1996.roberts
TRANSCRIPT
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N ELSEVIER
Green Consumers in the 1990s: and Implications for Advertising James A. Roberts BAYLOR UNiVERSiTY
Profile
The passage of time and incipient change call .for another look at the demographic and attitudinal correlates of ecologically conscious consumer behavior (ECCB). As concern for the environment becomes a universal phenomenon, surely the profile of the ecologically conscious consumer has evolved along with this fundamental shift in public attitude. From the re- sponses of 582 adult consumers to a nationwide survey (n = 1,302), a profile of the ecologically conscious consumer was developed. The findings suggest that ecologically conscious consumers of the 1990s differ from their predecessors. Demographics explained only 6 % of the variation in the sample's ECCB. However, the addition of attitudinal variables increased R 2 to 45%. The consumers' belief&at they, as individuals, can help solve environmental problems (perceived consumer effectiveness) was found to be the best predictor ofECCB, j BUSN RES 1996. 36.217-231
O nce again there is renewed sensitivity toward the en- vironment and toward social consciousness. In contrast to the 1960s and 1970s, however, when the
emphasis went largely to political solutions to environmental and social ills, the current sensitivity focuses on consumer purchase behavior (Wells, 1990). Trend spotters and forward thinkers agree that the 1990s will be the green decade-that environmentalism will be a major worldwide force (Kirkpatrick, 1990). Recent surveys suggest that concerns for the environ- ment and society has mushroomed. For example, 79% of Americans consider themselves environmentalists, 82% state they have recycled, 83% state they have changed their shopping habits to help protect the environment, and 67% state they would be willing to pay 5 to 10% more for environmentally compatible products (Coddington, 1990).
Hume and Strand (1990) reported on a Gallup Poll of 1,000 randomly selected U.S. adults. They found that nine out of 10 respondents said they would be willing to make a special effort to buy products from companies trying to protect the environ- ment. As of 1992, 54% of Americans read labels to see if prod-
Address correspondence to James A. Roberts, Marketing Department, Baylor University, RO. Box 98007, Waco, TX 76798-8007.
Journal of Business Research 36, 217-231 (1996) 1996 Elsevier Science Inc. 655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010
ucts were environmentally safe, 57% sought products and packaging made from recycled materials, and 34% said they had boycotted a company that was careless toward the envi- ronment (Roper, 1992).
Vandermerwe and Oliff (1990) note the following shifts in consumer behavior that support the growth and diffusion of green marketing and ecologically conscious consumer behavior (ECCB):
Green products rapidly diffuse from small niche markets to mass markets. Wal-Mart, McDonald's, Coke, Procter and Gamble, Mobil and many others market "environmentally friendly" products and services (Advertising Age, 1991).
Large numbers of consumers profess a preference for green firms. Many state they are willing to pay more for green products and services. Social investing and the sale of green shopping guides and environmental magazines are additional proofs of the growth in the green market segment.
Consumers accept, even demand, recycled products. Hume and Strand (1990) found that concern for the en-
vironment appeared across all demographic categories. The range in demand for green products has widened,
from unbleached coffee filters to "environmentally friendly" diapers and biodegradable paint.
The number of new green product introductions has grown dramatically from 24 (0.5% of all new product in- troductions) in 1985 to 810 (13.4% of all new product introductions) in 1991 (Ottman, 1994).
Increased media coverage between 1984 and 1988 fore- shadowed this increase in environmental concern. Because the issues that receive the most attention on the news are espoused as the most important by the viewing public, this "agenda set- ting" capability of television news coverage can be a powerful factor for change. Studies indicate that media coverage can change the public's thought and behavior in as little as two weeks. The key factor is exposure. The more people know or are exposed to a particular event (e.g., environmental deterio- ration), the more they will act on that knowledge by lending
ISSN 0148-2963/96/$1500 SSDI 0148-2963(95)00150-6
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218 J Busn Res J.A. Roberts 1996:36:217-231
or withdrawing support. A Media Monitor study found that the number of network news stories on environmental issues dou- bled to 453 in 1989 over 1988, and that this increase triples the number of environmental stories in 1987 (Research Alert, 1990). According to theJ. Walter Thompson Advertising Agency (Greenwatch, 1991), the number of green television and print advertisements more than quadrupled between 1989 and 1990, from 41 to 212,
Not Everyone Sees "Green" in Green Marketing Despite the increase in environmental concern, the present sit- uation appears analogous to the "green" movement in England. Consumers professed their willingness to spend more for green products, but British supermarkets were overstocked with prod- ucts that the same consumers later claimed were too expensive (Pearce, 1990). A recent study by Simmons Market Research Bureau (1991), believed to be the first to link buying behavior with consumer attitudes on the environment, found that peo- ple in the U.S. do not actually buy the products they claim to prefer. High concern over the environment was found, but be- haviors consistent with such concern were lacking.
Berger and Corbin (1992) contend that this gap between attitude and behavior is reminiscent of the situation during the energy crisis of the late 1970s. Numerous studies found that attitudinal variables could not explain actual behaviors. Con- sumption in the U.S. has never been so high (Durning, 1990); yet, paradoxically, the U.S. public's concern for the environ- ment is also very high (Stisser, 1994). Many researchers cite reasons for this attitude-behavior gap:
Green products are too expensive (Magrath, 1992). Price, quality, and convenience are still the most impor-
tant decision factors; then green appeal may sway con- sumers. In other words, it can be a competitive advantage to have a green product, but not if the other factors are compromised (Ottman, 1994).
