rieistocene, the geological period preceding the presentone. The strata formed during that period are characterizedby containing many extinct species of mammals.


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THE TILBURY MANand represent the prevailing type of Englishmanat the commencement of that period and probablyalso in the latter part of the Paleolithic Period.The skulls mentioned may represent British menand women living thousands of years apart. Theyclearly belong to the same race, which, for lackof a better we may name the " river-bed race."It is the prevailing type in England to-day, andfrom the scanty evidence at our disposal we maypresume that it has been the dominant form manythousands of years. Remains of the same racehave also been found at Schweizersbild in Switzer-land^ These remains of a Neolithic people havebeen described recently by Dr. Franz Schwertz.All trace of this race has disappeared in Switzer-land, whereas in England, in spite of invasion ofSaxon, Jute, Dane, and Norman, it still thrivesabundantly. Further research will probablyshow that this race was at one time widely dis-tributed throughout Europe, where it appearstowards the close of the Glacial Period.References.Sir Richard Owen : Antiquity ofMan as deduced from the discovery of a human

skeleton during excavations of the East and WestIndia Docks at Tilbury, Loudon, 1884.

Samuel Laing and Thomas H. Huxley :Prehistoric Remains of Caithness. London,1866.


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THE DARTFORD TYPEof the Thames. Flint implements of a peculiartype are found in the deep " ballast gravels ".ofthe Thames bed, but so far no trace of humanremains have been found in the deeper strata.The strata just mentioned were laid down when

the land was subsiding and the river was tillingup its bed and valley with new deposits. Before

Fig. 5. Diagrammatic section across the Thames Valley toshow the terraces and buried river bed.

this period of subsidence of the land there musthave been one of elevationone in which the rivereroded its valley.At various levels on the sides of the present

Thames Valley are found terraces of gravel laiddown by the river at various stages of its history.These are roughly grouped into first!" second,third, and fourth, terraces. The fourth terrace is10 to 25 feet above the present level of the river


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANand 70 to 90 feet above the deepest bed. Theterrace was laid down as a deposit in the river bedwhen the Thames occupied much the samechannel as now, but when the valley was 10 to 25teet below its present level as regards the sea. Noremains of the human body have been discoveredin this terrace, but man's handiwork in the shapeof flint implements have been found, and they aresaid to mark the transition from the ancient to thenew formsfrom Paleoliths to Neoliths. Remainsof the bison and the reindeer are also found in thisbed. For the purposes of our present enquiry,however, this terrace is barren. Man was there ;his form we do not know for certain, but we havereasons to suspect he was of the " river-bed " type,for the Langwith skull is probably older than thisterrace.

In the third terrace, 40 to 60 feet above thepresent_lgygl of the river, no remains of man, otherthan his stone implements, have been found, withone possible exceptionthe Dartford skull. Thetown of Dartford is situated on the banks of theParenth , about two miles above the point wherethat stream joins the Thames. It is on the southside of the Thames Valley and seven miles aboveTilbury. On the western side of the ParentYallev, about a mile above Partford, there is a bedof j^rave l , about 18 feet deep, corresponding inley_el to the_third (OOjjootj terrace of the Tjuim.esValley. In that bed Mr W. M. Newton, of Part-


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THE DARTFORD TYPEford, opened a pit in the gravel to earn- out asystematic search for traces of man. PaJxolithkimplements wPTf. found and also a human cranium.Unfortunately the skull was not seen in situ ; it

DARTFORD

Fig. 6. Profile of the Dartford cranium compare. i with the" river-bed'' type found in Langwith Cave. (One-third naturalsize.

was found in a fall wliich_tgok_^lac_irom_theworked -face, of the pit. The surface from whichtheTfall took place, both before and afterwards,showed no trace of a disturbance of stratificationsuch as would be caused by a burial. Mr. Newton


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THE DARTFORD TYPEis the fauna that the inclination is strong to denythe possibility of so high a type of man as the Dart-ford existing then. It will be seen, however, thatthe succession of human races is disorderly, andthat the race which survives is not necessarily theone with the big body or with the big brain, noreven that in which there is a combination ofsuch characters./- //- C&

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CHAPTER IVTHE GALLEY HILL MAN. THE OLDESTHUMAN REMAINS YET FOUND

IN ENGLANDLEAVING the fourth and third terraces, one

._/ ascends to the still older river bed, thesecond terrace, in which the earliest knowninhabitant of England was found. Galley Hill,the scattered township near which the remainswere found, is situated on the south side of theriver about midway between Dartford andGravesend, which is directly opposite to Tilbury.Galley Hill stands out upon a chalk bluff whichrises from the fiat strip of marsh and meadow-landforming the south bank of the river. Some con-ception of the great period of time which haselapsed since the second terrace was laid down,and the Galley Hill man embedded and preservedin it, may be formed by trying to realize the con-dition of the valley when the terrace was deposited.The valley was then level from the ioo-footterrace on the south side to the ioo-foot terraceon the north side. The distance from one terrace tothe other varies from six to twelve miles. Further,

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANmust allow a period of about 180,000 yearsbetween the dates of those two ancient inhabitants.In brief, we estimate the period of the Galley Hillman to be about 200,000 years distant. The re-mains of animals found in the gravel of the 100-footterrace bear out this estimate of antiquity. Bonesof the mammoth, of the woolly rhinoceros and ofthe reindeer are found, animals which we associatewith a cold climate. The remains of the straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus) , of the hippopotamus,and of the lion also occur, and these we regardas animals of a warmer climate. Most importantof all, flint implements shaped by man, of excellentworkmanship, are also found plentifully. We knowthat man was present in the Thames Valley then,and now we must see what kind of man he was.

