LIFE & LIFE & CULTURE IN CULTURE IN AMERICA IN AMERICA IN THE 1920STHE 1920S

THE THE ROARING ROARING TWENTIESTWENTIES

America at the America at the Start of the DecadeStart of the Decade

Victorious in Victorious in World War IWorld War I

Treaty of Treaty of Versailles Versailles defeateddefeated

Period of Period of isolationismisolationism

Republican Republican ascendancyascendancy Returning WWI soldiers parading in Minneapolis

The Election of 1920The Election of 1920 GOP nominated Ohio Sen. GOP nominated Ohio Sen.

Warren G. Harding Warren G. Harding ““Normalcy”Normalcy” Democrats ran Ohio Gov. Democrats ran Ohio Gov.

James M. CoxJames M. Cox Coolidge as GOP VP Coolidge as GOP VP

candidatecandidate FDR as Democratic VP FDR as Democratic VP

candidatecandidate Republican landslideRepublican landslide

Warren G. Harding

Warren Warren G. G.

HardinHardingg

Pres. Warren G. Harding-Pres. Warren G. Harding-19201920

Vice-President: Calvin CoolidgeVice-President: Calvin CoolidgeGone were the days of Wilson and Gone were the days of Wilson and

Idealism!Idealism!Harding promised:Harding promised:

Lower TaxesLower Taxes Higher TariffsHigher Tariffs Restrictions on immigration Restrictions on immigration Aid to farmersAid to farmers

“A return to

NORMALCY”

Harding appointed some Harding appointed some

very qualified people to very qualified people to

his administration. his administration.

However, he also However, he also

appointed several less appointed several less

qualified qualified

people from his home statepeople from his home state

of Ohio who of Ohio who

eventually engaged in as host of eventually engaged in as host of

corrupt activities for personal gain. corrupt activities for personal gain.

“OHIO GANG”

The Teapot Dome Scandal

• In the early part of the 20th century large oil reserves were discovered in Elk Hills, California and Teapot Dome, Wyoming.

Rocky Mountain Oilfield Testing Center on the Teapot Dome Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 3 near Midwest, Wyoming.

• In 1912 President William Taft decided that the government owned the land and its’ oil reserves should be set aside for the use of the United States Navy.

• On 4th June, 1920, Congress passed a bill that stated that the Secretary of the Navy would have the power "to conserve, develop, use and operate the same in his discretion, directly or by contract, lease, or otherwise, and to use, store, exchange, or sell the oil and gas products thereof, and those from all royalty oil from lands in the naval reserves, for the benefit of the United States."

• In March of 1921, President Warren Harding appointed Albert Fall as Secretary of the Interior.

Pres. Warren Harding Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall

Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall

Harry Sinclair

(Mammoth Oil Corp.)

Edward L. Doheny (Pan-American Petroleum)

Yo, Albert buddy! How about letting

Edward and I drill for oil in Elk Hills and

Teapot Dome!

But that’s Naval

property! You can’t drill

there!

Maybe $100,000 would help you

change your mind!

Why didn’t you say so, Ed? You’ve got a deal!

• Later that year Fall decided that two of his friends, Harry F. Sinclair (Mammoth Oil Corporation) and Edward L. Doheny (Pan-American Petroleum and Transport Company), should be allowed to lease part of these Naval Reserves. There was NO evidence that Harding was involved in any way.

• In 1923, Harding died of a heart attack. Vice-President Calvin Coolidge took over.

• In 1927, Fall was found guilty of accepting a $100,000 bribe from Doheny. He was forced to resign from office and spent one year in jail. Fall was the first cabinet member to be convicted of a crime while in office.

• The land was naval property, and should not have been leased to private oil companies.

Pres. Calvin CoolidgePres. Calvin CoolidgeHarding’s death in Harding’s death in 1923 brought 1923 brought Coolidge to the Coolidge to the presidency.presidency.In 1924, Americans voted toIn 1924, Americans voted to

Coolidge’s business Coolidge’s business policy was laissez policy was laissez faire :faire :

Between 1921and Between 1921and 1929 the output of 1929 the output of industry nearly industry nearly DoubledDoubled

“Keep cool with Coolidge”

““Silent Cal”Silent Cal”The business of America is….BUSINESS!!!!