Cynicism is also a culprit. Only 30% of U.S. adults be- lieve comparative environmental competitive claims (Stisser, 1994). Until advertisers stop using gimmicks, there is little hope for consumerism to make a real contribution to a better environment (Pearce, 1990).
Consumers are confused about green products (Carlson et al., 1992; Schlossberg, 1991).
Businesses hesitate to offer green products because of strict state enforcement of deceptive claims and because of scru- tiny from various environmental organizations (Magrath, 1992).
Ultimately, we must investigate consumer behavior because it is such behavior, not expressed concern, that will help correct the problems currently facing the environment and create mar- kets for green products and services.
Objectives Much of the research into the demographic and attitudinal corre- lates of ECCB took place in the early 1970s. Recent surveys suggest that environmental concern has mushroomed in the last several years. The passage of time and incipient change in public attitudes toward the environment require a profile that identifies the ecologically conscious consumer of the 1990s. It is probable that fundamental shifts in public concern for the environment have changed the type of consumer who holds such attitudes. No longer do green concerns affect only the af- fluent. However, expressed concern does not translate directly into consumer behavior; advertisers must be able to locate and understand the ecologically conscious consumer market segment.
This study's objectives are based on the belief that the demo- graphic and attitudinal characteristics of the ecologically con- scious consumer have changed. A second precipitating factor for the present research is that although environmental con- cern has become something of a populist notion, only a subset of the environmentally concerned segment acts on these new attitudes in the consumer marketplace. Thus, this study's pri- mary objective is the elucidation of the demographic and at- titudinal correlates of the subset who perform ECCBs.
Demographic characteristics were included in the present analysis because they are commonly used as market segmenta- tion criteria and in planning mass communication efforts. At- titudinal variables are investigated because they are valuable as input into the creative process. Without an accurate profile of the ecologically conscious consumer of the 1990s, attempts to reach this segment will fail.
A second objective will be to discuss the implications for advertisers that arise from an improved understanding of the demographic and attitudinal profile of the ecologically conscious consumer. Current advertising and marketing efforts that rely upon past research overlook fundamental changes in the pro- file of the green consumer.
A third objective will be to estimate the size of the market segment(s) for ecologically conscious products and services. Recent research suggests that consumers react differently to green appeals and that the opportunity exists for marketers to practice differentiated marketing, selling different products with different appeals to different segments.
Literature Review Demographic Correlates of ECCB Previous attempts to profile the socially/ecologically responsi- ble consumer have provided inconsistent results (see Table 1). These results may derive from: (1) overuse of borrowed scales from other disciplines, (2) disparate operationalizations of th~ dependent variable "socially responsible consumption," (3) use of convenience samples, (4) poor scale construction and test- ing, and (5) lack of replication. The confluence of these factors
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Green Consumers in the 1990s J Busn Res 219 1996:36:217-231
has resulted in what can be termed a schizophrenic profile of the demographic characteristics of the green consumer. These listed shortcomings have allowed the green consumer to re- main a mystery; this hinders our understanding of a poten- tially valuable segment of society.
Despite the inconsistency of earlier findings concerning the demographic correlates of ECCB, marketers have adopted an upscale profile of the ecologically conscious consumer: high income, more education, and prestigious occupation (see Ta- ble 1). However, the green consumer of the 1990s cannot be so narrowly defined. When public opinion on an issue like en- vironmental concern changes so dramatically as in the shifts noted earlier, we must expect changes in the demographic bases of opinion. In addition, the potential gap between attitude and behavior requires a closer look at the role demographics can play in identifying the ecologically conscious consumer.
Selected Attitudinal Correlates of ECCB In addition to the methodological concerns, the passage of time and subsequent cultural changes require further investigation into the attitudes of the ecologically conscious consumer. The following proposed correlates have exhibited the most prom- ise and descriptive power.
Perceived Consumer Effectiveness (PCE) Perceived consumer effectiveness is a measure of the subject's judgment in the ability of individual consumers to affect en- vironmental resource problems (Antil, 1978). Webster (1975) found that this variable was the only one of 10 independent variables to be a significant predictor for all three of his depen- dent variables. Kinnear et aL (1974) found that when consumers perceive that individuals can be increasingly effective in pollu- tion abatement, they will show more concern for the envi- ronment.
Both Tucker (1978) and Henion (1976) found consumers with an internal locus of control (conceptually similar to high perceived consumer effectiveness) exhibited a greater tendency to show socially responsible attitudes and behavior. Webster ( 1975) found that the socially conscious consume r feels strongly that he or she can do something about pollution and tries to consider the social impact of his or her purchases. Current re- search (Berger and Corbin, 1992; Weiner and Doescher, 1991) indicates that consumers' levels of PCE do affect their likeli- hood of performing ECCBs. Despite these results, further re- search is needed to investigate the relationship between PCE and ECCB. Public opinion on self-efficacy may have changed as a result of increased media coverage of environmental dis- asters and a heightened sense that environmental problems are large and complex and should be the responsibility of govern- ment and big business (Maibach, 1993).
HI: Perceived consumer effectiveness will positively affect the performance of ecologically conscious consumer be- haviors.
