19989099-chapter-03-peacemaking criminology

CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1

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Why does a person commit a crime? What causes crime and deviance? Are people basically good? Why are some people violent and

aggressive? Are people motivated only by self- interest?

Criminologists search for answers tothose types of questions.

Causes of Crime



Criminology seeks to find the causeof crime and deviant behavior.

Crime—violation of the criminal law for which there is no legal justification.

Deviance—violation of social norms that specify appropriate or proper behavior under a particular set of circumstances (often includes crime).

Criminology



Criminological Theory

Through the years, many theories have been advanced to explain crime and deviance.

A theory is a set of interrelated propositions that attempt to describe, explain, and predict a set of events. Once created, theories must be tested to determine validity.



Theory Testing

Theory testing involves developing hypotheses based on the theory’s predictions.

A hypothesis is an explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that can be tested by further investigation. Also, it is something that is taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation.

Hypotheses are tested using research methods—standardized, systematic procedures.



To provide models that allow for a betterunderstanding of criminal behavior andthat enhance the development ofstrategies which allow us to address theproblem of crime.

Goal of Research and Theory Building



Explanations of criminal behavior fall intoeight general categories.

1. Classical2. Biological3. Psychobiological4. Psychological5. Sociological6. Social Process7. Conflict8. Emergent

Interdisciplinary theories, or integrated theories,could possibly be a ninth category.

Categories of Theory

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Classical and Neoclassical

Theories



Basic Assumptions

4) Crime is caused by the individual exercise of “free will.”

5) Pain and pleasure are the two central determinants of human behavior.

6) Punishment is sometimes required to deter law violators.

7) Crime prevention is possible through swift and certain punishment, which offsets any gains to be had through criminal behavior.

Characteristics of Classical and Neoclassical Theories



In 1784, Beccaria published Essays onCrimes and Punishment. Beccaria:

Was considered controversial at the time. Felt punishments should be more humanitarian. Called for the end of physical punishment and

the death penalty. Posited that punishment needs to be:

• Certain• Swift• Severe

Believed that punishment should fit the crime and not be excessive.

Cesare Beccaria: Crime and Punishment



Concept developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)

People make “free will” decisions to commit crime by weighing of advantages versus disadvantages of action. If advantages outweigh disadvantages, then a person will likely commit crime.

To deter people from committing crime, the punishment/disadvantages need(s) to outweigh the rewards/advantages.

Bentham called this philosophy utilitarianism.

Jeremy Bentham’s Hedonistic Calculus



Neoclassical criminology is rooted inthe classical school.

Emphasizes deterrence and retribution Believes that individuals use free will to decide to

conform or commit crime Places greater emphasis on rationality and cognition

than classical criminologists

Examples: Rational choice theory Routine activities theory

The Neoclassical Perspective



Rational choice theory holds that criminality isthe result of conscious choice.

Individuals commit crime when the benefits outweigh the costs.

Rational choice theory holds that lifestylescontribute to the volume and type of crimefound in society.

Crime is likely to occur when a motivated offender and a suitable target come together in absence of a capable guardian.

The Neoclassical Perspective



Social Policy and Classical Theories

Classical theories form the basis ofmany criminal justice programs.

High crime rates call for punishmentto get even and to prevent futurecrime.

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Biological Theories



Basic Assumptions

3) Human behavior is constitutionally or genetically determined.

4) Basic determinants of human behavior may be passed from generation to generation.

5) Some behavior is the result of propensities inherited from more primitive developmental stages in the evolutionary process.

Characteristics of Biological Theories



Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology

Phrenology, study of the shape of the head and its relationship to human behavior, focused on the head and brain in what Gall called “crainioscopy.”

The brain is the organ of the mind. The brain consists of localized faculties or functions. The shape of the skull reveals underlying development (or lack of development) of areas within the brain. A personality can be revealed by a study of the skull.



Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909): Atavism

Lombroso—the founder of the Positivist School of criminology—borrowed the term “atavism” from the work of Charles Darwin.