The new president, The new president, Calvin CoolidgeCalvin Coolidge, fit , fit the the pro-businesspro-business spirit of the 1920s spirit of the 1920s very wellvery well

His famous quoteHis famous quote: : “The chief business “The chief business of the American of the American people is business . people is business . . .the man who . .the man who builds a factory builds a factory builds a temple – builds a temple – the man who works the man who works there worships there worships there”there”President Calvin

Coolidge 1924-1928

Americans on the MoveAmericans on the Move

Urbanization Urbanization still still accelerating.accelerating. More Americans More Americans

lived in cities lived in cities than in rural than in rural areasareas

1920:1920: New York 5 New York 5

millionmillion Chicago 3 millionChicago 3 million

URBAN VS. RURALURBAN VS. RURAL Farms started to struggle Farms started to struggle

post-WWI.post-WWI. 6 million moved to urban areas6 million moved to urban areas

Urban life was considered a Urban life was considered a

world of anonymous world of anonymous crowds, strangers, crowds, strangers, moneymakers, and pleasure moneymakers, and pleasure seekers.seekers.

Rural life was considered to Rural life was considered to be safe, with close personal be safe, with close personal ties, hard work and morals. ties, hard work and morals.

Suburban boom: trolleys, Suburban boom: trolleys, street cars etc.street cars etc.

Cities were impersonal

Farms were innocent

Demographical ChangesDemographical Changes Demographics: Demographics:

statistics that statistics that describe a describe a population.population.

Real Time Demographics

Migration NorthMigration North African Americans African Americans

moving north at moving north at rapid pace.rapid pace.

Why?Why? Jim Crow lawsJim Crow laws New job New job

opportunities in opportunities in northnorth

1860 – 93% in 1860 – 93% in southsouth

1930 – 80% in 1930 – 80% in southsouth

Struggles:Struggles: Faced hatred from Faced hatred from

whiteswhites Forced low wagesForced low wages

Other MigrationOther MigrationPost-WWI: European refugees to Post-WWI: European refugees to

AmericaAmericaLimited immigration in 1920s from Limited immigration in 1920s from

Europe and Asia.Europe and Asia.

Employers turned to Mexican and Employers turned to Mexican and Canadian immigrants to work.Canadian immigrants to work.As a result: barrios createdAs a result: barrios created

Spanish speaking neighborhoods.Spanish speaking neighborhoods.

THE TWENTIES WOMANTHE TWENTIES WOMAN After the tumult of After the tumult of World War I, World War I, Americans were Americans were looking for a little looking for a little fun in the 1920s.fun in the 1920s. Women were Women were independent and independent and achieving greater achieving greater freedoms.freedoms.

ie. right to vote, ie. right to vote, more employment, more employment, freedom of the autofreedom of the autoChicago

1926

THE FLAPPERTHE FLAPPER Challenged the Challenged the

traditional ways.traditional ways. Revolution of Revolution of

manners and manners and morals. morals.

A Flapper was an A Flapper was an emancipated emancipated young woman young woman who embraced the who embraced the new fashions and new fashions and urban attitudes.urban attitudes.

NEW ROLES FOR NEW ROLES FOR WOMENWOMEN

Many women entered the workplace as Many women entered the workplace as nurses, teachers, librarians, & nurses, teachers, librarians, & secretaries.secretaries.

Earned less than men and were Earned less than men and were prevented from obtaining certain jobs.prevented from obtaining certain jobs.

Early 20th Century teachers

THE CHANGING THE CHANGING AMERICAN FAMILYAMERICAN FAMILY

American American birthrates declinedbirthrates declined for several decades for several decades before the 1920s.before the 1920s.Trend continues in Trend continues in 1920s with 1920s with development of birth development of birth control.control.Margaret SangerMargaret Sanger

Birth control activistBirth control activist Founder of Founder of

American Birth American Birth Control LeagueControl League

ie. Planned ie. Planned ParenthoodParenthood

Margaret Sanger and other founders of the American Birth

Control League - 1921

MODERN MODERN FAMILY FAMILY

EMERGESEMERGES Marriage was Marriage was based on based on romantic romantic lovelove.. Women managed Women managed the household and the household and finances.finances. Children were not Children were not considered laborers/ considered laborers/ wage earners wage earners anymore.anymore.