Liberalism Democrats and liberals are more concerned about environmen- tal quality than are their Republican and conservative counter- parts (Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980). The rise of widespread public support for environmental reform in the late 1960s and 1970s led to the argument that environmental concern tran- scended political affiliations. Recent studies, however, have ques- tioned the consensus quality of environmental politics. Sup- port for environmental reform varies by political groupings (Samdahl and Robertson, 1989).
Dunlap (1975) noted three reasons to expect a split along traditional ideological and partisan lines: (1) environmental re- forms generally are opposed by business and industry because of the costs involved; (2) environmental reforms entail extend- ing government activities and regulations; and (3) environmental reforms often require innovative action.
Noting traditional Republican-Conservative favoritism to- ward business, opposition to big government, and suspicion of drastic change, it is hypothesized that there will be signifi- cant differences in environmental concern between liberals and conservatives. In studies where measures of liberalism have been included, they have been found to be positively related to en- vironmental concern (Anderson and Cuningham, 1972; An- derson et al., 1974; Crosby et al., 1980; Mitchell, 1983; Tog- nacci et al., 1972; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1981). Time, however, has turned "liberalism on its head." With the new role of Repub- licans as change agents, the relationship between liberalism and environmental concern and consumer behavior has been diluted. It appears that conservatives are now as likely to seek change as liberals in many venues. Environmental issues may be one such venue.
H2: A consumer's degree of liberalism will positively affect his or her performance of ecologically conscious con- sumer behaviors.
Environmental Concern (EC) Ecological (Kinnear et al., 1974) and environmental (Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980, 1981) concern have often been used as sur- rogates for social responsibility. That ecologically conscious con- sumers will score higher on a measure of environmental con- cern should not be a great surprise. These concepts are closely related, and one would expect that if one is concerned about the environment, this concern may lead to more ECCB (Antil, 1984). Lepisto (1974) found environmental concern to be a significant predictor of ECCB, positing that the more attractive the environment, the more an altruistic act is likely to be per- formed. However, as stated earlier, a general increase in en- vironmental concern across the population strongly suggests that this important relationship be investigated. Only a small portion of U.S. consumers act on these concerns in the market- place. As Maibach (1993) points out, environmental concern may be high, but many consumers feel that preservation of the environment is the responsibility of government and/or big
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222 J Bush Res J.A. Roberts 1996:36:217-231
business, or that the costs of complying are too high. Price, qual- ity, convenience, and consumer cynicism and confusion over environmental claims all may intervene between environmen- tal concern and consumer behavior.
H3: Environmental concern will positively affect the per- formance of ecologically conscious consumer behaviors.
Methodology Sample The scale used to measure ECCB was sent as part of a question- naire to a random (cluster) sample of 1,503 adult U.S. consumers (Roberts, 1991). The USA was divided into six typical test- market regions (Moskowitz, Katz, and Levering, 1983). One city from each region was chosen from a list of cities consid- ered representative of the typical consumers in each region. Zip codes were then randomly selected from each city, and respondents were selected at random from each zip code. The sample was designed so that results could be generalized to the U.S. adult consumer population.
Of the 1,302 deliverable questionnaires, a total of 605 usa- ble responses was returned, a response rate of 46%. Of the 605 questionnaires, 23 were returned after the present study had begun and were not included in the analysis. The encouraging response rate is the result of the use of multiple mailings and the current interest in environmental issues.
Sample Characteristics The average age of the sample was 49 years old with a standard deviation of 17 years. Sex was equally balanced, and good vari- ation was found for the remaining characteristics of education, income, and occupation (see Table 2 for selected subject char- acteristics).
A X 2 goodness-of-fit test was used to compare the present sample's demographic distribution to that of the population. The results of this analysis show the sample is similar to the U.S. population in regard to its age, income, and composition of males and females (see Table 2). This finding, combined with the results of a check for nonresponse bias (reported next), pro- vides support for the generalizability of the study's findings.
Nonresponse Bias Check Although a secondary objective, a sample's representativeness of the population from which it was drawn should be assessed. In addition to the previous X 2 analysis, a procedure suggested by Armstrong and Overton (1977) for gauging nonresponse bias was used. The procedure consists of comparing the char- acteristics and responses of early respondents (first 67% re- ceived) to late respondents (last 33% received) through t-tests of mean values. Variables included in this procedure consisted of education, occupation, age, sex, income, and score on the ECCB scale. This check for nonresponse bias rests on the as- sumption that late respondents are more similar to nonrespon- dents. Of the five demographic characteristics investigated, only
Table 2. Selected Subject Characteristics of National Sample
Percentage of Percentage of Characteristics Sample Population a X 2
Sex
Male 495 48.8 Female 50.5 51.2 0.02
Age 20-24 5 11 25-29 9 11 30-34 10 12 35-44 23 22 45-54 16 14 55-64 14 12 65 or over 23 18 6.02
Education Not a high school
graduate 5 21 High school graduate 24 37 Some college 35 25 College degree 23 12 Master's degree 10 4 Doctorate 3 1 43.8@
Income
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Table 3. ECCB Scale Items and Factor Loadings a
Correlation with
Factor 1 Factor 2
1. I normally make a conscious effort to limit my use of products that are made of or use scarce resources.
2. 1 always try to use electric appliances (e.g., dishwasher, washer, and dryer) before 10 a.M. and after 10 P.M.