In the story of the discovery of the Galley Hillman, Mr. Robert Elliott, a printer from necessity,an archaeologist by inclination, plays a leadingpart. On a day towards the end of September,1888, he and his son Richard set out on a customaryvisit to the various gravel pits in the neighbourhoodof Galley Hill, in the hope of adding to a growingarchaeological collection. At Galley Hill, asalong both banks of the lower Thames, commercehad come to the assistance of the antiquarian.Cement works were eating into the face of the chalkridge at Galley Hill. The 100-foot terracetheold river bedlav over the chalk, and had to beremoved before the cement-makers could excavate


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THE GALLEY HILL MANthe chalk. On the day of Mr. Elliott's visit themen working in the gravel pit between the high-road and the face of the chalk ridge which slopesdown to the marshes, and immediately to the westof the Schoolhouse, had exposed a human skeleton.The skull was already removed ; the schoolmaster,Mr. Matthew Hayes, had seen it in the morningwhen it lay in place in the face of the sand-bank,some eight feet from the surface and two feet abovethe underlying chalk. Mr. Elliott examined theplace ; the stratification of the overlying sand andgravel was undisturbed ; the various layers werejust as they had been laid down ; a burial wouldhave disturbed them. Besides, the depth was toogreat for a recent burial. On setting to work Mr.Elliott was able to recover other bones of theskeleton from the same loamy layerone evidentlylaid down in a pool of the old river bottom. Theremains found are sufficient to provide a fairlycomplete picture of one of the race which pre-sumably fashioned the Mint implements found inthe ioo-foot terrace. So soft and fragile were thebones when found that they had to be set in thesun to dry, and unfortunately in the drying theskull warped. The bones were found in 1888,but it was not till 1896 that a full and excellentdescription of them was published by Mr. E. T.Newton, f.r.s. Later this relic of ancient manpassed into the collection of Mr. Frank Corner.To that gentleman my thanks are due for placing

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANthe skeleton freely at my disposal, and for theopportunity of making a more minute investigationthan had been made previously. The first im-pression on examining the remains of this earliestknown inhabitant of England is one of surprise,almost of disappointment ; in all his features, witha few exceptions, he is so modern in build thatwe might meet him on the streets of London to-dayand pass him by unnoted. He was a man of ratherlow stature, about 5 ft. 3 or 4 in. (1600 mm.),as may be judged from his thigh bones, which arejust over 420 mm. long, the right rather longerthan the left. The thigh bones are somewhatpeculiar in shape ; as in the Tilbury man andNeolithic races generally, the upper part of theshaft is flattened from back to front and the neckof the bone is long. Another peculiar feature isthe wide separation of the two condyles at thelower end of the femur. No doubt these featuresindicate a peculiarity in the posture and gait,but in spite of much research we have not yetdiscovered what these peculiarities are. All weare certain of is that we occasionally see amongstmodern people the same type of thigh bone,and that such men walk in the upright posturejust as easily as those with rounded thigh bones.Nor were the proportions of his limbs peculiar.In a modern man of 5 ft. 4 in. we expect thethigh bone to be about 425 mm. ; in the GalleyHill man it is a little over 420 ; the tibia or leg


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THE GALLEY HILL MANbone in a modern man of this stature is 250 mm. ;in the Galley Hill man the tibia is broken, but itsoriginal length may be estimated at 325 mm.aninch shorter than we usually see in modern menof this stature. The humerus is also broken, butits length, judging from the upper two-thirdswhich are preserved, was about 310 mm.abouthalf an inch longer than is usual nowadays inmen of his stature. Thus, as amongst the Lapps,the leg bones were short and the arms rather long,but these may be only features of the individualand not of the race. We see thus that at an earlystage of the erosion of the Thames Valley man'sposture, gait, and proportions were alreadycompletely evolved. The modifications since thenconcern only bodily details.Another remarkable feature of this inhabitant

of Ancient Britain deserves mention. The greaterpart of the right collar-bone (clavicle) is preserved.The bone evidently was rather a short one (130 mm.),but on it is an impression which shows that thechief driving muscle of the armthe pectoralismajorwas mightily developed. The impressionfor its insertion to the upper end of the humerus isalso pronounced. The great pectoral muscle,which crosses outwards in front of the armpit,was evidently trained to its full capacity. Suchacts as thrusting a spear from the shoulder,or hurling a javelin, would entail a great pectoraldevelopment. The short clavicles indicate that


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANhe was rather a narrow-shouldered man, and frag-ments of three ribs show us that his chest wasrounded and strong, for the ribs are stouter thanthose of modern men of his stature.

It is in the head that we must seek for charactersto fix the position of the Galley Hill man in theracial scale of humanity. With the assistance ofMr. F. O. Barlow, I was able to obtain a cast ofthe cranial cavity which shows very clearly thesuperficial features of the brain. The arrangementand form of the convolutions and fissures showthe same features as the brain of modern man.The parts we connect with speech, with sight, withmotion are all there. In shape it is peculiar ; it isvery long and narrow. These are not Simiancharacters, nor have we any reason to believethat a short and wide brain is better than a longand narrow one. The thousands of flint imple-ments found embedded in the same stratumof the ioo-foot terrace show that the race towhich the Galley Hill man belonged could usetheir brains and hands to carry out an art whichrequires a high degree of skill and design. Theimperfect condition of the skull precludes anexact estimate of the size of the brain ; it wasover 1350 cubic centimetres and under 1400 cc.In an average modern man of his stature weshould expect a brain of 1450 to 1475 cc. ; but thereare many men in England to-day with smallerbrains than the Galley Hill man. In Jonathan

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THE GALLEY HILL MANWilde, who was a couple of inches taller, the braincavity measured 1425 cc.The feature of the Galley Hill man is the length

of his skull ; it is 8 inches (203 mm.). To thereader this may mean little, but when it is re-membered that the " river-bed " men, who appearwhen the Thames Valley had reached its presentdepth, had a maximum head length of 71 inches