Seen as developing Seen as developing children who children who needed nurturing needed nurturing and educationand education

PROHIBITIONPROHIBITION

PROHIBITIONPROHIBITION One example of One example of

the clash the clash between city & between city & farm was the farm was the passage of the passage of the 1818thth Amendment Amendment in 1920.in 1920. Launched era Launched era

known as known as ProhibitionProhibition

Made it illegal to Made it illegal to make, distribute, make, distribute, sell, transport or sell, transport or consume liquor.consume liquor.

Prohibition lasted from 1920 to 1933 when it was repealed

by the 21st Amendment

SUPPORT FOR SUPPORT FOR PROHIBITIONPROHIBITION

Reformers had Reformers had long believed long believed alcohol led to alcohol led to crime, child & wife crime, child & wife abuse, and abuse, and accidents accidents

Supporters were Supporters were largely from the largely from the rural south and rural south and westwest

Poster supporting prohibition

SPEAKEASIES AND SPEAKEASIES AND BOOTLEGGERSBOOTLEGGERS

Many Americans did not Many Americans did not believe drinking was a believe drinking was a sinsin

Most immigrant groups Most immigrant groups were not willing to give were not willing to give up drinkingup drinking

To obtain liquor, To obtain liquor, drinkers went drinkers went underground to hidden underground to hidden saloons known as saloons known as speakeasiesspeakeasies

People also bought People also bought liquor from liquor from bootleggers bootleggers who smuggled it in from who smuggled it in from Canada, Cuba and the Canada, Cuba and the West IndiesWest Indies

All of these activities All of these activities became closely affiliated became closely affiliated with …with … Speakeasies

ORGANIZED ORGANIZED CRIMECRIME

Prohibition contributed to Prohibition contributed to the growth of organized the growth of organized crime in every major citycrime in every major city

Al Capone –Al Capone – Chicago, IllinoisChicago, Illinois famous bootleggerfamous bootlegger ““Scarface”Scarface” 60 million yr (bootleg alone)60 million yr (bootleg alone)

Capone took control of the Capone took control of the Chicago liquor business by Chicago liquor business by killing off his competitionkilling off his competition Talent for avoiding jailTalent for avoiding jail 1931 sent to prision for tax-1931 sent to prision for tax-

evasion.evasion.Al Capone was finally convicted on tax evasion charges in 1931

RacketeeringRacketeering

Illegal business scheme to make Illegal business scheme to make profit.profit.Gangsters bribed police or gov’t officials.Gangsters bribed police or gov’t officials.Forced local businesses a fee for Forced local businesses a fee for

“protection”.“protection”.No fee - gunned down or businesses blown to No fee - gunned down or businesses blown to

bitsbits

St. Valentine’s Day MassacreSt. Valentine’s Day Massacre

Valentines Day – Valentines Day – February 14, 1929February 14, 1929

Rival between Al Rival between Al Capone and Bugs Capone and Bugs MoranMoran Capone – South Side Capone – South Side

Italian gangItalian gang Moran – North Side Irish Moran – North Side Irish

ganggang

Bloody murder of 7 of Bloody murder of 7 of Moran’s men.Moran’s men. Capone’s men dressed Capone’s men dressed

as copsas cops

GOVERNMENT FAILS GOVERNMENT FAILS TO CONTROL LIQUORTO CONTROL LIQUOR

Prohibition failed: Prohibition failed: Why? Government did Why? Government did

not budget enough not budget enough money to enforce the money to enforce the lawlaw

The task of enforcing The task of enforcing Prohibition fell to Prohibition fell to 1,500 poorly paid 1,500 poorly paid federal agents --- federal agents --- clearly an impossible clearly an impossible task!task!

Federal agents pour wine down a sewer

SUPPORT FADES, SUPPORT FADES, PROHIBITION REPEALEDPROHIBITION REPEALED

By the mid-1920s, By the mid-1920s, only 19% of only 19% of Americans supported Americans supported ProhibitionProhibition

Many felt Prohibition Many felt Prohibition caused more caused more problems than it problems than it solvedsolved What problems did it What problems did it

cause? cause? The 21The 21stst Amendment Amendment

finally finally repealed repealed Prohibition in 1933Prohibition in 1933

SCIENCE AND SCIENCE AND RELIGION CLASHRELIGION CLASH

Fundamentalists vs. Secular thinkersFundamentalists vs. Secular thinkers

The Protestant movement - literal interpretation The Protestant movement - literal interpretation of the bible is known as fundamentalismof the bible is known as fundamentalism