3. 1 will not buy products that have excessive packaging. 4. When there is a choice, I always choose the product that contributes to the least amount of
pollution. 5. If I understand the potential damage to the environment that some products can cause, I do
not purchase these products. 6. I have switched products for ecological reasons. 7. I use a recycling center or in some way recycle some of my household trash. 8. 1 make every effort to buy paper products made from recycled paper. 9. I use a low-phosphate detergent (or soap) for my laundry.
10. I have convinced members of my family or friends not to buy some products that are harmful to the environment.
11. 1 have purchased products because they cause less pollution. 12. I do not buy products in aerosol containers. 13. Whenever possible, I buy products packaged in reusable containers. 14. When 1 purchase products, I always make a conscious effort to buy those products that are
low in pollutants. 15. When 1 have a choice between two equal products, I always purchase the one less harmful
to other people and the environment. 16. 1 will not buy a product if the company that sells it is ecologically irresponsible. 17. 1 buy toilet paper made from recycled paper. 18. I buy kleenex made from recycled paper. 19. I buy paper towels made from recycled paper. 20. 1 try only to buy products that can be recycled. 21. To reduce our reliance on foreign oil, I drive my car as little as possible. 22. I do not buy household products that harm the environment. 23. To save energy, I drive my car as little as possible. 24. I try to buy energy efficient household appliances. 25. I have tried very hard to reduce the amount of electricity 1 use. 26. 1 have purchased a household appliance because it uses less electricity than other brands. 27. I have replaced light bulbs in my home with those of smaller wattage so that 1 will conserve
on the electricity I use. 28. I have purchased light bulbs that were more expensive but saved energy. 29. 1 usually purchase the lowest priced product, regardless of its impact on society, b 30. 1 buy high efficiency light bulbs to save energy.
0.72
0.52 0.62
0.80
0.74 0.81 0.64 0.83 0.64
0.77 0.84 0.66 0.77
0.87
0.79 0.61 0.70 0.66 0.73 0.84 0.63 0.74 0.50 0.46 0.51 0.47
0.57 O.50
0.48
0.33
0.39 0.47 0.41 0.55
0.41 0.53
0.58
" Only' factor loadings of 0.3 or higher are reported. This item did not load on either factor at the 4-_ 0 3 level or h igher
ance, included a variety of consumer behaviors whose intent was to protect the environment. The second factor contained eight items and explained 6% of the variance. From an exami- nation of these eight items, it is clear they share a common object ive-sav ing money. These items were removed resulting
in a 22-item measure of ECCB. Coefficient alpha for the 22-
Table 4. Results of Factor Analysis of ECCB Scale
Factor Eigenvalue Percent of Variance
1 13.77 45.9 2 1.89 6.3
item scale was 0.96. The response categories were in a 5-point Likert-type format anchored by "always true" (5) and "never true" (1) as relevant to the given behavior. Higher scores indi- cate greater levels of ECCB.
A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to test for dis- criminant validity among PCE, EC, liberalism, and ECCB. A full model was estimated with each of the four factors correlating freely. One by one each of the factor intercorrelations (phi's, in LISREL 7) was fixed to 1.0, and related intercorrelations were set equal (e.g., when phi{l,2} = 1.0, phi{l,3} = phi{2,3} and phi{l,4} = phi{2,4}). Each of these restricted, nested models was then compared to the full model via a X 2 difference test. All of these restricted models resulted in significantly poorer fits, with the closest occurr ing when the correlation between
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PCE and ECCB was fixed at one, but even this resulted in a significant reduction in fit (X 2 with three degrees of freedom = 58.11, p < .0000). Thus, the constructs do appear to be distinct.
Independent Measures The three individual difference variables used in the present study were perceived consumer effectiveness, liberalism, and environmental concern (see Appendix for individual scale items). Six demographic measures were also included.
1. Perceived consumer effectiveness is a measure of the sub- ject's judgment in the ability of individual consumers to affect environmental/resource problems (Antil, 1978). Previous research has found PCE to be a valid construct with the ability to distinguish between high and low eco- logically conscious consumers (Antil, 1978; Kinnear et al., 1974; Webster, 1975). The scale included four Likert- type items. Alpha for the scale = 0.72.
2. Liberalism is a political ideology that falls on the "left" dimension of the broad left-right cleavage. The scale in- cluded six Likert-type items. Alpha for the scale = 0.80.
3. Environmental concern is a measure of the individual's concern for the environment. The 12-item new environ- mental paradigm (NEP) scale was originally developed by Dunlap and Van Liere (1978) and later tested by Noe and Snow (1990). After extensive testing, Noe and Snow (1990) concluded the NEP scale was an advanced tool for measuring environmental concern. The scale includes 12 Likert-type items. Alpha for the scale = 0.84.
The demographic variables of age, sex, education, income, and occupational prestige were utilized as independent vari- ables in developing a profile of the ecologically conscious con- sumer. These were the standard demographic measures for such variables. The measure of occupation measured the "prestige" of the respondent's occupation. The scale was developed in the sociology literature using regression analysis and can be con- sidered interval in nature. This makes it appropriate for use in regression analyses.
Method of Analysis The primary method of analysis was a hierarchical model of multiple regression using the ECCB scale as the dependent vari- able. The attitudinal and demographic variables were used as predictor variables in developing a profile of the ecologically conscious consumer. The initial regression analysis included only the demographic variables. The full model included both the demographic and attitudinal variables as predictors of ECCB.