. (184 mm.) it will be seen that it means a great deal,especially if we regard the specimen found atGalley Hill as representative of his race. Wefind a very ancient race on the Continent with asimilar form of head, and that is one of the chiefreasons we have lor supposing we are dealingwith a representative individual in the GallevHill man. Individuals with a head equally as longas the Galley Hill man still occur in England. Ina hundred medi eval crania from NorthamptonshireMr. Parsons found one with a length of 205 mm.and two of 200 mm., although the mean lengthfor the hundred is that of the river-bed people184 mm. The length of the skull in the GalleyHill man is not due to massing of bone in ridgesover the orbits ; indeed, the supra-orbital ridgesare only slightly more marked than in modernmen. Just over the orbits the thickness of theskull is 14 mm.a little above the modern average.The skull, however, is thick ; the frontal bone inplace of being 6 to 8 mm. is 12 mm. thick, afeature which occurs in very ancient skulls


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANIn old people, too, the cranial wall is apt to thicken,but from the wear of the teeth and from the degreeto which the bones of the skull have united at

GALLE.Y HILL. .(N? 1).

Fig. 7. Profile of the skull of the Galley Hill Man.

their sutures the thickness in the Galley Hill man isapparently not clue to age ; he was past middleage-probably about fifty.There are certain circumstances which make an


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THE GALLEY HILL MANaccurate measurement of the width of the GalleyHill skull difficult. One side is partly brokenaway, and in drying the skull warped. By theuse of special methods and instruments the diffi-culties can be overcome, and there is no doubt itswidth was at first underestimated ; in place of being130 mm. it is 138 to 140 mm.nearly the samewidth as the river-bed crania and 2 or 3 mm. lessthan is the modern average. The breadth is about69 per cent of the length ; in the river-bed crania,the average is the same as in modern Englishcrania, 74 to 76 per cent. In the phraseology ofthe craniologist, the Galley Hill man was markedlydolichocephalic. As is common in this type ofskull the forehead was narrow, but of goodheight and not receding. The height of the ver-tex of the skull above the ear passages is 120 mm.In height of skull the Galley Hill man was notpeculiar ; Mr. Parsons gives 120 mm. as the cor-responding measurement of the Northamptonshirecrania. Thus we see that in England there stillpersists here and there a man who shows cranialfeatures very similar to those found amongst theinhabitants of the Thames Valley so long ago.

As is usually the case in such finds, the chiefpart of the face had perished. Fortunately theleft half of the lower jaw, carrying five teeth, twopremolars, and three molars, was found. Byplacing the jaw in its proper relationship to theskull it is possible to reconstruct, with a consider-

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANable degree of accuracy, the main outlines of theface. The face was short and relatively wide.In an average modern Englishman the face,

GALLEY H1UL .(Nl)Fig. 8. Galley Hill skull full face. (One-third natural size.)measured from the root of the nose to the lowerborder of the chin, is about 120 mm. ; in theGalley Hill man it was about 100 mm., thedeficiency being due to the shortness of the upper


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THE GALLEY HILL MANface. The nose was short, but from the con-formation of its root we infer that it was prominentand perhaps rather wide. The extreme width ofthe face was 130 mm., 5 mm. in excess of theaverage modern man. The chin, if not so pro-nounced as in modern mandibles, was certainlypresent. One sees on the mandible the samemuscular impression as in modern manim-pression caused by the muscles which move thetongue and lips. We may infer, therefore, thatthe tongue was used in speech in much the sameway as we use it now. There is nothing anthropoidin the lower jaw, and yet it shows some primitivefeatures. The coronoid process to which thetemporal musclethe chief muscle of masticationis attached is separated from the articularprocess of the jaw by a deep notch in all modernspecimens. Here there is no notch ; it is filledup with bone to give strength. The need for astrong coronoid process is apparent when theextensive impressions for the temporal musclesare noted on the sides of the skull. The ridgeswhich bound the origins of these muscles reachto within 40 mm. of the median line on the vertexof the skull, whereas in modern crania they fallshort of it by 60 mm. In anthropoids these ridgesmay reach the vertex. We see then that themuscles of mastication were uncommonly welldeveloped in ancient man, but the teeth them-selves, and the palate, the size of which can be

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANestimated from the lower jaw, are not markedlydifferent from the same parts in modern man. Inno sense can the lower molar teeth, and theyindicate the condition of the upper, be said to beprimitive either in size or shape. In apes with adentition at its highest point of development,such as the baboon and gorilla, the last lower molaris larger than the first ; when retrogression sets in,the last is the first to diminish. In a large-toothedrace, like the extinct Tasmanians, the last lowermolar is equal in size to the first ; the middle toothbeing slightly smaller. In this race the front toback measurement of the crown of the first lowermolar may amount to 13 mm. (i in.), in theGalley Hill man the crown of the first molar is only11 mm., a common dimension in modern man,while the last molar is only I0'2, about the same sizeas the middle or second molar. Thus in theGalley Hill man retrogression of teeth has alreadycommenced ; the last lower molar is reduced tothe size of the second. In the majority of modernEnglishmen it is smaller than the second, dentalretrogression being still more marked. The middleand last molars have only four cusps in the GalleyHill man, whereas many of the more primitivehuman races still show fiveapparently theoriginal number. The premolar teeth agreeabsolutely in size and shape with their modernrepresentatives, the first being 7 mm. and thesecond 7*5 mm. in the front to back diameters of

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THE GALLEY HILL MANtheir crowns. The teeth show no trace of disease,and are worn in the same manner as in the Neo-lithic Essex woman, but not to such a degree,although he appears to be older than she was.The size of the palate was apparently very littledifferent from the modern average, the modernbeing longer and narrower. For instance, thelength of the lower bite, measured from a pointbetween the middle incisors to the mid-pointof a line drawn transversely behind the crownsof the last molars, is 46 mm. in modern English-men, and 44 mm. in the Galley Hill man. Thebreadth between the outer borders of the lastmolars is 77 mm. in the Galley Hill man, andonly 68 mm. in modern Englishmen. There thusappears to have been little alteration in thedevelopment of the palate and teeth during theexceedingly long interval which elapsed betweenthe dates of the Galley Hill and the later Neolithicman. In that long period the nature of the dietremained the same. The reduction of the teethand palate evidently commenced when the moreprosperous conditions of modern civilization wereintroduced.