Fundamentalists Fundamentalists found all truth in the biblefound all truth in the bible – – including science & evolutionincluding science & evolution

SCOPES TRIALSCOPES TRIAL

In March 1925, In March 1925, Tennessee Tennessee passed the passed the nation’s first law nation’s first law that made it a that made it a crime to teach crime to teach evolutionevolution

The ACLU The ACLU promised to promised to defend any defend any teacher willing to teacher willing to challenge the law challenge the law –– John Scopes John Scopes did did

Scopes was a biology teacher who dared to teach his students that man

derived from lower species

SCOPES TRIALSCOPES TRIAL The ACLU hired The ACLU hired

Clarence Darrow, Clarence Darrow, the most famous the most famous trial lawyer of the trial lawyer of the era, to defend era, to defend ScopesScopes

The prosecution The prosecution countered with countered with William Jennings William Jennings Bryan, the three-Bryan, the three-time Democratic time Democratic presidential presidential nomineenominee

Darrow

Bryan

SCOPES TRIALSCOPES TRIAL Trial opened on July 10,1925 and became a national Trial opened on July 10,1925 and became a national

sensationsensation In an unusual move, In an unusual move, Darrow called Bryan to the Darrow called Bryan to the

standstand as an expert on the bible – key question: as an expert on the bible – key question: Should the bible beShould the bible be interpreted literally?interpreted literally?

Under intense questioning, Darrow got Bryan to Under intense questioning, Darrow got Bryan to admit that the bible can be interpreted in different admit that the bible can be interpreted in different waysways

Nonetheless, Scopes was found guilty and fined $100Nonetheless, Scopes was found guilty and fined $100

Bryan

Darrow

EDUCATION AND EDUCATION AND POPULAR POPULAR CULTURECULTURE

During the 1920s, During the 1920s, developments in developments in education had a education had a powerful impact on the powerful impact on the nation.nation.

Enrollment in high Enrollment in high schools quadrupledschools quadrupled between 1914 and between 1914 and 1926.1926.

Public schools met the Public schools met the challenge of educating challenge of educating millions of immigrantsmillions of immigrants

Mass MediaMass Media Increases in Mass media during the Increases in Mass media during the

1920s1920sPrint and broadcast methods of Print and broadcast methods of

communication.communication.Examples: Examples:

NewspapersNewspapersMagazinesMagazinesRadioRadioMoviesMovies

Newspapers:

27 million to 39 million

Increase of 42%

Motion Pictures:

40 million to 80 million

Increase of 100%

Radios:

60,000 to 10.2 million

Increase of 16,983%

EXPANDING NEWS EXPANDING NEWS COVERAGECOVERAGE

Literacy increased in Literacy increased in the 1920s…the 1920s…

as a result as a result Newspaper and Newspaper and

magazine circulation magazine circulation rose.rose.

By the end of the By the end of the 1920s…1920s… 10 American magazines 10 American magazines

-- including -- including Reader’s Reader’s Digest, Saturday Digest, Saturday Evening Post,Time – Evening Post,Time – boasted circulations of boasted circulations of over 2 million a year.over 2 million a year.

Tabloids createdTabloids created

RADIO COMES RADIO COMES OF AGEOF AGE

Although print media Although print media was popular, radio was popular, radio was the most powerful was the most powerful communications communications medium to emerge in medium to emerge in the 1920s.the 1920s.

News was delivered News was delivered faster and to a larger faster and to a larger audience.audience.

Americans could hear Americans could hear the voice of the the voice of the president or listen to president or listen to the World Series live.the World Series live.

ENTERTAINMENT AND ENTERTAINMENT AND ARTSARTS

Even before sound, Even before sound, movies offered a movies offered a means of escape means of escape through romance and through romance and comedycomedy ie. talkiesie. talkies

First sound movies: First sound movies: Jazz SingerJazz Singer (1927) (1927)

First animated with First animated with sound: sound: Steamboat Steamboat WillieWillie (1928)(1928)

By 1930By 1930 millions ofmillions of Americans went to Americans went to the movies each weekthe movies each week

Walt Disney's animated

Steamboat Willie marked the debut of Mickey Mouse. It was a seven minute long black and

white cartoon.