Results The results of the regression analyses can be found in Tables 5, 6, and 7. Table 5 contains a correlation matrix of the vari- ables used in the regression analyses.
As can be seen in Table 6, sex, income, education, and age were found to be significant predictors of ECCB. Women scored higher on the dependent measure. Age and education were posi- tively correlated and income negatively correlated with ECCB. However, R 2 was only 6%. The question remains whether the statistically significant relationship found between certain demo- graphics and ECCB is manageriallly significant?
The next regression analyses involved the addition of PCE, EC, and liberalism into the regression equation. The results of this regression can be found in Table 7. It is apparent that the addition of the attitudinal variables aids greatly in explaining variation in ECCB. W jumped from 0.06 to 0.45. Age, sex, and income were the only significant demographic predictors of ECCB in the full model. PCE is by far the most effective variable in explaining variation in the sample's ECCB. In a separate step- wise regression analysis, using all the demographic and attitu- dinal variables, PCE entered into the equation first and explained 33% of the variation in ECCB. The next most important vari- ables (in order) included environmental concern, age, liberal- ism, income, and sex.
Discussion Demographic Analysis Earlier research into the demographic correlates of ECCB provided mixed results. An upscale profile of the ECC (high income, education, and occupation) was suggested by many (Anderson and Cunningham, 1972; Berkowitz and Lutterman, 1968; Balderjahn, 1988; Cornwell and Schwepker, Jr., 1992; McEvoy, 1972; Tognacci et al., 1972; Webster, 1975). Very few studies (Antil, 1978; Kassarjian, 1971) found demographics in- effective in distinguishing between differing levels of ECCB. A recent poll conducted by the Roper organization (1992) found evidence that ecologically conscious consumers are likely to be more educated, earn more money, and be female. Balder- jahn (1988) also argued that the ecologically conscious con- sumer belongs to the upper social classes. Although the Roper poll, Balderjahn, and earlier studies that developed an upscale profile of the ecologically conscious consumer have a certain intuitive appeal, the present research found no support for ECCB as the domain of a privileged few.
During the present research, five demographic variables were included in the analysis (sex, age, income, education, and oc- cupation). Of these, age, sex, education, and income were found to be significantly related to ECCB. No significant relationship appeared between occupation and ECCB. In addition to this, income was negatively related to ECCB. An R 2 of 0.06 casts doubt on the efficacy of demographics in distinguishing between those exhibiting differing levels of ECCB.
The following discusses, interprets, and-where possible- explains the descriptive power of the demographics results. Nonsignificant findings are discussed because of the importance these have in developing a complete profile of the ecologically conscious consumer.
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Table 5. Correlation Matrix of Variables Used in Regression Analyses
Correlation (# of Cases) ECCB Age Sex Education Occupation Income SES PCE EC Liberalism
ECCB 1.0 Age 0.08 a 1.0
(544) Sex 0.17 b -0.108 1.0
(555) (581) Education -0.01 -0.20 b -0.118 1.0
(548) (569) (570) Occupation -0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.548
(547) (567) (568) (568) Income -0.17 b -0.178 -0.17 b 0.358
(537) (557) (558) (559) SES -0.10 a -0.188 -0.138 0.818
(530) (549) (550) (554) PCE 0.588 -0.138 0.148 0.11 b
(548) (566) (567) (557) EC 0.47 b -0.08 a 0.09 a 0.04
(531) (549) (550) (539) Liberalism 0.318 -0.06 0.16 b 0.16 b
(537) (558) (559) (550)
1.0
1.0 (557)
0.80 b 0.72 b (554) (554)
0.06 0.03 (556) (546) -0.018 -0.12 (538) (528) -0.23 b -0.35 b (551) (544)
1.0
0.08 a 1.0 (539) -0.04 0.438 (521) (540) -0.34 b 0.168 (539) (548)
1.0
0.39 b (533)
1.0
a p < .05. 6 p < .01.
Age and ECCB Age was significantly related to ECCB in all analyses. Older con- sumers performed more ECCBs. Dychtwald and Gable (1990) offered a possible explanation for such a finding. Middle age was found to be a time when personal and social responsibili- ties peak. Middle age is also typically a period when donations to charity rise, another indication of people's increased sense of involvement and responsibility in their communities.
A second explanation for a positive relationship between age and ECCB could be cohort differences. Samdahl and Robert- son (1989) agree that the effect of age lies in cohort effects, rather than biological maturity, but are uncertain whether older co- horts reflect the "depression-era" ethic of conservation (as their study supported), or whether younger cohorts demonstrate an increased socialization into environmental awareness as sug- gested by Mohai and Twight (1987). Keep in mind that the con-
Table 6. Results of Regression Analysis - Demographic Variables (Dependent Variable - ECCB)
Regression Variable Coefficient Beta Significance
Sex 0.28 0.17 0.0001 Income -0.049 -0.15 0.0018 Education 0.083 0.12 0.0269 Age 0.005 0.09 0.0308 Occupation -0.013 -0.06 0.2601
tribution of age (although significant) in explaining ECCB was limited. This calls into question the efficacy of using age as a variable by which to segment the market for ecologically con- scious products and services.