“Atavism” implies that people are born criminals and are characterized by features thought to be common in earlier stages of human evolution. Examples of stigmata: long arms, large lips, crooked nose, large amount of body hair, eyes of different colors, ears lack defined lobes, etc…



In 1913, Charles Goring and Karl Pearson: compared 3,000 English convicts to army officers found NO significant differences between the two groups using Lombroso’s criteria

In 1939, Ernest Hooten: compared 13,000 male prisoners in 10 states to 3,000 National Guard members, firemen, etc. found some support for Lombroso’s ideas, though his methods may have been flawed

Evidence of Atavism?



In 1877, Richard Dugdale studied the Juke family. Over 75 years, the heirs of Ada Juke included 1,200 persons, mostly social degenerates.

Goddard (1912) studied two lines of the Kallikakfamily.

One line descended from a feebleminded bar maid.

Over half of these descendants were feebleminded. The second line descended from a “virtuous Quaker girl.”

1/3 of these descendants were feebleminded.

Criminal Families



Sheldon developed the idea of somatotyping— classifying people according to body build.

Mesomorph—predominance of muscle, bone, and connective tissue Ectomorph—thinness, fragility, and delicacy of body Endomorph—soft roundness throughout short tapering limbs, small bones, soft velvety skin

Each body type has a characteristic personality, andmesomorphs were most prone to aggression,violence, and delinquency.

William Sheldon (1893 – 1977): Somatypes



Social Policy and Biological Theories

Policies based on biological theoriesare usually considered “extreme.”

Example:Eugenics movement of the 1920s.

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Psychobiological Theories



Basic Assumptions

Focus is on the relationship of the following tocriminal behavior:5. DNA6. environmental contaminants7. nutrition8. hormones9. physical trauma10. body chemistry in human cognition and

behavior

Characteristics of Psychobiological Theories



The links between chromosomes and crimewere first explored in the 1960s.

1965—Patricia Jacobs discovered “supermales,” men with an extra “Y” chromosome (XYY). She found that “supermales” were more common in prisons than in the general public.

Other studies found that XYY males were more aggressive than other males and had a number of specific physical and psychological traits.

Later studies disputed many of these findings.

Chromosome Theory



Biocriminology attempts to link violent or disruptivebehavior to eating habits, vitamin deficiencies,genetics, inheritance, and other conditions which impact body tissues.

For example, some studies have linked crime to: Hypoglycemia Allergic reactions to foods High levels of caffeine and sugar Testosterone levels Low levels of certain neurotransmitters A malfunctioning endocrine system

Biochemical Factors and Imbalances



Adoption and twin studies have shown: Children adopted at birth have shown a tendency

toward criminality of biological parents. Identical twins separated at birth indicate that

they exhibit a greater similarity in terms of criminality than do fraternal twins, who exhibit greater similarities than ordinary siblings.

Wilson and Herrnstein (1985) argue thatinherited traits combine with environmentalfactors to produce crime.

Heredity and Other Physical Factors



Social Policy and Biological Theories

Policies look to modify bodychemistry to change behavior.

Example: Medication

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Psychological Theories



Basic Assumptions

3) The individual is the main unit of analysis.4) Personality is the major motivational element.5) Crimes result from inappropriately

conditioned behavior.6) Abnormal mental processes may

have a number of causes. Diseased mind Inappropriate learning Improper conditioning

Characteristics of Psychological Theories



Behavioral conditioning is a psychologicalprinciple which holds that the frequency of any behavior can be increased or decreased throughreward, punishment, and/or association withother stimuli.

This was popularized through the work of IvanPavlov (1849–1936) whose work with dogs wonhim a Nobel Prize.

Behavioral Conditioning



Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) identified threeelements of the personality:

1. Id2. Ego3. Superego

Psychoanalysis sees personality as a complexcomposite of interacting mental elements.

Crime can result from: A weak superego Sublimation/dislike of one’s mother The death wish

Freudian Psychoanalysis



Psychopathology studies pathological mentalconditions (mental illness).

Psychopath—a person with a personalitydisorder, especially manifested in aggressively antisocial behavior, which is often said to bethe result of a poorly developed superego.

It is possible for the psychopath to inflict pain without appreciation for the victim’s suffering. Psychopathic people are likely to become criminal at some point.