Quite recently a second example of a humanskull from the upper terrace (90 to 100 feet) atGalley Hill was sent to me for examination. Ihave mentioned the fact that Mr. Matthew Hayes,the schoolmaster of Galley Hill, was the firstto see the Galley Hill skull when exposed by the

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANworkmen. He was naturally disappointed whenhe found Mr. Elliott had come in the meantimeand obtained possession of an object he wishedto add to his own collection, and hence took nofurther interest in the find, nor did he then mentionthe skull I am now to describe as the second GalleyHill skull.In 1884, four years prior to the discovery of thefamous specimen, the bank of gravel on the chalkcliff extended to the north of the school, somefifty yards from where the celebrated discoverywas afterwards made. Mr. W. H. Steadman, nowheadmaster of the neighbouring Council School atNorthfleet, was then assistant master at GalleyHill. The schoolboys, playing on the north faceof the gravel, had discovered the fragments of ahuman skull, with several other bones, and broughtthem to Mr. Steadman, who placed them in hisSchool Collection, where they are now. To thebest of his recollection they were about 5 feetbelow the surface level of the terrace. It wasonly lately, on seeing reports concerning theremains just described, that he realized the findmade so long ago as 1884 might still be important.The skull is sufficiently perfect to recognize thatit is of the same form as the type specimen.Its length is just under 200 mm. ; its width is140 mm., the same as in the original specimen.Tlif width is thus 70 per cent of the length, theindex being 70 in place of 69 in the original

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THE GALLEY HILL MANspecimen. Its height is rather less116 mm. ;the forehead is ioo mm. in widthabout the sameas in the original ; its capacity is rather greater,and the brow ridges and impressions for themuscles of mastication less pronounced. Thebones too are thinner, the frontal being 6 to 8 mm.in place of n to 12. They do not show the samedegree of erosion and weathering. The craniumis whiter and more permeated with calcareoussalts. The limb bones, however, are of a totallydifferent type, and indicate a tall man with theshafts of the thigh bones not flattened as in theoriginal, but cylindrical as in modern man.The evidence on the whole is decidedly againstthe probability of the second Galley Hill remainsbeing of the age of the 100-foot terrace. Beforepassing a final opinion as to their antiquity it willbe well to wait and see what future discoveriesmay tell us.The reader may naturally ask : To what race

does the Galley Hill man belong ? The answer isthat he is a type of a new race which at the sametime is very old. He represents a race to which wemay rightly give the name of " Galley Hill."The race is still represented in the modern popula-tion of Britain by a scattered remnant. The raceis both ancient and modern ; ancient in the sensethat it was evolved long before the valley systemof England had taken on its present configuration,modern in the sense that in all his parts, in spite

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANof his long and narrow head, his short and wide,rather negroid face, he stands as the most ancientrepresentative of the Europeans in their modernform.We also know something of the climate ofEngland during the formation of the upperterrace, in which the remains of the Galley Hillrace are embedded. In it are found the bones ofanimals which indicate a warm climate, such asthe lion and the straight-tusked elephant and thehippopotamus ; in it too are found remains ofthe woolly rhinoceros and the mammoth, usuallyregarded as denizens of cold regions. We presumethat the Arctic fauna succeeded the temperate,for in the lower and later terraces of the ThamesValley the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros,joined subsequently by the reindeer, still occur,when the lion and hippopotamus were extinct inEngland. The Galley Hill race evidently livedduring a period in which the climate of the Southof England was changing from a temperateto a cold one and when the land was undergoingelevation with consequent deepening of theThames Valley. Previous to the temperate periodthere must have been one of extreme cold, for thethird or ioo-foot terrace lies on boulder clay andother formations which can only be depositedin a country deeply covered with ice. The GalleyHill race flourished then in a temperate periodwhich was preceded by an extremely cold one

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THE GALLEY HILL MANand followed by one in which the cold was lesssevere. Apparently he belonged to the lastof the temperate intervals which lie within theGlacial Age.

Referenxes.Mr. E. T. Newton, f.r.s. : " On aHuman Skull and Limb Bones found in thePaleolithic Terrace Gravel at Galley Hill,Kent." Quart. Jour. Geo. Soc, London,1895, Vol. 51, p. 505.

Mr. H. B. Woodward, f.r.s. : " TheGeology of the London District." Memoirsof the Geological Surrey. London, 1909.

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CHAPTER VTHE MEN OF BRUNN AND COMBE-CAPELLE

IT is not likely that the Galley Hill race arose inEngland. It was probably originally a Conti-nental race, for our early history is a long story ofcontinual immigrations and invasions. Westernwaves of the Continental sea of humanity seem tohave surged into Britain since Europe was firstinhabited, and that is many hundred thousandyears ago. We modern British have arisen by aprocess of mixture and happy hybridization. Ourancestors of the river-bed type dominated Eng-land for many thousand years, but, as we shall 'see,they too appear to have arisen on the Continent,and were at first aliens in Britain. The GalleyHill type and perhaps also the Cro-Magnon, pre-ceded them in England. Both of these types areContinental in origin. When we in turn becomean invading race we turn our faces westwards asdid our Paleolithic ancestors..We propose now to cross to the Continent andsearch for traces of the Galley Hill race. This typehas been found at Briinn, the chief town of the