Sex and ECCB In every analysis, females performed more ECCBs. This is con- sistent with Eagly's (1987) social role theory, current subscrip- tion rates for environmental magazines, and research by the Roper organization (1992) that found females contributing a majority of the two most environmentally concerned consumer groups. It seems likely that gender-role expectations and the
Table 7. Results of Regression Analysis - Full Model (Dependent Variable - ECCB)
Regression Variable Coefficient Beta Significance
Attitudinal variables PCE 0.179 0.48 < 0.0001 EC 0.023 0.19 < 0.0001 Liberalism 0.022 0.13 0.0010
Demographic variables Age 0.008 0.17 < 0.0001 Sex O. 128 0.08 0.0247 Income -0.027 -0.08 0.0292 Education 0.040 0.06 O. 1688 Occupation -0.009 -0.04 0.3057
R 2 - 0.06, f = 7.29, Sig
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acquisition of sex-typed skills and beliefs (Eagly, 1987) lead women to consider the impact of their decisions on others more often than do males. This gender gap is particularly important because women still do more of the household shopping (Schwartz and Miller, 1991).
Income and ECCB Finding a negative relationship between income and ECCB casts doubt on the theory of the ecologicallly conscious consumer belonging to the upperclass. Environmental deterioration may have reached the point where consumers from the lower so- cioecQnmic strata are becoming involved. Increased media coverage of such deterioration may have prompted these groups to act. This finding contradicts most existing research. Antil (1978) and Kassarjian (1971) found no relationship between income and ECCB. Some caution must be advised in interpret- ing this study's findings because of the relatively small amount of variance explained by the income variable. Although statisti- cally significant, it explained only 2% of the variation in the dependent variable in a separate step-wise regression analysis.
Education, Occupation, and ECCB A significant relationship appeared between ECCB and one's level of education. This supports the majority of studies in this area that have found a positive relationship between education and environmental Concern and/or ECCB. However, when at- titudinal variables were entered into the regression equation, education became nonsignificant as a predictor of ECCB. Al- though a statistically significant relationship appeared between education and ECCB in the initial regression, the managerial significance of the relationship is questionable. Research by Kas- sarjian (1971) and Antil (1984) found that education and/or occupation were not significant predictors of ECCB. Occupa- tion was not significantly related to ECCB in any of the analy- ses. It is possible that as the media devote more time to en- vironmental issues, and as consumers increasingly confront environmental blight, ECCB may transcend socioeconomic cat- egories.
Attitudinal Analysis Consistent both with logic and with the findings of many others (Antil, 1978; Anderson and Cunningham, 1972; Berger and Corbin, 1992; Ellen et al., 1991; Kinnear et al., 1974; Kassar- jian, 1971) attitudinal variables have been found to predict or explain ECCB better than demographic measures. The present study supports such a contention. R 2 increased from a high of 6% with use of demographics only to 45% with the inclusion of attitudinal variables. The hypothesized attitudinal correlates of ECCB will be discussed in order of their importance in ex- plaining variation in the sample's ECCB.
Perceived Consumer Effectiveness and ECCB A separate step-wise regression analysis for the present study found that 33% of the variation in ECCB can be explained by
the variable PCE. Perceived consumer effectiveness was a highly significant predictor variable and had the highest beta coeffi- cient in the full-model regression analysis. This supports ear- lier findings by Antil (1978), Kinnear et al. (1974), and Webster (1975). The more people believe they can abate environmental resource problems, the more they are likely to perform ECCBs. On the other hand, consumers who do not believe they can effectively fight environmental deterioration are unlikely to per- form ECCBs.
Environmental Concern and ECCB EC explained an additional 5% of the variation in the sample's ECCB in the step-wise regression analysis. It should not be sur- prising that ecologically conscious consumers will score higher on a measure of EC than those not so environmentally con- cerned. The surprise lies in EC's second-place ranking as a descriptor of ECCB. It appears that one's judgment of the indi- vidual's ability to abate environmental destruction (PCE) ex- plains more of why a person performs ECCBs than does one's concern for the environment itself. Upon further reflection, it seems logical that if people feel they can have a positive impact on any situation, they are more likely to act. If people are con- cerned about the environment, but feel that their actions can- not cause change, they will be less likely to participate in such activities.
Liberalism and ECCB Liberalism's power in explaining ECCB was limited. One's de- gree of liberalism explained only an additional 2% of variation in the respondents' ECCB. Democrats and liberals have histor- ically been more concerned about environmental and social issues than their Republican and conservative counterparts. Dunlap (1975) noted three reasons to expect a split along tradi- tional ideological lines: (1) environmental reforms generally are opposed by business and industry because of the costs involved; (2) environmental and social reforms entail an extension of gov- ernmental activities and regulations; and (3) environmental re- forms often require innovative action. Given traditional Republican-Conservative favoritism toward business, opposi- tion to big government, and suspicion of drastic change, one expects differences in environmental concern between liberals and conservatives. The belief that liberals are more prone to act in an ecologically conscious manner is supported in the pres- ent study.
Advertising Implications Market Segmentation Strategy A major implication for marketers is that a segment of ECCs exists in a size large enough to warrant their attention (see Ta- ble 8). Of equal importance, a substantial segment that exhibits little or no concern about the environment also exists. This is consistent with recent surveys by the Roper organization (1990, 1992). Roper (1992) found that approximately 20% of the U.S.