Psychopathology and Crime



Psychosis is another form of mental disorder.

Psychotics are people who are said to be out oftouch with reality. Some psychotics are classified asschizophrenic—people with disordered ordisjointed thinking in which they makeabnormal logical connections between things.

Psychosis can lead to crime.

The Psychotic Offender



Social Policy and Psychological Theories

Policies are primarily individualisticand oriented toward individualizedtreatment and therapy plansdesigned to reduce a person’sdangerousness.

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Sociological Theories



Basic Assumptions

3) Social groups, social institutions, the arrangement of society, and social roles are all appropriate for study.

5) Group dynamics, group organization, and subgroup relationships form the causal basis of criminality.

7) The structure of society and the relative degree of social organization or social disorganization are important factors contributing to criminal behavior.

Characteristics of Sociological Theories



In the 1920s, Park and Burgess mapped Chicagobased on the city’s social characteristics. Theydeveloped the Concentric Zone Theory.

Concentric zones are likened to a bull’s eye with the center of the city being the target.

Shaw and McKay related this theory to crime. Crime increased as one moved towards center of the

city, with the highest crime rates in the “zone of transition,” where there was a lot of poverty, illiteracy, lack of schooling, unemployment, and illegitimacy (social disorganization).

Social disorganization leads to crime.

Social Ecology Theory



Anomie Theory

Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) introduced the termanomie (normlessness) in the late 1800s.

Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) defined anomie as adisjuncture between societal goals and legitimatemeans. He developed a typology of adaptations:

Conformist—accepts goals and means (law abiding)Innovator—accepts goals, rejects means (property/white-collar offenses)Retreatest—rejects both goals and means (addiction/victimless crimes)Ritualist—rejects goals, accepts means (repetitive/mundane lifestyle)Rebel—rejects goals and means and substitutes his own goals and means (political crime)



Cohen (b. 1918)—reaction formation, lower class youth’s rejection of middle class values, leads to the development of gangs and reinforces the subculture.

Miller—Lower class priority concerns of trouble, toughness, excitement, smartness, fate, and autonomy lead to crime.

Subcultural Theory



Cloward and Ohlin proposed that an illegitimate opportunity structure allows delinquent youths to achieve success outside of legitimate ways.

Wolfgang and Ferracuti coined the term “subculture of violence” after examining homicide rates in Philadelphia in the 1950s. Here, violence is a traditional, and often

accepted, method of dispute resolution.

Subcultural Theory



Social programs are instituted tochange cultural conditions andsocietal arrangements that leadpeople into crime.

Social Policy and Sociological Theories

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Social Process Theories



Basic Assumptions

They highlight the role played by weakened self-esteem and the lack of meaningful social roles in crime causation.

Relationship of individual to social group is stressed as underlying cause of behavior.

Characteristics of Social Process Theories



Edwin Sutherland (1883-1950), in his thirdedition of Principles of Criminology (1939),viewed crime as a product ofsocialization.

Crime is learned. It is learned by the same principles that guide learning of law abiding behavior of conformists.

Differential Association



1. Criminal behavior is learned.

2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.

3. The principle part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.

4. When criminal behavior is learned, it includes a) techniques of committing the crime, and b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.

5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.

6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violations of the law over definitions unfavorable to violations of the law.

7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anticriminal

patterns involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained

by those general needs and values since noncriminal behavior is an expression of those same needs and values.

Principles of Differential Association



Social Learning Theory:

… a perspective that says people learn how to behave from others whom they have the opportunity to observe.

Social Process Theories



Ronald L. Akers and Robert L. Burgess appliedlearning theory constructs to the theory ofdifferential association. Their theory ofdifferential reinforcement is called sociallearning theory.

Primary learning takes place through operant conditioning.

People learn how to behave by modeling themselves after other whom they have the opportunity to observe.

Social Learning Theory



Restraint theories focus onConstraints—those forces that keeppeople from committing crimes.

Contrasts other theories that look to why people commit crimes.

Restraint Theories



One restraint theory, offered by Walter Reckless(1899-1988) is containment theory.