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THE BRUNN MANAustrian Province of Moravia, some sixty milesnorth .of Vienna. The wide valley in which Briinnis situated is covered by a thick stratum of loessa chalky clay. A tributary of the DanubethePonafaflows slowly down the valley and has hadmuch to do with the deposition of the deep strataon which Briinn is built.The period at which the stratum of loess was

laid down can be dated with some accuracy. Re-mains of the mammoth and of the woolly rhino-ceros occur in it abundantly, from which it maybe safelv inferred that its formation belongs tothe latter part of the cold or Glacial Period. In189 1, when a canal was being cut through the city,a number of mammoth and rhinoceros bones, witha human skull, were found in the undisturbed loess,4! metres (n| feet) from the surface. The forma:tion is probably not so old as the 100-foot terracein which the Galley Hill remains were found ; itcorresponds rather to a date between the 50- and20-feet terracesa period perhaps 50,000 yearslater than the Galley Hill man, if the roughmethod of estimation used here can be trusted toguide us. The civilization is very different from thatof the Galley Hill man ; all we know of him arehis fine flint implements ; but we know the art ofthe man of Briinn. With the skull was found theimage of a bearded man carved from the ivory ofa mammoth's tusk. \\'e know that he ornamentedhis body ; six hundred perforated small shells (Den-

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANalso an older manat least his teeth, especially thefirst and second molar teeth, are much more worn.Some of the crowns are ground almost to the roots.The wear of teeth depends as much on the natureof food as on age, and hence is not a reliable guide.Nor does the degree to which the skull bones haveunited give a sure clue to age, for evidently inthe Galley Hill race these became ossified togetherat an early period of manhood. If Makowsky'sobservation is accurate the last lower molar wasremarkable. It was much larger than either theftrsi di" second molars, whereas in modern Euro-pean races il is smaller. From the drawings givenby the discoverer we may infer that the size ofthe palate was similar to that of the GalleyHill man, but apparently the prominence of thechin was more pronounced. The branch of themandible which ascends to articulate with the skulland receive the muscles of mastication was longer,and in shape more like the same part in modernman. The face of the man of Briinn was thereforerather longer and more modern than that of theGalley Hill man. In neither was there such aprognathism as we see in modern negro races, forthe good reason that they had less massive teeth.The parallelism between the discoveries atGalley Hill and Briinn may be continued further.

It will be remembered that at Galley Hill anotherspecimen was produced which had been foundsome years before the more important discovery.

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THE COMBE-CAPELLE MANA second Briinn _skull was found in i8$5, inthe same stratum, but at some distance from theone now known as the first. Like the secondGalley Hill skull its history is imperfect, but it^authenticity is more probable. Its length is esti-mated at 192 to 195 mm. ; its breadth at 139, itsindex being thus JZ- It represents in the writer'sopinion the female type of the race. Its dimen-sions and its muscular prominences are such as weexpect to find in the woman of the Briinn type.

In 190c) a discovery was made in the south-westof France which shows the wide distribution ofthe Galley Hill type in ancient times. In the cavesand rock shelters of the limestone terraces whichflank the valley of the Dordogne, French anthro-pologists have deciphered the history of Paleolithicman. In their hands cave-research has become ascience. In the present instance, however, thediscovery of an ancient man of the Galley Hilltype in this region was made by a skilled Swissarchaeologist, Herr O. Hauser. In the beginning /c fl cof 1909 he set his men to work in a narrow terraceunder a limestone cliff, just such a spot as Paleo-lithic man would choose for a shelter. The site isknown as Combe-Capelle, and is situated on thesouth side of the Dordogne, a little way below theplace where this river is joined by the Vezere. ByAugust of that year his foresight was rewarded bythe discovery of the complete skeleton of a man ai adepth of a little over 7 feet (2 '55 metres). To reach


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANthis depth the remains of three separate epochsof civilization were passed through. When theupper layer of black soil was cleared away a thickstratum was exposed which had been formed whengenerations of men had lived in the shelter of the

OLUTREANRILE LAYER

PPER AUR1GNACEAN- 5 I EKiLE LAYERX middle; aurignace

- STERILE LAYERv . AURiGNACEANOUSTEREAN

Fig. 10. Section of the strata in which the ancient humanremains were found at Combe-Capelle.

overhanging cliff and left remains of their hearths,of their stone and bone implements and the debrisof their feasts. The drip from the limestone rocksaturated, solidified, and preserved these evidencesof a remote civilization ; "C here is no preservativefor bones equal to a continual drip laden with

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THE COMBE-CAPELLE MANlimestone in solution. It permeates the pores ofthe bones and mineralizes them. The civilizationof the upper layer of the Combe-Capelle shelter isof the type assigned to the Salutreen Periodonewhich falls in the later third of the PaleolithicPeriod. Beneath the Salutreen lay a sterile layer,deposited when the shelter was unfrequented byman. Below this layer came another stratumcontaining traces of man which Herr Hauserassigns to the later or younger AurignacienPeriod ; then another sterile layer followed by onebelonging to the middle Aurignacien, and finallythe _steriielayer which overlay the stratum inwhich the human skeleton was found. The laststerile layer apparently formed the floor of theshelter when the man now to be described wasburied in itburied in the material which hadaccumulated when he and his forefathers dweltthere. He did not fall by chance to be buried bythe slow accumulation of debris detached fromthe cliff, for he lay on his right side, in the crouch-ing posture , with his feet to the south, head tothe north, and numerous flint implements placedround him and in a _grave whichclearly had beenprepared* for him . Over him lay the unbrokenstrata formed by the civilizations of succeedingperiods. Some remains of the pig and of the urusa primitive form of oxwere found in the samestratum, but nothing of the mammoth or woollyrhinoceros or of animals which help us to fix a

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANgeological date for him. Nor have we, as in theThames Valley, the work of the river to give usa rough indication of time. We have only theflint implements he used, and they assign him tothe beginning of the period named the Aurig-nacien. In England we suppose this period tocorrespond to the formation of the lowest (20-foot)terrace of the Thames Valley, and therefore longafter the period of the Galley Hill man and possiblyalso subsequent to the date of the man of Brunn.