Icons of 1920sIcons of 1920s

LINDBERGH’S LINDBERGH’S FLIGHTFLIGHT Charles Lindbergh Charles Lindbergh

Nickname: “Lucky Lindy”Nickname: “Lucky Lindy”

May 27, 1927: Lindbergh May 27, 1927: Lindbergh made the first nonstop solo made the first nonstop solo trans-Atlantic flight.trans-Atlantic flight. Spirit of St. LouisSpirit of St. Louis

NYC - ParisNYC - Paris 33 ½ hours later – (no auto 33 ½ hours later – (no auto

pilot)pilot) $25,000 prize$25,000 prize

2yr old Son Charley 2yr old Son Charley kidnapped in 1932kidnapped in 1932 $50,000 ransom$50,000 ransom murderedmurdered

Amelia EarhartAmelia Earhart 1932: First female 1932: First female

to fly solo across to fly solo across the Atlanticthe Atlantic

1935: First person 1935: First person to fly from to fly from California to HawaiiCalifornia to Hawaii

1937: Attempt to 1937: Attempt to fly around the fly around the worldworld 2/3 completed and 2/3 completed and

went missing, went missing, presumed dead.presumed dead.

AMERICAN HEROES OF AMERICAN HEROES OF THE 20sTHE 20s

In 1929, Americans In 1929, Americans spent $4.5 billion on spent $4.5 billion on entertainment. entertainment. (includes sports)(includes sports)

People crowded into People crowded into baseball games to baseball games to see their heroessee their heroes

Babe RuthBabe Ruth was a was a larger than life larger than life American heroAmerican hero who who played for Yankeesplayed for Yankees

He hit 60 homers in He hit 60 homers in 1927.1927.

MUSIC OF THE 1920sMUSIC OF THE 1920s Famed composer Famed composer

George GershwinGeorge Gershwin merged traditional merged traditional elements with elements with American Jazz.American Jazz.

Someone to Watch Someone to Watch Over MeOver Me

Embraceable YouEmbraceable You I Got RhythmI Got Rhythm

Gershwin

EDWARD KENNEDY “DUKE” EDWARD KENNEDY “DUKE” ELLINGTONELLINGTON

In the late 1920s, In the late 1920s, Duke Ellington, Duke Ellington, a a jazz pianistjazz pianist and and composer, led his composer, led his ten-piece orchestra ten-piece orchestra at the famous at the famous Cotton Cotton Club.Club. Band: “The Band: “The

Washingtonians”Washingtonians” Ellington won Ellington won

renown as one of renown as one of America’s greatest America’s greatest composers.composers.

LOUIS LOUIS ARMSTRONGARMSTRONG

Jazz was born in the Jazz was born in the early 20early 20thth century century

In 1922, a young In 1922, a young trumpet player trumpet player named named Louis Louis ArmstrongArmstrong joined joined the Creole Jazz Band.the Creole Jazz Band.

Armstrong is Armstrong is considered the considered the most most important and important and influential musicianinfluential musician in the history of jazzin the history of jazz

BESSIE BESSIE SMITHSMITH

Bessie Smith, blues Bessie Smith, blues singer, was perhaps singer, was perhaps the the most most outstanding vocalistoutstanding vocalist of the decadeof the decade

She achieved She achieved enormous popularity enormous popularity and by 1927 she and by 1927 she became the became the highest- highest- paid black artist in paid black artist in the worldthe world

BILLIE HOLIDAYBILLIE HOLIDAY

Born Eleanora Fagan Born Eleanora Fagan GoughGough

One of the most One of the most recognizable voices of the recognizable voices of the 20s and 30s.20s and 30s. Embraceable YouEmbraceable You God Bless the ChildGod Bless the Child Strange FruitStrange Fruit

1920s DANCING1920s DANCING

CharlestonCharleston Swing DancingSwing Dancing Dance MarathonsDance Marathons

Walt DisneyWalt Disney Walt Disney only Walt Disney only

attended one year of attended one year of high school. high school.

He was the voice of He was the voice of Mickey Mouse for Mickey Mouse for two decades. two decades.

As a kid he loved As a kid he loved drawing and drawing and painting. painting.