Containment—aspects of social bond and personality that prevent individuals fromcommitting crime. There are two types:

1. Outer—elements outside of individual (friends, law, family, social position) control behavior.

2. Inner—those elements psychological in nature (conscience, positive self-image, tolerance) control behavior.

Containment Theory



Travis Hirschi in Causes of Delinquency (1969)wrote that the stronger one’s social bond theless likely the individual would engage indelinquency.

Elements of the social bond include:1. Attachment (to others)2. Commitment (to appropriate lifestyles)3. Involvement (in conventional values)4. Belief (in correctness of rules of society)

Social Control Theory



In Techniques of Neutralization (1957),Gresham Sykes and David Matza put forth alist of escalating techniques of neutralizationthat allow a person to commit a delinquent act.

The techniques are:1. Denial of responsibility2. Denial of injury3. Denial of victim4. Condemnation of condemners5. Appeal to higher loyalties

Techniques of Neutralization



Labeling theory sees continued crime as aconsequence of the limited opportunities foracceptable behavior that follow from the negativeresponses of society for those defined as offenders.

In 1963, Howard Becker suggested that:a. Criminality is not a quality inherent in the act

or the person.b. Crime results from social definition through

law of unacceptable behavior.c. Deviance is “created” by society.

Labeling Theory



Social development theories represent anintegrated view of human development that pointsto the process of interaction among and betweenindividuals and society as the root cause ofcriminal behavior.

An example, put forth in 1993 by Sampson andLaub, is the life course perspective. Crime is linkedto turning points in one’s life.

Turning points are transitional periods during which one can either walk toward or away from crime.

The Life Course Perspective

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Conflict Theories



Conflict perspective: maintains that crime is thenatural consequence of economic and other socialinequities. Key elements are:4. Society is composed of diverse social groups.5. Conflict among groups is unavoidable because of

differing interests and differing values.6. Group conflict centers on exercise of political power.7. Laws further the interests of the lawmakers.

Characteristics of Conflict Theory



Radical criminology sees crime as produced by theunequal distribution of wealth, power, and otherresources.

Poverty and discrimination leads to frustration and pent-up hostilities expressed through crime.

Karl Marx (1818–1883) assumed lower classesare always exploited by the “owners” of the meansof production.

“False class consciousness”–the poor are trained to believe that capitalism is in their best interest.

Radical Criminology



Peacemaking criminology holds that crime controlagencies and citizens should work together toalleviate social problems and human suffering, and thereby reduce crime.

Rooted in Christian and eastern philosophies. Social control must also focus on victims and

victimization. Popularized by Richard Quinney and Hal

Pepinsky.

Peacemaking Criminology



Many suggest that the only real way to producechange is through revolution.

Modern thinkers believe that we need a middle-of-the-road solution, as revolution is unlikely tooccur in the U.S. Such solutions include:

Increasing job opportunities Reducing prison overcrowding Prosecuting corporate crimes Restructuring the bail system Focus on injustices and inequality Promoting community corrections

Social Policy and Conflict Theories

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Emergent TheoriesNew and Developing

Perspectives



Feminist criminology emphasizes genderissues and seeks to develop appreciationof the role of women in crime causation,victimization, and crime control.

Rita Simon—Women and Crime (1975) and Freda Adler—Sisters in Crime (1975) Explain differences in gender crime rates as due primarily to

socialization rather than biology

Kathleen Daly and Meda Chesney-Lind Emphasizes need for a “gender-aware” criminology

Feminist Criminology



Constitutive criminology studies the process bywhich people create an ideology of crime thatsustains the notion of crime as a concrete reality.

George Herbert Mead’s symbolic interaction theory

William Thomas An act’s significance depends on the intentions behind it and

the situation in which it is interpreted.

Stuart Henry and Dragan Milovanovic People shape their world while also being shaped by it.

Constitutive Criminology



Postmodern Criminology

Postmodern criminology includes a wide variety of recent, novel perspectives of crime that build upon the belief that past approaches fail to realistically assess the true causes of crime and provide workable solutions to crime.

Examples: Chaos analysis Discourse analysis Topology theory Critical theory Realist criminology Constitutive theory Anarchic criminology

19989099-chapter-03-peacemaking criminology

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