Professor Klaatsch, who examined and de-scribed the remains, unhesitatingly assigned theCombe-Capelle man to the Galley Hill race. Themaximum length of the skull is 198 mm., 5 or6 mm. less than the Galley Hill ; the maximumwidth is 130 mm., about 10 mm. less, but we seehere a head of the same narrow long type. Indeed,the relative width is less, being only about 66per cent of the length. We must not supposelhatany two individuals showing long and narrowheads are of the same race ; we find narrow-headed forms amongst both black and white raceswhich we cannot suppose to be nearly related.The height of the vault above the ear-holes isconsiderably more in the Combe-Capelle than inthe Galley Hill skullat least 5 mm., and thehighest point of the crown of the head is furtherbacknearer the occiput. We know the face ofthe Galley Hill man only from the mandible, butthere is sufficient to show that the face form

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THE COMBE-CAPELLE MANdiffered from that seen in the Combe-Capelle man.The teeth of the latter are more massive, the

Fig. 1 1. Profile of the skull of the Combe-Capelle Man c 'in-pared with the profile of the Galley Hill man (One-thirdnatural size.)

palate is longer and narrower, characters which,with the increased height of the skull, betoken atendency towards features usually associated with


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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANa negroid race. On the other hand, the charactersof the forehead are the same in both ; the width |the face was also about the same (130 mm.) ;but while the face in the Combe-Capelle manwas of medium length (116 mm.), that of theGalley Hill man was decidedly short (104 mm.),and shortness of face is frequently a character oi_negroes. Both men were of short stature, aboutiboonnn. (5 ft. 3 in.), but while the thigh boneof the Combe-Capelle man is only 3 mm. longerthan that of the Galley Hill, yet his leg bone(tibia) is at least 40 mm. more. Now a relativelylung leg bone is a feature which is usually seen innegroid^, and in this feature the Combe-Capelleman is decidedly of that rjice. Thus while thewriter is inclined to agree in provisionally assigningthe Combe-Capelle man to the Galley Hill racehe believes that further discoveries will show thatthe Combe-Capelle man belongs to a branchmarked with certain negroid features.Before quitting the Galley Hill type there aretwo very ancient skulls which deserve mentionbecause they serve to bridge the gap between theTilbury or river-bed and the Galley Hill types.So long ago as 1833^ Professor Schmerling, a Bel-gian archaeologist, on excavating the floor of alimestone cavethe Engis Cavein the valley ofthe Meuse, found at a dep~th of 5 feet (i| metres),the roof-part of a human skull. With it werefound remains of the mammoth and woolly

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THE COMBE-CAPELLE MANrhinoceros, so we may infer that we are dealing witha skull nearly if not quite as old as that at Brunnor Combe-Capelle. The skull is shorter, wider, andhigher than the Galley Hill type ; indeed, in allthose points it approaches the Tilbury forjn. Inthe opinion of its discoverer, a very cautious andjudicious scientist, this skull showed certaincharacters which approximate it "to the craniumof an Ethiopian rather than to that of a European."It was of this specimen that Huxley said, " It is,in fact, a fair average human skull, which mighthave belonged to a philosopher or might have con-tained the thoughtless brains of a savage." Thusat a very early date there was evolved a type ofskull intermediate to the Galley Hill and river-bed types, and one in which Professor Schmerlingthought he traced some features of the Negro.Another skull of the same intermediate type

was discovered in Bohemiathe most westernProvince of Austrianear the town of Brtix. Itwas discovered in 1871, but a knowledge of itsexact nature we owe entirely to the recent investi-gation of Professor Schwalbe of Strassburg. Itbelongs to a later date than the Engis specimen,to a period preceding that of the Tilbury skull, withwhich it has much in common.The present evidence points to a wide distribu-

tion of a race of the Galley Hill type throughoutEurope in the latter part of the Glacial Periodand the earlier part of the Post-glacial. Its

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANorigin we do not know. The type is still to bemet with amongst modern British people. It isprobable that the river-bed type was evolved fromthe Galley Hill type. Certain features of this typepoint to a relationship with negroid races.References.Prof. Alex. Makowsky : " Derdiluviale Mensch in Loess von Briinn."

Mitih. Anthrop. Gesellschaft in Wien, 1892,Bd. XXII, p. 73 .

Prof. H. Klaatsch and O. Hauser : " HomoAurignacensis Hauseri." Prccliistor. Zeit-schrift, 1910, Bd. I, p. 273.

Prof. G. Schwalbe : "Das Schaedel-frag-ment von Briix und verwandte. Schaedel-formen." Zeitscli. fur Morphologic undAntJiropologic, 1906, p. 81.

Prof. Schmerling. See Huxley's Man'sPlace in Nature. London, 1863.


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CHAPTER VITHE GRIMALDI OR NEGROID TYPEIN EUROPE

IN the cliffs which flank the beach near Men-tone there are a number of cay,es which fora long period of time afforded a habitation forancient man. At the close of the last and at thebeginning of the present century, largely owingto the interest taken in the history of primitiveman by the Prince of Monaco, systematic excava-tions were carried out in deep strata of their floors.In one of these, the " Grotte des Enfants," usuallynamed the Grimaldi Cave, the various strata ofthe floor made up a thickness of 81 metres (28feet). In the lowest layer of all were found twoskeletonsone of a woman past middle life, witha stature estimated at 1570 mm. (5 ft. 2 in.), andthe other of a boy about sixteen to seventeenyears of age, and about 1550 mm. (5 ft. 1 in.) inheight. With them were found traces of a civiliza-tion and of a fauna which has led anthropologiststo assign them to the end of the Mousterien orbeginning of the Aurignacien Periodabout thesame or perhaps before the period assigned to the

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANCombe-Capelle man. They have the narrow andlong heads of the Galley Hill race. In the womanthe maximum length of the head is 191 mm. ; inthe boy, probably her son, it is 192 ; the widthof the skull in the mother is 131 and in the son133. The proportion of breadth to length is aboutN per cent (he same as in the < ralley Hill race.Yet Dr. Verneau, who has published the results ofa minute examination of these two ancient in-dividuals, from various features seen in the skele-tons, had no hesitation in assigning them to anegroid race.