He won 32 Academy He won 32 Academy Awards.Awards.

ART OF THE 1920sART OF THE 1920s

Georgia O’ KeeffeGeorgia O’ Keeffe captured the captured the grandeur of New grandeur of New York using York using intensely colored intensely colored canvasescanvases

Radiator Building, Night, New York , 1927

Georgia O'Keeffe

WRITERS OF WRITERS OF THE 1920sTHE 1920s

Writer F. Scott Writer F. Scott FitzgeraldFitzgerald coined coined the phrase “Jazz the phrase “Jazz Age” to describe Age” to describe the 1920sthe 1920s

Fitzgerald wroteFitzgerald wrote Paradise LostParadise Lost and and The Great GatsbyThe Great Gatsby

The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby reflected the reflected the emptiness of New emptiness of New York elite society York elite society

WRITERS OF THE WRITERS OF THE 19201920

Ernest Hemingway, Ernest Hemingway, became one became one of the best-known authors of of the best-known authors of the erathe era Wounded in World War IWounded in World War I

In his novels,In his novels, The Sun Also The Sun Also RisesRises and and AA Farewell to ArmsFarewell to Arms, , he he criticized the glorification of warcriticized the glorification of war Moves to Europe to escape the life Moves to Europe to escape the life

in the United States.in the United States. ““Lost Generation” (Gertrude Stein)Lost Generation” (Gertrude Stein)

Group of people disconnected from Group of people disconnected from their country and its values.their country and its values.

His simple, straightforward His simple, straightforward style of writing set the literary style of writing set the literary standard standard

Hemingway - 1929

THE HARLEM RENAISSANCETHE HARLEM RENAISSANCE Great MigrationGreat Migration

saw hundreds of saw hundreds of thousands of thousands of African Americans African Americans move north to move north to big big citiescities

1920:1920: 5 million of the 5 million of the

nation’s 12 million nation’s 12 million blacks (over 40%) blacks (over 40%) lived in citieslived in cities

Migration of the Negro by Jacob Lawrence

HARLEM, NEW YORKHARLEM, NEW YORK Harlem, NY became Harlem, NY became

the the largest black largest black urban communityurban community

Harlem suffered Harlem suffered from overcrowding, from overcrowding, unemployment and unemployment and povertypoverty

Home to literary and Home to literary and artistic artistic revival revival known as the known as the Harlem Renaissance Harlem Renaissance

LANGSTON LANGSTON HUGHESHUGHES

Missouri-born Missouri-born Langston HughesLangston Hughes was was the movement’s best the movement’s best known poetknown poet

Many of his poems Many of his poems described the described the difficult difficult lives of working-classlives of working-class blacksblacks ““Thank you Ma’am”Thank you Ma’am”

Some of his poems Some of his poems were were put to musicput to music, , especially jazz and especially jazz and bluesblues

Ku Klux KlanKu Klux Klan

Colonel William J SimmonsColonel William J Simmons Revived organization in 1915Revived organization in 1915 1922: enrollment 4 million1922: enrollment 4 million

Attacks against:Attacks against:African Americans, Catholics, Jews, African Americans, Catholics, Jews,

immigrants and others.immigrants and others.By night, whipped, beat and even killed.By night, whipped, beat and even killed.By 1927 Klan activity diminished once again.By 1927 Klan activity diminished once again.

AFRICAN AFRICAN AMERICAN GOALSAMERICAN GOALS

Founded in 1909, Founded in 1909, the the NAACPNAACP urged urged African Americans African Americans to protest racial to protest racial violenceviolence

W.E.B DuboisW.E.B Dubois, a , a founding member, founding member, led a march of led a march of 10,000 black men 10,000 black men in NY to protest in NY to protest violenceviolence

MARCUS GARVEY - MARCUS GARVEY - UNIAUNIA

Marcus Garvey believed Marcus Garvey believed that African Americans that African Americans should build a separate should build a separate society (Africa)society (Africa)

In 1914, Garvey founded In 1914, Garvey founded the Universal Negro the Universal Negro Improvement Association Improvement Association

Garvey claimed a million Garvey claimed a million members by the mid-members by the mid-1920s1920s Powerful legacy of black Powerful legacy of black

pride, economic pride, economic independence and Pan-independence and Pan-Africanism Africanism

Garvey represented a more radical approach