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Table 8. Breakdown of the Sample's Average Score in the ECCB Scale (n - 558)
Average Score % of Sample
1 -1.49 3.9 1.5-1.99 6.5 2.0-2.49 ll.5 2.5-2.99 20.3 3.0-3.49 23.5 3.5-3.99 18.6 4.0-4.49 11.5 4.5-5.0 4.3
All quest ions were recorded on the fol lowing 5-point scale as it related to the re- spondent 's consumer behavior: 1 - never true; 2 - rarely true: 3 - somet imes true;
4 = mostly true; 5 - always t rue Note: A higher score designates a h igher level of ECCB
population are considered "true-blue" greens. These people hold strong pro-environmental beliefs and live them. They are three times more likely than other consumers to avoid buying prod- ucts from companies with questionable environmental reputa- tions, and twice as likely to buy green products. Approximately 16% of the present sample "mostly" to "always" performed var- ious ECCBs. Approximately 42% of the sample "sometimes" to "mostly" performed various ECCBs. This group appears simi- lar to Roper's "Sprouts" who engage in pro-environmental be- haviors but are less willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products and services.
With approximately 90 million households in the U.S., the size of these two groups provides a significant market segment for purveyors of ecologically conscious products and services. On the other end of the continuum, 42% of the present sample "never," "rarely," or "sometimes" performed ECCBs. These groups find their equivalents in the "Grousers" or "Basic-Browns" iden- tified in the Roper (1992) survey, and provide evidence that an ample segment of society takes little notice of how their con- sumer spending affects the environment. There appears to be an opportunity for marketers to successfully practice differen- tiated marketing, selling different products with different ap- peals to different segments.
The relative weak showing of demographic correlates of ECCB suggests that dealing with ECCB is a complex problem. The market segments are still not well defined, especially in terms of demographic variables, more commonly used as ini- tial criteria in segmenting markets and planning mass commu- nication efforts. However, females and older consumers seem somewhat more receptive to environmental claims in product advertising. Income's negative relationship with ECCB suggests that marketers and researchers may hold misconceptions about the economic status of green consumers. Keep in mind that in- come only accounts for 1% of unique variance in ECCB. The managerial significance of this relationship is suspect and re- quires additional study. The lack of a relationship between ECCB and level of education or occupational prestige (in the full
model), and the inverse relationship of income and ECCB, sug- gests that the market for these types of products is widening.
The weak or nonexistent associations depicted between the demographic variables and ECCB provide important informa- tion for advertisers and marketers. The inability of demo- graphics to explain ECCB suggests that ECCB may not be a general behavioral pattern, but one that is behavior-specific. This is consistent with the findings of Balderjahn (1988) who found that each ECCB has its own cluster of predictors.
As stated by Pickett et al. (1993), public policy-makers must exercise caution when attempting to extend environmental in- itiatives from one environmentally conscious behavior to an- other. For example, those consumers who purchase recycled paper products may not be the same consumers who purchase low-phosphate detergents.
Kassarjian (1971 ) may have assessed the situation correctly nearly 20 years ago. He concluded that it would be best to gauge consumer behavior by examining attitudes toward a particular issue-e.g., buying recycled paper products. He rejected seg- menting the market based on demographic characteristics when attempting to locate the segment of the market that would be most receptive to environmentally based claims.
Message Strategy Advertising directed toward the ecologically conscious con- sumer market segment would be advised to stress the ability of the individual consumer to fight environmental deteriora- tion. PCE contributed the most (33%) to explaining variation in the sample's ECCB. The most striking aspect of the relation- ship between PCE and ECCB is that a person's concern for the environment (R 2 = 5%) is not nearly as important in explain- ing ECCB as is PCE.
New communication strategies must be identified in order to motivate consumers to shop in an ecologically conscious man- ner. A common approach has been to use a sick baby appeal as a basis for communications in social marketing. The sick baby appeal focuses on the importance of the issue and the severity of the need for help (Fine, 1990; Obermfller, 1992). Ellen et al. (1991) and Fine (1990) propose that for some is- sues for which level of concern is already high (e.g., environ- mental concern), the sick baby appeal may reduce perceived consumer effectiveness ("It's so bad, I can't do anything about it"). The suggested communication strategy is a well baby ap- peal, which stresses the significance of individual action and includes information about the specific actions that would help solve the problem. The advertiser must provide regular, posi- tive feedback that shows individuals are making a difference and that reinforces behavior through focusing on consumer suc- cesses rather than failures (Ellen et al., 1991). It must be em- phasized that the goal will be achieved (Weiner and Doescher, 1991). This approach should bolster levels of PCE and hence, ECCB.
Because of the global scope of environmental problems and the tendency for the individual consumer to feel overwhelmed,
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promotional campaigns that exhort "Think globally-act locally" have emerged. Based upon this study's findings, this type of appeal should be effective in enhancing PCE and thus, behavior. Scope reduction from global to local (Fine, 1990; Wiener and Doescher, 1991) has been advocated as an effective strategy when dealing with a host of social concerns.