It is an easy matter to distinguish the skeletonof the true negro from that of the pure white, butthere are many intermediate racesnot hybridswhich show a puzzling mixture of characters.The ancient Grimaldi woman and boy are of themixed or negroid type. We associate large whiteteeth, full prominent jaws, and receding chin withthe races showing pigmented skins. In the oldwoman, a great number of the teeth have been lostduring life and the dental characters are uncertain.The shallow, projecting incisor part of the upperjaw and the characters of the chin are certainlyfeatures of a negroid race. So are the wide openingof the nose, the prominent cheek bones, the flatand short face. Yet the bridge of the nose is notflat as in negroes, but rather prominent as jnEuropeans, and the capacity of the skull (1375 cc.)is of ample dimensions for a woman of her size.

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THE GRIMALDI TYPE IN EUROPEAs to the boy, his teeth are large and of the negrotype ; he bears a striking resemblance to thewoman, and his cranial capacity (158 cc. ) indi-cates a brain distinctly above the modern in size.The leg bones of mother and son are relativelylong as in negroes. In that race the two eminencesor bosses of the forehead usually meet' and jointogether in a high median prominence, whereasin white races they remain separated, and this isthe case in""the Grimaldi skulls. Indeed, in thefeatures of the forehead the Grimaldi remains agreewith the Galley Hill type. It is a remarkable factthat the natives of the uplands of the SandwichIslandsa true negroid racereproduce to-daythe cranial features of the ancient inhabitants ofthe Grimaldi caves.To appreciate~"the true significance of a negroid

race in the south of Europe towards the close ofthe Glacial Period, we must look at the distribu-tion^ modern races. A line from Gibraltar in theWest to the Phillipine Islands in the Far Eastpasses through a zone where the fairer skins of theNorth pass into the darker skins of the South.To some extent it may be a zone in which inter-mixtures of fairer and darker races occur, but inthe main it is better to regard it as a zone in whichhuman races have inherited from the ancestralstock of modern humanity some of the characterswhich now distinguish the European, and somethat distinguish the Negro ; but both Negro and

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANEuropean are highly specialized examples of themodern type of man. The discovery of theGrimaldi race does not indicate that we havereached the common stock from which black andwhite races have evolved ; that point must liemuch farther in the past. It merely indicatesthat towards the end of the Glacial Period thenegroid race which we see in the north ofAfrica to-day was already evolved, and that itextended into Europe. The land connectionsbetween Europe and Africa we know to havebeen much closer in the time of the Grimaldipeople than they are to-day. There are otherevidences of a negroid race in Europe. Thenegroid traits of the Combe-Capelle man havebeen mentioned ; but there is also the remark-able fact that statuettes and engravings whichare assigned to this period represent certainbodily characters of the negro. The Grimaldipeople are the earliest negroid type so fardiscovered, yet they are so modern and highlyevolved in character that we cannot suppose themto represent a common ancestor of European andAfrican races. If, however, we suppose that allraces of modern man have been evolved from acommon stock, we naturally expect, especiallyin the earlier stages of the evolution of modernraces, to find intermediate types between the ex-treme racial forms now found in North Europe andCentral Africa. The Grimaldi people seem to

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THE GRIMALDI TYPE IN EUROPErepresent an intermediate type in the evolution ofthe typical white and black races.Reference.Dr. Rene Verneau : Lcs Groitcs de

Grimaldi, Vol. II. Monaco, 1906.


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CHAPTER VIIAN ANCIENT RACE OF TALL MEN:THE CRO-MAGNON

THERE is a widely spread notion that ourremote ancestors were a race of giants.Hitherto, as we have passed from type to typeinto a remote past that takes us well within theGlacial Period, the samples of ancient humanitypreserved to us have been one and all people of alow statureonly 5 feet or a little over. Now weproceed to consider the oldest race of great staturethat has yet been discovered, one which flourishedin the south of France when the last of the coldperiods was lifting from Europe. The first ex-amples of this race were discovered in_i868, whena railway was being constructed in the valley lthe Vezere, a tributary of the Dordqgne. A cuttingmade in the debris at the foot of the limestonecliffs which flank the valley of the Vezere at Cro-Magnon, brought to light the skeletons of a man,of a woman, and part of the skull of a third in-dividual. Hence this ancient type or race isusually' named Cro-Magnon. We now know tenindividuals of that race of which eight are men

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AN ANCIENT RACE OF TALL MENand two are women. The stature of five of themen can be estimated with some degree of exact-nessit varies from 1820 to 1870 mm. (5 ft. n| in.to 6 tt. i\ iu.i. The woman, as is usually the casein tall races, was evidently of a smaller stature ;

mm. Fig. 12. The site of the discovery of the Cro-Magnon Race.

The foreground represents a section. ALimestone Cliff.B Ledge overhanging the Ancient Shelter. C Debris fallenfrom the cliff in which the remains were found. DAlluvium.(After Quatrefages.

we can estimate the height of one only ; she wasyoung and measured 1560 mm. (5 ft. 3 A in.).The discovery of the human remains at Cro-Magnon in 1868 was made at the time when

scientists were beginning to realize that thehistory of ancient man could be deciphered inthe caves and old rock shelters along the valleys

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AN ANCIENT RACE OF TALL MENCro-Magnon type may be seen by comparing itwith the specimens found in France. The braincapacity of the Dartford cranium is 1750 cc, atleast 250 cc. above the average of modern men.The French specimens also show an equally greatcapacity ; in one case Verneau estimates the brainchamber to be capable of holding 1800 to 2000 cc.The length of the skull is great ; in the Dartfordskull it is 207 mm. ; in the five French skulls thelength varies from 194 to 211 mm. ; in length theskull rivalled or outstripped the crania of theGalley Hilla race which appeared long beforethe Cro-Magnon in Europe. In the width of theskull there is a great difference in these ancienttypes ; in the Galley Hill type the width variesbetween 130 and 140 mm. ; in the Cro-Magnon itvaries between 140 and 150 mm. In the Dartfordspecimen it is 150 mm. Most of the Cro-Magnonskulls, although wide, are only of medium height ;the highest point in the roof is usually not morethan 120 mm. above the ear passages. The fore-head is wide and the eyebrow ridges well marked.The contour of the back of the head is charac-teristic. As in the Galley Hill race the occipitalpart of the head projects rather prominently, butthe crown of the head, in place of arching upwardsfrom the occiput as in the Galley Hill race, isflattened, as if the upper and back part of the crownhad been plastic and struck by a spade. Unfortun-ately in the Dartford specimen the face is missing,

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANand it is in the face as well as in the stature thatthe characteristics of the race are to be found.

CRO-MAGNON G3DARTFORD

Fig. 13. Profile of a Cro-Magnon skull with the outline of theDartford cranium traced on it. (One-third natural size.)

Thus, such evidence as there is in England, andadmittedly the evidence is slight, points to theexistence of the Cro-Magnon race in England at

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AN ANCIENT RACE OF TALL MENa period long after the Galley Hill race. It is inFrance itself that we find evidence as to theperiod at which the Cro-Magnon men appeared inEurope. Their brains were large, and we naturallyexpect signs of a high mental development. Intheir hands art reached a stage of realism whichhas never been surpassed ; they engraved theanimals they hunted on bone and ivory with theaccurate eye and hand of the true artist. Theirimplements of flint and bone are characteristic ;hence the strata in the floors of caves formedduring the time of the Cro-Magnon race can berecognized. The chief period of the Cro-Magnonrace is named the Magdelenien, because in theLa Madeleine rock shelter in the valley of theVezere, three miles above Cro-Magnon, remainsof their civilization are found abundantlv. Thestrata of the Magdelenien Period lie superficial to,and are more recent than, the Aurignacien stratain which Hauser found the long and narrow headedCombe-Capelle man (Fig. 10, p. 52), who appearsto represent the Galley Hill race in the south ofFrance. In the long interval between the Aurig-nacien and Magdelenien, a third epoch is some-times distinguishedthe Solutreen. The Cro-Magnon type is also found in this period. TheCro-Magnon race thus appears in Europe laterthan the Galley Hill type, but it is discovered withits art and its great physique already in lulldevelopment. Its cradle and the place of its

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ANCIENT TYPES OF MANthat which now prevails in the north of Europeand did so for a long period, for in the strataformed over the Cro-Magnon burial, to the extentof 20 feet, remains of the reindeer occur. Thereis evidence to show that the Cro-Magnon typepersisted in Europe throughout the long periodmarked by the presence of the reindeer.The Cro-Magnon man was tall ; the individualfound in the Grotte des Enfants stood about

6 it. j in. in lite. Ili^ long collar hours show hewas wide-shouldered, with a great breadth _ofchest. His thigh bones were long and straightand their shafts shaped like a razor, so stronglypronounced was the ridge for the attachment ofmuscles on its posterior aspect. The leg bones,or tibiae, as in the Grimaldi and in negroid races,were relatively and absolutely long. There are inthis and a number of other featuresthe short,wide face, the prominent cheek bones and pointedchinalso traces of the negroid in the Cro-Magnonrace.By the end of the reindeer period the Cro-Magnon race seems to have been absorbed byother races. The type has been identified amongstthe Neolithic inhabitants of Switzerland. Inform of head the natives of England who buriedtheir dead in long_ mounds or barrows have muchin common with the Cro-Magnon race. Althoughthere is no race in Europe to-day that can be re-garded as representative of this Paleolithic people,

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AN ANCIENT RACE OF TALL MENyet in Germany, Switzerland, France, and Britainindividuals of this type are not ^are. They arethe tall men of commanding mien. It is likelyenough that Cro-Magnon blood may be in theirveins, but time and civilization have lengthenedtheir faces, reduced the prominence of their cheekbones, diminished the strength of their jaws, andopened out their eye-sockets, thus removing thelowering sour visage which characterized the Cro-Magnon face.

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THE ROUND-HEADED TYPEor Celts appeared in Britain. In the Continentthey appeared much earlier. In the limestonecaves of Furfooz in the valley of the Lesse, atributary of the Meuse, the Belgian archaeologist,Ed. Dupont, excavated in 1867 two craniaoneof a man, the other of a woman. They are thetypes of the Furfooz rj.ce. The remains of _themammoth were embedded in the same layer, sothe Furfooz race may have been a contemporaryof the Cro-Magnon race, and its appearance mustbe assigned to the vnd of the last Glacial Period.The skulls are small, and at once remind one ofthe " river-bed " type found in England towardsthe beginning of the Neolithic Period, if not earlier.They are shorter and wider than the river-bedskulls ; in the male the length is only 174 mm., inthe female 172 mm. ; the width in the male is79 per cent . and m the female m p_er o nt, oi thelength. In the opinion of the writer these Furfoozindividuals are really of the same race as .the" river-bed " people of England, but show amarked tendency to a de

(1911) ancient types of man

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