With the current high levels of concern for the environment across the population, the potential benefit from enhancing con- cern may be illusory. Many scholars have suggested that the major promotional task is to induce people to act on their con- cern (Gill, Crosby, and Taylor, 1986; Vining and Ebreo, 1990). This is consistent with the ongoing shift of advertising dollars from mass media advertising efforts to consumer sales promo- tions and direct response advertising (Nowak and Phelps, 1994). Integrated marketing/advertising efforts that stress communi- cation and behavioral objectives concurrently seem particularly appropriate in the present situation. It is suggested that adver- tisers use blended communications that have elements of both brand/image advertising and also include response devices such as mail-in promotional offers, 800/900 telephone numbers, ex- plicit offers, premiums, and coupons. These blended efforts en- able advertisers to directly measure the behavioral effects of a marketing/advertising communication effort. Advertisers at- tempting to encourage ECCB have several blended strategies from which to choose. Because of the strength of the relation- ship between PCE and ECCB, advertising communications that show individuals making a difference in combating environ- mental ills that include a direct response device are more likely to solicit the desired behavior change. A second strategy would be to increase or reignite already high levels of environmental concern and then provide a direct response device for acting on that concern.
A review of pertinent green literature offers additional in- sights when constructing communication strategies directed to- ward green consumers. Advertising must be believable as cyni- cism grows regarding ecological claims. As many as 47% of consumers do not believe ecological claims used in advertising (Fierman, 1991). Only 30% of U.S. adults believe comparative environmental claims (Stisser, 1994). Advertisers are also warned to make only claims that can be substantiated. Environ- mental lobbies have been known to attack false or poorly documented claims laeding to negative backlash and contribut- ing to consumer confusion (Magrath, 1992). This situation is worsened by the fact that (in many circumstances) there is no universal agreement as to what is best for the environment.
Although liberalism was found to be positively related to ECCB, its low explanatory power (W ~ 2%) calls into ques- tion the efficacy of using liberal themes in environmental ad- vertising. Republicans and conservatives have become more supportive of spending on the environment through the 1980s
(Howell and Laska, 1992). It appears that as ECCB cuts across socioeconomic boundaries, the relationship between liberal- ism and ECCB will continue to weaken.
Conclusion The major contributions of this study were the investigation of the potential demographic and attitudinal correlates of ECCB in the 1990s and the subsequent discussion of the implications for advertisers of ecologically conscious products and services.
Past results based on poorly conceptualized or questionably valid scales, coupled with the passage of time and incipient change, clearly called for a recasting of past analyses of the demo- graphic and attitudinal correlates of ECCB. The increase in media coverage of environmental deterioration, both locally and globally; the recent influx of "environmentally compatible" prod- ucts to the marketplace; and the integration of ecological issues into both our educational and political systems suggest that the traditional profile of the ecologically conscious consumer may be outdated. All of these developments have no doubt sensi- tized the American public to the plight of the environment and call into question the formerly accepted efficacy of demographics as predictors of ECCB.
The strength of the relationship found between PCE and ECCB has important advertising implications. The effect of en- vironmental concern on ECCB (though significant) was slight, which suggests that other factors play a more important role in explaining a consumer's likelihood of performing such be- haviors. It still appears that price, quality, convenience, and value are the most important buying criteria (Fierman, 1991; Magrath, 1992; Mandese, 1991; Stisser, 1994; Whittemore, 1991).
To date, PCE has been identified as the most promising vari- able in explaining variation in ECCB. Future research should focus on the possible antecedents of PCE and on development of the most effective strategies for combating negative PCE (Ellen et al., 1991). Although PCE was found to be strongly associated with a general measure of ECCB, additional insight could be gained from treating PCE as a situational variable and inves- tigating the role it plays in a host of specific green consumer behaviors. The results of this research could have important implications for advertisers and marketers alike.
From my review of relevant literature, other factors that af- fect the consumer purchase decision process for ecologically conscious products and services provide fruitful areas for fu- ture research. These areas include message believability; con- sumer confusion over green advertising; and the relative im- pact of price, convenience, quality, and value on the purchase decision process for green products and services.
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Appendix Scale Items for Independent Variables
Perceived Consumer Effectiveness (PCE) Scale
It is worthless for the individual consumer to do anything about pollution.
When I buy products, I try to consider how my use of them will affect the environment and other consumers.
Since one person cannot have any effect upon pollution and natural resource problems, it doesn't make any difference what I do.
Each consumer's behavior can have a positive effect on society by purchasing products sold by socially responsible companies.
Environmental Concern (EC) Scale
Plants and animals exist primarily to be used by humans.
We are approaching the limit of the number of people the earth can support
To maintain a healthy economy, we will have to develop a steady-state economy where industrial growth is controlled.
The earth is like a spaceship with only limited room and resources.
Humans need not adapt to the natural environment because they can remake it to suit their needs.
There are limits to growth beyond which our industrialized society cannot expand.
The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset.
When humans interfere with nature, it often produces disastrous consequences.
Humans must live in harmony with nature in order to survive.
Mankind is severely abusing the environment.
Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit their needs.
Mankind was created to rule over the rest of nature.
Liberalism Scale
The profits of the big industries should be controlled by the federal government.
I am for a federal health insurance program covering men and women of all ages.
If unemployment is high, the government should spend to create jobs.
A government-administered health insurance program is necessary to insure that everyone receives adequate medical care.
I am for less government regulation of business.
I am for revising the tax structure so that the burden falls more heavily on corporations and persons with large incomes.
References Advertising Age, Spurts and Starts: Corporate Role in '90s Environmen-
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